CHAPTER TWO

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS

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 OUTLINES
Phase Relationships
 Determination of Particle Sizes of Soils
 Determination of index properties,
consistency.
Soil classification Schemes

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 PHASE RELATIONSHIPS
Soil is composed of:

 solids
 liquids, and
 Gases

The solid phase may be minerals, organic matter, or both. The spaces between the
solids) are called voids.

• Water is often the predominant liquid and air is the predominant gas.
• The soil water is called Pore water and plays a very important role in the behavior
of soils under load.

• If all the voids are filled by water, the soil is saturated. Otherwise, the soil is
unsaturated.
• If all the voids are filled with air, the soil is said to be dry.

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• The physical properties of soils are influenced by the relative proportions

of each of these phases.
• The total volume of the soil is the sum of the volume of solids (Vs), volume
of water (Vw), and volume of air (Va); that is
V= Vs+ Vw +Va
• The weight of the soil is the sum of the weight of solids (Ws), and weight of
water (Ww). The weight of air is negligible. Thus,
W= Ws+Ww

Soil Phases:
 Dry
 Saturated (Fully Saturated or Partially Saturated)
 Submerged

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Three Phase Diagram

Air

Water

Solid

Mineral Skeleton Idealization:

Three Phase Diagram
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 Fully Saturated Soils

Water

Solid

Mineral Skeleton Fully Saturated

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Partly Saturated Soils

Air

Water

Solid

Mineral Skeleton Partly Saturated Soils

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 Dry Soils

Air

Solid

Mineral Skeleton Dry Soil

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To describe the proportion of each constituent in soil The

following definitions have been established.
 Water content (w)
 Void ratio (e)
 Specific Volume (V’)
 Porosity (n)
 Specific gravity (Gs)
 Degree of saturation (S)
 Unit weight
 Relative Density (Dr)

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Computing the masses (or weights) and volumes of
the three different phases.

Notation Va air Ma=0

M = mass or weight Vv
V = volume Vw water Mw
s = soil grains Mt
w = water Vt
a = air
v = voids
t = total Vs soil Ms

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Definition of key terms

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 Definitions
Water content (w) is a measure of the water
present in the soil.
Va air Ma=0
M
w  Vv
W
X 100%
M S
Vw water Mw
Vt Mt
Expressed as percentage.

Range = 0 – 100+%. Vs soil Ms

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Void Ratio (e): it is the ratio of volume of void to
volume of solid.

Volume Components:
– Volume of Solids = Vs
– Volume of Water = Vw
– Volume of Air = Va
– Volume of Voids = Va + Vw = Vv

Vv
Void Ratio , e 
Vs

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Porosity (n) is also a measure of the void

volume, expressed as a percentage.

Va air Ma=0
VV Vv
n  X 100% Vw water Mw
VT Vt Mt

soil
Theoretical range: 0 – 100% Vs Ms

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• Specific volume (V’) is the volume of soil per unit volume of solids:

• This equation is useful in relating volumes, in the calculation of

volumetric strains.

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 Cont…

Degree of saturation (S) is the percentage of

the void volume filled by water.

Va air Ma=0
VW Vv
S  X 100%
VV Vw water Mw
Vt Mt

Range: 0 – 100%
Vs soil Ms
Dry Saturated

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Bulk density (m) is the density of the soil in the

current state.

M
m  T
Va air Ma=0
VT Vv
Vw water Mw
Units: t/m3, g/ml, kg/m3 Vt Mt

Vs soil Ms

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Saturated density (sat) is the density of the soil

when the voids are filled with water.

Submerged density (’ /sub) is the effective

density of the soil when it is submerged.
’ = sat - w

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Dry density (d) is the density of the soil in dry state.

M Va air Ma=0
d  S
Vv
VT Vw water Mw
Mt
Vt
Units: t/m3, g/ml, kg/m3

Vs soil Ms

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Bulk, saturated, dry and submerged unit weights () are

defined in a similar manner.
Here, use weight (kN) instead of mass (kg).
 = g

N/m3 kg/m3 m/s2

Specific gravity of the soil grains (Gs) typically

varies between 2.6 and 2.8.

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 Phase Relations
Consider a fraction of the soil where Vs = 1.

The other volumes can

be obtained from the
previous definitions. air
e
Se
The masses can be water Sew
obtained from:
Mass = Density x Volume soil
1 Gsw

volumes
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masses
21
Phase Diagram
 Phase Relations
From the previous definitions,
M Se
w  
W

M S
GS
air
VV e e
n   Se water Sew
VT 1 e

1 soil Gsw

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 Phase Relations

M G S  Se
m  T
 W
VT 1 e
air
M GS  e e
 sat  T
 W Se water Sew
VT 1 e

M GS soil
d  S
 W 1 Gsw
VT 1 e

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• Relative density (Dr) is an index that quantifes
the degree of packing between the loosest and
densest possible state of coarse-grained soils as
determined by experiments:

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Swell factor (SF) or free swell factor is the ratio of
the volume of excavated material to the
volume of in situ material (sometimes called
borrow pit material or bank material):

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 Try not to memorise the equations. Understand
the definitions, and develop the relations from
the phase diagram with VS = 1;
 Assume GS (2.6-2.8) when not given;
 Do not mix densities and unit weights;
 Soil grains are incompressible. Their mass and
volume remain the same at any void ratio.

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Engineering Characterization of Soils

Soil Properties that Control its Engineering Behavior

 Particle Size
 Sieve Analysis
 Hydrometer Analysis

coarse-grained fine-grained

Particle/Grain Size
 Soil Plasticity
Distribution
Particle Shapes (?)
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 Determination of Particle Sizes of Soils

Particle Size of Coarse-Grained Soils

• The distribution of particle size or average grain
diameter of coarse-grained soils is obtained by
screening a known weight of the soil through a
stack of sieves of progressively finer mesh size

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 Procedures to conduct sieve analysis

 Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the

bottom pan to be used in the analysis.
 Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.
 Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble
them in the ascending order of sieve numbers
 Carefully pour the soil sample into the top sieve and
place the cap over it.
 Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and
shake for 10 minutes.
 Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh
and record the weight of each sieve with its retained
soil

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 Data Analysis

 Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve

 The sum of these retained masses should be
approximately equals the initial mass of the soil
sample. A loss of more than two percent is
unsatisfactory.
 Calculate the percent retained on each sieve
 calculate cumulative percent retained
 Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer)
 Make a semi-logarithmic plot of grain size vs. percent
finer.
 Compute Cc and Cu for the soil

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Grain Size Distribution Curves

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C….. Poorly-graded soil
D …. Well-graded soil
E …. Gap-graded soil
D10, D30, D60 = ??
Coefficient of Uniformity, Cu= D60/D10
Coefficient of Curvature,
Cc= (D30)2/(D10)(D60

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 Atterberg Limits
 Consistency of fine-grained soil varies in
proportion to the water content
liquid
Liquid limit

Plasticity
plastic Index

Plastic limit
semi-solid
Shrinkage limit
solid
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Figure : Change in soil states as a function of soil volume and water content.
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 Liquid Limit (LL or wL)
Empirical Definition
The moisture content at which a 2 mm-wide
groove in a soil pat will close for a distance of 0.5
in when dropped 25 times in a standard brass
cup falling 1 cm each time at a rate of 2
drops/sec in a standard liquid limit device

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Casagrande Apparatus

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Casagrande Apparatus

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Liquid Limit Determination

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 Plastic Limit (PL, wP)
 The moisture content at which a thread of soil just
begins to crack and crumble when rolled to a
diameter of 1/8 inches (0.3125cm)

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 Plasticity Index ( PI, IP )

PI = LL – PL
or IP=wL-wP
• Note: These are water contents, but the
percentage sign is not typically shown.

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 Liquidity Index (LI, IL)

w  PL
Can be written as: LI 
PI
w  w
Or: 
P
I L
I P

Description of soil strength based on liquidity index

Values of IL Description of soil strength

IL < 0 Semisolid state – high strength, brittle (sudden)

fracture is expected.

0 < IL < 1 Plastic state – intermediate strength, soil

deformation like a plastic material.
IL > 1 Liquid state – low strength, soil deforms like a
viscous fluid.
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 Activity
• Skempton (1953) showed that for soils with a particular
mineralogy, the plasticity index is linearly related to the
amount of the clay fraction.
• He coined a term called activity (A) to describe the
importance of the clay fractions on the plasticity index. The
equation for A is

• Activity is one of the factors used in identifying expansive

or swelling soils.

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
Various Soil Classification Systems:
1- Geologic Soil Classification System
2- Agronomic Soil Classification System
3- Textural Soil Classification System (USDA)
4-American Association of State Highway Transportation
Officials System (AASHTO)
5- Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
6- American Society for Testing and Materials System
(ASTM)
7- Federal Aviation Agency System (FAA)

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 1- Unified Soil Classification (USC)
System:
The Unified Soil Classification System is based on the
recognition of the type and predominance of the
constituents considering grain-size, gradation, plasticity and
compressibility. It divides soil into three major divisions:
coarse-grained soils, fine grained soils, and highly organic
(peaty)soils.

The main Groups:

 G = Gravel
 S = Sand
 M = Silt
 C = Clay
 O = Organic
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For Cohesion less Soil (Gravel and Sand), the soil

can be Poorly Graded or Well Graded.
 Poorly Graded = P
Well Graded = W
For Cohesive Soil (Silt & Clay), the soil can be
Low Plastic or High Plastic .
Low Plastic = L
 High Plastic = H

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 2 - American Association of State Highway &
Transportation Officials System (AASHTO)
• AASHTO Rated soils according to their suitability
for support roadway pavement
• Assign a group classification and a group index
to the soil
• A-1 ……………A-7 GI 0……………..20
best soil …… worst soil good soil …….. poor soil

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AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION GUIDE LINE

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The A-7 group is subdivided into A-7-5 or A-7-

6
depending on the plasticity index,

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Soil type, Descriptions, and Average Grain Sizes According
to USCS

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 EXERCISE
• Index property test result of soil samples
taken from three different sites are shown in
table below. Classify the soils based on
AASHTO classification system.

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Engineering Use Chart (After Wagner, 1957)

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THANK YOU!

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