Potential Analysis 14: 31–51, 2001.

31
© 2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

Aspects of Number Theory in Terms of

Potential Theory

NICU BOBOC∗ and GHEORGHE BUCUR

University of Bucharest, Faculty of Mathematics, Str. Academiei 14, RO-70109 Bucharest, Romania

(Received 2 December 1998; accepted 5 September 1999)

Abstract. We develop the Potential Theory on the set N∗ of all natural numbers > 2 associated with
the kernel V (resp. V ∗ ) given by

X X
Vf (x) = f (x/p), V ∗ f (x) = f (xp).
p prime p prime
p|x

We study the extremal elements in the set of all V -supermedian (resp. V ∗ -supermedian) functions
and the Martin boundary of the set N∗ associated with V and V ∗ .

Mathematics Subject Classification (2000): 31D05, 31C20, 31C35.

Key words: Number thoery, potential theory, Martin boundary.

Introduction
In [2] we developed a potential theory on the set N∗ (i.e. the set of natural number
n > 2) considered as an ordered set (the order relation is given by: x is smaller then
y iff x divides y). More precisely if m is the measure on N∗ such that m({x}) = 1
for every x ∈ N∗ then our potential theory is that associated with the kernels V and
V ∗ on N∗ which are in duality with respect to m where

if x ∈ P

0
X
Vf (x) = if x 6 ∈ P


f (x/p)
p∈P , p|x

X
V ∗ f (x) = f (xp),
p∈P

where P is the set of all prime numbers p ∈ N∗ and x|a means x divides a.
∗ The authors acknowledge the support received from the grant of the Romanian Academy
no. 92/1998.
32 NICU BOBOC AND GHEORGHE BUCUR

The set of all V -supermedian finite functions on N∗ is denoted by S and the set
of all V ∗ -supermedian finite functions on N ∗ is denoted by S ∗ . As usually for any
positive function f on N∗ we denote by Gf (resp. G∗ f ) the function given by

Gf = f + Vf + V 2 f + · · · + V n f + · · ·

(resp. G∗ f = f + V ∗ f + (V ∗ )2 f + · · · (V ∗ )n f + · · ·).

Such a function is termed Green potential in S (resp. S ∗ ). We have Gf ∈ S (resp.

G∗ f ∈ S ∗ ) whenever Gf (resp. G∗ f ) is finite. Conversely for any s ∈ S there
exists a unique positive function f on X such that s = Gf (in fact f = s − V s).
A similar assertion for S ∗ is not true.
For any x ∈ N∗ we put Gx = G(1{x} ), G∗x = G(1{x} ). The function Gx (resp.
G∗x ) is termed the Green function (associated with V (resp. V ∗ )) with the pole at x.
We have

Gx (y) = G∗y (x) = card L(x, y), (1)

where L(x, y) is the set of all maximal totally ordered subsets of the closed ordered
interval

[x, y] = {z ∈ N∗ | x|z and z|y},

x|y ⇔ Gx (y) > 0 ⇔ Gy 6 Gx ⇔ G∗x 6 G∗y , (2)

Y
k Y
k
β
if x = piαi , y= pi i , pi ∈ P , αi 6 βi , ∀ i, (3)
i=1 i=1

then
" #
X
k
(βi − αi ) !
i=1
Gx (y) = Qk .
i=1 [(βi − αi )!]

As usually an element s ∈ S (resp. t ∈ S ∗ ) is called V -invariant (resp. V ∗ -

invariant if V s = s (resp. V ∗ t = t). Further in S ∗ there are many V ∗ -invariant
elements and generally every element t ∈ S ∗ is uniquely written of the form t =
G∗ f + h where h is V ∗ -invariant.
An element s ∈ S (resp. t ∈ S ∗ ) is called subtractible if we have

s0 ∈ S s 6 s0 ⇒ s  s0 ( i.e. s 0 − s ∈ S),

(resp. t 0 ∈ S ∗ , t 6 t0 ⇒ t  t0 (i.e. t 0 − t ∈ S ∗ )).

NUMBER THEORY IN TERMS OF POTENTIAL THEORY 33

It is known (cf. [2]) that an element of S will be subtractible iff it is of the

form Gf where f = 0 on N∗ \P and an element of S ∗ will be subtractible iff it is
V ∗ -invariant.
As usually an element s ∈ S (resp. t ∈ S ∗ ) is called extremal if whenever
00 00
s = s 0 + s (resp. t = t 0 + t ) where s 0 , s 00 ∈ S (resp. t 0 , t 00 ∈ S ∗ ) there exists α > 0
0 0
with s = αs (resp. t = αt). Obviously an element s ∈ S will be extremal iff there
exists x ∈ N and α > 0 with s = αGx . In S ∗ without the elements of the form
αG∗x the set of all extremal elements contains also the extremal elements which are
V ∗ -invariant (or equivalently subtractible). P
It is known (cf. [2]) that an element s ∈ S ∗ such that p∈P s(p) = 1 will be
subtractible and extremal in S ∗ iff it is multiplicative (i.e. s(xy) = s(x)s(y) for all
x, y ∈ N∗ ).
We denote by u the element of S given by
X
u(x) = Gp (x), x ∈ N∗ .
p∈P

Obviously u is subtractible in S and

u(x) > 0 x ∈ N∗ .

As usually (cf. [1]) we denote by K the convex subset of S ∗ given by

K = {t ∈ S ∗ | [u, t] 6 1},

where for any s ∈ S, s = Gf, t ∈ S ∗ we have denoted

X
[s, t] = t (x)f (x).
x∈N∗

This set, endowed with the topology of simply convergence, is metrizable and
compact. We denote by E the set of all nonzero extremal points of K and by E0
the set of all t ∈ E which are Green potentials i.e.

E0 = {Kx | x ∈ N∗ },

where for every x ∈ N∗

G∗x G∗x
Kx := = .
[u, G∗x ] u(x)

We denote also by Eh the set of all t ∈ E which

P are subtractible i.e. the set of all
t ∈ S ∗ which are multiplicative functions and p∈P t (p) = 1.
Our paper has 3 sections. In Section 1 we study the set of subtractible elements
of S ∗ .
34 NICU BOBOC AND GHEORGHE BUCUR

It is proved that any subtractible and extremal element s of S ∗ is such that

X
s(p) < ∞.
p∈P

It is given an elementaryP proof for the theorem which asserts that a subtractible
element s ∈ S ∗ with p∈P s(p) = 1 will be extremal iff it is multiplicative.
It is proved also that if (sn )n is a sequence of subtractible elements of S ∗ which
converges simply to a positive real function s such that
X X
sn (p) = s(p) ∀n ∈ N,
p∈P p∈P

then s is also subtractible.

P the simply convergence in the set E of all extremal
In Section 2 we deepen
elements s of S ∗ with p∈P s(p) = 1. For any x ∈ N∗ and any p ∈ P we denote
P
by αp (x) the greatest natural number such that p αp (x) | x and l(x) := p∈P αp (x).
It is proved that if (xn )n is a sequence in N∗ such that (l(xn ))n is bounded and
(Kxn )n is simply convergent to a function ϕ then there exists a ∈ N∗ and α ∈ N
such that

ϕ = Ka if α = 0

and
  !
α! Y X
l(a)
ϕ=  (αp (a))! Ga +
∗ i ∗ i ∗
Cα+i−1 (V ) Ga if a > 1.
(α + l(a))! p∈P i=1

Moreover if ϕ = Ka then there exists n0 ∈ N such that xn = a, ∀n > n0 .

Further if (l(xn ))n → ∞ and (Kxn )n is simply convergent to a function ϕ then
ϕ multiplicative. Conversely for any multiplicative function ϕ ∈ S ∗ there exists a
sequence (xn )n as above such that (Kxn )n is simply convergent to ϕ.
This result improve similar one obtained in [2].
In the last section we study the set of subtractible elements of S. Any s ∈ S
appear as a function (denoted e
s) on E by

e
s(y) = [s, y].

In this way the set e S := {e

s/s ∈ S} becames an H -cone of functions on the set E
such that the set Eh is a polar set with respect to this H -cones e
S. Moreover any
s ∈e S is finite and continuous at any point y ∈ E0 .
It is distinguished in Eh the set P ∗ of all element p ∈ Eh where p ∈ P and
p(p) = 1, p(q) = 0 if q ∈ P , q 6 = p. This set is closed and discrete in E and
NUMBER THEORY IN TERMS OF POTENTIAL THEORY 35

for any positive real continuous function f on P ∗ there exists s ∈ S subtractible,

uniquely determined with e s(p) = f (p) for any p ∈ P ∗ .

1. Subtractible Elements of S ∗
We recall that a function s: N∗ → R is called multiplicative if s(xy) = s(x)s(y)
for all x, y ∈ N∗ .
P
THEOREM 1.1. Let s: N∗ → R+ be a multiplicative function and p∈P s(p) 6 1.
∗ ∗
P s ∈ S . Moreover the set of all positive multiplicative functions s on N with
Then
p∈P s(p) 6 1 coincides with E h (the closure of Eh in K).
Proof. If s is as in theorem we have for any x ∈ N∗ ,
X X
V ∗ s(x) = s(xp) = s(x) · s(p) 6 s(x)
p∈P p∈P

∗
and so s ∈ SP . Obviously if (hn )n is a sequence of positive multiplicative functions
∗
on N with p∈P hn (p) 6 P 1 ∀n ∈ N which is simply convergent to a function s
then s is multiplicative and p∈P s(p) 6 1. P
Let now s ∈ N∗ → R+ be a multiplicative function with p∈P P s(p) 6 1. We
denote by hn : N∗ → R+ a multiplicative function on N∗ with p∈P hn (p) = 1
and with hn (q) = s(q) for every q ∈ P , q 6 n. Since

lim hn (q) = s(q) ∀q ∈ P

n→∞

it follows that

lim hn (x) = s(x) ∀x ∈ N∗

n→∞

and therefore s ∈ Eh .

THEOREM 1.2. Let t ∈ S ∗ and for x ∈ N∗ let tx the function on N∗ defined by

tx (y) = t (xy).

Then tx ∈ S ∗ , tx 6 t and

V ∗ tx (y) = V ∗ t (xy).

Particularly if t is subtractible then tx is also subtractible and tx  t.

Proof. We have
X X
V ∗ tx (y) = tx (yp) = t (xyp) = V ∗ t (xy) 6 t (xy).
p∈P p∈P
36 NICU BOBOC AND GHEORGHE BUCUR

Therefore

V ∗ tx 6 tx , tx ∈ S ∗ , tx 6 t.

If t is subtractible then from

V ∗ tx (y) = V t (xy) = t (xy) = tx (y)

it follows that tx is also subtractible.

COROLLARY 1.2. If sP∈ S ∗ \{0} is subtractible then there exists s 0 ∈ S ∗ \{0}

subtractible s 0  s and p∈P s 0 (p) < ∞.

THEOREM 1.3. If t ∈ S ∗ \{0} is subtractible and extremal then we have l :=

P
p∈P t (p) < ∞ and the function t/ l is multiplicative.
Proof. From
X
t (x) = V ∗ t (x) = tp (x)
p∈P

and from Theorem 1.1 there exists, for each p ∈ N, αp ∈ R+ with

tp = αp t.

Therefore
 
X X
t (p) = tp (q) = αp  t (q) ∀ p ∈ P.
q∈P q∈P

P
Since there exists p ∈ P with t (p) > 0 we get l := q∈P t (q) < ∞. Now
t 0 = t/ l is also subtractible and extremal and moreover
X
t 0 (p) = 1, tp0 (p) = αp .
p∈P

Hence

tp0 (x) = t 0 (p)t 0 (x) ∀x ∈ N∗ , p ∈ P .

and so t 0 is multiplicative

REMARK. Note that the second part of the above theorem was proved in [2].
P
THEOREM 1.4. Let s ∈ S ∗ with p∈P s(p) = 1. Then s is multiplicative iff s is
extremal and subtractible.
NUMBER THEORY IN TERMS OF POTENTIAL THEORY 37

P Proof. The if part follows from Theorem 1.3. Suppose now that s ∈ S ∗ ,
∗
p∈P s(p) = 1 and s is multiplicative. Obviously V s = s and therefore s is
subtractible. Assume that s is not extremal. Then there exists u, v ∈ S ∗ \{0} such
that s = u + v and such that u f v = P 0 (where f is the infimum with respect to
the specific order in S ∗ ). If we put α = p∈P u(p) we have, 0 < α < 1 and

s = αu0 + (1 − α)v 0 ,

where u0 = u/α, v 0 = v/(1 − α). For any p ∈ N we have

sp = αu0p + (1 − α)vp0 .

Since s is multiplicative we have

sp = s(p) · s

and therefore if s(p) > 0 we get

α 0 1−α 0
s= up + v = αu0 + (1 − α)v 0 .
s(p) s(p) p

Since up  u0 , we get

1 0
up = u0 .
s(p)

From V ∗ u0p = u0p , we get

u0 (p) 1 X X
= · u0p (q) = u0 (q) = 1,
s(p) s(p) q∈P q∈P

u0 (p) = s(p), u0p = u0 (p)u0 .

If s(p) = 0 then sp = 0 and therefore u0p = 0 and so

u0p = u0 (p) · u0 .

Hence

u0 (p) = s(p), u0p = s(p) · u0 ∀p ∈ P ,

i.e. u0 is multiplicative and therefore u = s contradiction.

REMARK. Note that this a new and elementary proof.

The first proof using Choquet theory is given in [2].
38 NICU BOBOC AND GHEORGHE BUCUR

THEOREM 1.5. Let (tn )n be a sequence ofP subtractible elements of S ∗ which is

simply convergent to a function t ∈ S ∗ with p∈P t (p) < ∞ and
 
X X
lim  tn (p) = t (p).
n→∞
p∈P p∈P

Then the function t is also subtractible. P P

Proof. It is no loss of generality to suppose that p∈P tn (p) = p∈P t (p) = 1
for any n ∈ N. We consider the measure µn on E such that
Z
tn (x) = m(x) dµn (m) ∀n ∈ N, x ∈ N∗ .
E

Since tn is subtractible we have

µn (E) = µn (Eh )
and
Z
tn (p) = m(p) dµn (m),
Eh
 
X Z X
1= tn (p) =  m(p) dµn (m) = µn (Eh ).
p∈P Eh p∈P

Obviously, from µn (E) = µn (Eh ) = 1 ∀n ∈ N it follows that we may suppose

that the sequence (µn )n is weakly convergent to a measure µ on the compact set
M = Eh .
We have, for every x ∈ N∗ ,
Z
t (x) = [Gx , t] = lim tn (x) = lim m(x) dµn (m)
n→∞ n→∞ M
Z Z Z
= m(x) dµ(m) = m(x) dµ(m) + m(x) dµ(m).
M Eh M\Eh

Particularly, for every p ∈ P , we have

Z Z
s(p) = m(p) dµ(m) + m(p) dµ(m),
Eh M\Eh
   
X Z X Z X
1 = s(p) =  m(p) dµ(m) +  m(p) dµ(m)
p∈P Eh p∈P M\Eh p∈P
 
Z X
= µ(Eh ) +  m(p) dµ(m).
M|Eh p∈P
NUMBER THEORY IN TERMS OF POTENTIAL THEORY 39

Since from the Remark of Theorem 1.2 and from Theorem 1.3 it follows that
X
m(p) < 1 ∀m ∈ M\Eh ,
p∈P

we deduce
 
Z X
1 − m(p) dµ = 0
M\Eh p∈P

and therefore µ(M\Eh ) = 0. Hence µ is a measure on Eh and so t is subtractible.

COROLLARY 1.6. Let (tn )n be a sequence of subtractible elements of S ∗ which is

simply convergent to t ∈ S ∗ such that
 
X X
lim  tn (pq) = t (pq),
n→∞
q∈P q∈P

for any p ∈ N. Then t is also subtractible.

Proof. For any p ∈ P the function tn given by tn (x) = tn (px) belongs to S ∗ ,
p p

is subtractible and the sequence (tn )n is simply convergent to the function t p ∈ S ∗

p

given by

t p (x) = t (px).

By hypothesis and using the preceding theorem it follows that t p is subtractible for
every p ∈ P .
By hypothesis we have

V ∗t p = t p ∀p ∈ P .

If x ∈ N is of the form x = py where p ∈ P and y 6 = 1 we have

t (x) = t (py) = t p (y) = V ∗ t p (y) = V ∗ t (py) = V ∗ t (x).

2. Poisson Kernel in S ∗ and its Approximation by Green Kernel in S ∗

The function K: N∗ × N∗ → R+ given by

G∗y (x)
K(x, y) = Ky (x) = [Gx , Ky ] = ,
u(y)
40 NICU BOBOC AND GHEORGHE BUCUR
P
where u(y) = p∈P G∗y (p) is termed the normalized Green kernel in S ∗ . Also the
function

H : N∗ × Eh → R+

given by

H (x, m) = [Gx , m]

and is usually termed the normalized Poisson kernel in S ∗ .

For any a ∈ N∗ and any p ∈ N we note by αp (a) the greatest natural number α
such that

p α |a (b|a means b divides a).

In this way every a ∈ N∗ may be written under the form

Y
a= p αp (a).
p∈P

We denote also by l(a) the natural number

X
l(a) := αp (a).
p∈P

As usually if a, b ∈ N∗ we denote by (a, b) the greatest commun divizor of a and

b.

LEMMA 2.1. For any a, z ∈ N∗ with (a, z) = 1 and any x ∈ N, x|a we have
(l(a) − l(x) + l(z))!
G∗az (x) = u(z)G∗a (x);
(l(a) − l(x)!(l(z))!
!
X
l(a)
G∗az (x) = u(z) G∗a + i
Cl(z)+i−1 (V ∗ )i G∗a (x).
i=1

Proof. From (a, z) = 1 we have

Y
n Y
k
γ
a= piαi , z= qj j ,
i=1 j =1

with pi , qj ∈ P and pi 6 = qj . Since x|a we have

Y
n
β
x= pi i with βi 6 αi , ∀i 6 = n.
i=1
NUMBER THEORY IN TERMS OF POTENTIAL THEORY 41

Hence
P P
( ni=1 (αi − βi ) + kj =1 γj )! (l(a) − l(x) + l(z)!
G∗az = Qn Qk = Qn Qk ,
i=1 [(αi − βi )!] · j =1 [γj !] i=1 [(αi − βi )!] · j =1 [(γj )!]
P
X ( kj =1 γj )! (l(z))!
u(z) = G∗z (p) = Qk = Qk ,
p∈P j =1 [(γj )!] j =1 [(γj )!]
P
( ni=1 (αi − βi ))!
G∗a (x) = Qn
i=1 [(αi − βi )!]

and therefore
(l(a) − l(x) + l(z))!
G∗az (x) = u(z)G∗a (x).
(l(a) − l(x)!(l(z))!
For the second formula we remark firstly that for every x ∈ N∗ with x|a we
have
l(a)−l(x)
1 + Cl(z)
1
+ Cl(z)+1
2
· · · + Cl(z)|l(a)−l(x)−1

l(a)−l(x) (l(a) − l(x) + l(z))!

= Cl(z)+l(a)−l(x) = .
(l(a) − l(x)!(l(z))!
Further we have

Gx (a) = V (Gx )(a) = · · · V i Gx (a) ∀i 6 l(a) − l(x),

V k Gx (a) = (V ∗ )k G∗a (x) ∀k ∈ N

and therefore
(l(a) − l(x) + l(z))!
G∗az (x) = u(z)G∗a (x)
(l(a) − l(x)!(l(z))!

X
l(a)−l(x)
= u(z)(G∗a (x) + i
Cl(z)+i−1 [(V ∗ )i G∗a ](x)).
i=1

Since

(V ∗ )i G∗a (x) = 0, i > l(a) − l(x),

we may write
!
X
l(a)
G∗az (x) = u(z) · G∗a + i
Cl(z)+i−1 (V ∗ )i G∗a (x).
i=1
42 NICU BOBOC AND GHEORGHE BUCUR

REMARK 2.2. If a = p1α1 p2α2 . . . pnαn where {p1 , . . . pn } is a finite subset of P and
αi ∈ N, αi > 1 we have for every k ∈ N
X k!
(V ∗k )G∗a = G∗ Q k ,
k1 +k2 +···+kn =k
k1 !k2 ! . . . kn ! a/ ni=1 pi i

with the convention

Y
n
G∗ Qn ki = 0 if piki - a.
a/ i=1 pi
i=1

In this way (V ∗k )G∗a is obtained by the formal calculus

!k
X n
∗k ∗ ∗
(V )Ga = Ga/pi ,
i=1

where we define the product of G∗a/pi , j = 1, 2, . . . k as follows

j

G∗a/pi ⊗ G∗a/pi ⊗ · · · ⊗ G∗a/pi = G∗a/ Qk pij

.
1 2 k j=1

THEOREM 2.3. Let (xn )n be a sequence in N∗ such that the sequence (l(xn ))n is
bounded and the sequence (Kxn )n is simply convergent to a function ϕ: N∗ → R+ .
Then there exists a ∈ N∗ and α ∈ N with
Q
p∈P (αp (a)!) ∗
ϕ= Ga = Ka if α = 0
(l(a))!
and
  !
α! Y X
l(a)
ϕ=  (αp (a)! Ga +
∗ i ∗ i ∗
Cα+i−1 (V ) Ga if α > 1.
(α + l(a))! p∈P i=1

Moreover if ϕ = Ka there exists n0 ∈ N such that n > n0 ⇒ xn = a.

Conversely for any function ϕ: N∗ → R+ of the above form there exists a
sequence (xn )n in N∗ such that (Kxn )n is simply convergent to ϕ and such that
(l(xn ))n is bounded.
Proof. Since (l(xn ))n is bounded we may suppose passing to a subsequence that
(l(xn ))n is constant l(xn ) = β ∀n ∈ N. Further since (Kxn )n is simply convergent
then the set A := {p ∈ P | ∃np ∈ N∗ with p|xn for every n > np } is finite and for
every p 6 ∈ A, there exists mp ∈ N with p 6 | xn for every n > mp . Let us denote
for every p ∈ A by ap the maximal natural number > 1 with p ap |xn for all n ∈ N∗
without a finite subset. If we put
Y
a := p ap .
p∈A
NUMBER THEORY IN TERMS OF POTENTIAL THEORY 43

We have a|xn for every n ∈ N∗ without a finite subset of N∗ . If n0 ∈ N is such that

n > n0 ⇒ a|xn ,

we put for n > n0 , zn = xn /a and for every x ∈ N∗ there exist θx ∈ N with

n > θx ⇒ x - xn .

We have

n > n0 ⇒ G∗xn = G∗azn l(zn ) =: α = β − l(a).

Using Lemma 2.1 we get if α > 1 (or equivalently zn ∈ N∗ for all n ∈ N)

!
u(zn ) X
l(a)
n > n0 ⇒ Kxn (x) = G∗a (x) + i
Cα+i−1 (V ∗ )i G∗a (x) ,
u(xn ) i=1

for every x ∈ N∗ with x|a.

From
   
u(zn ) l(zn ))!  Y α! Y
= (ap !) =  (ap !)
u(xn ) (l(xn ))! p∈A (α + l(a))! p∈A

and from the fact that for every x ∈ N∗ such that x - a there exists θx ∈ N with
x - xn for all n > θx we get
!
u(zn ) X l(a)
n > θx ⇒ Kxn (x) = 0 = G∗a (x) + i
Cα+i−1 (V ∗ )i G∗a (x)
u(xn ) i=1

and therefore
  !
α! Y X
l(a)
lim Kxn =  (ap !) Ga +
∗ i ∗ i ∗
Cα+i−1 (V ) Ga .
n→∞ (α + l(a))! p∈A i=1

If α = 0 then G∗xn = G∗a for all n ∈ N.

Conversely let a ∈ N∗ , α ∈ N, α > 1 and let ϕ: N∗ → R+ of the form
!
α! Y X
l(a)
ϕ= (ap !) G∗a (x) + i
Cα+i−1 (V ∗ )i G∗a .
(α + l(a))! p∈P i=1
44 NICU BOBOC AND GHEORGHE BUCUR

We consider a sequence (zn )n in N∗ such that (zn , zm ) = 1 for every n > m and
l(zn ) = α for all n ∈ N. If we put xn := azn then we have
  !
α! Y X
l(a)
Kxn (x) =  (ap !) Ga (x) +
∗ i ∗ i ∗
Cα+i−1 (V ) Ga (x) ,
(α + l(a)))! p∈P i=1

for all x ∈ N∗ with x|a. Since for y ∈ N∗ with y - a there exists θy ∈ N with

n > θy ⇒ y - xn ,

we get

n > θy ⇒ Kxn (y) = 0 = ϕ(y)

and therefore

lim Kxn (y) = ϕ(y), ∀y ∈ N∗ .

n→∞

THEOREM 2.4. (a) Let (xn ) be a sequence in N∗ such that limn→∞ l(xn ) = +∞.
Then the following assertions are equivalent:
(i) The sequence (Kxn )n is simply convergent
(ii) The sequence (Kxn (p))n is convergent for every p ∈ P .
(iii) The sequence (αp (xn )/ l(xn ))n is convergent for every p ∈ P .
(b) If the sequence (xn )n in N∗ is such that the sequence (Kxn )n is simply
convergent to the function ϕ: N∗ → R+ and limn→∞ l(xn ) = +∞ then ϕ is
multiplicative and
αp (xn )
l(p) = lim ∀p ∈ P .
n→∞ l(xn )

Proof. Firstly we show that (ii) ⇔ (iii). Indeed for every n ∈ N we have
Y
xn = p αp (xn )
p∈P

and therefore for every q ∈ P with q | xn we get

G∗xn (q)
Kxn (q) =
(u(xn ))
Q
(l(xn ) − 1)! p∈P (αp (xn )!)
= Q ·
p∈P [(α p n ))!] · [(αq (xn ) − 1)!]
(x (l(xn ))!

αq (xn )
= .
l(xn )
NUMBER THEORY IN TERMS OF POTENTIAL THEORY 45

If q ∈ P and q - xn we have αq (xn ) = 0 and Kxn (q) = 0. Hence for every

q ∈ P and every n ∈ N we have
αq (xn )
Kxn (q) =
l(xn )
and the assertion (ii) ⇔Q (iii) is now obvious.
(iii) ⇒ (i). Let y = ki=1 piαi , αi > 1, pi ∈ P for every i ∈ {1, 2, . . . k}, pi 6 =
pj if i 6 = j and let x ∈ N∗ be such that y|x. We have
G∗x (y)
Kx (y) =
[u, G∗x ]
Q
p∈P [αp (x)!] (l(x) − l(y))!
= · Qk Q
i=1 [(αpi (x) − αi )!] · q∈P \{p1 ,...pk } [αq (x)!]
l(x)!
Qk
i=1 [αpi (x)!]
= Qk
i=1 [(αpi (x) − αi )!]l(x)(l(x) − 1)(l(x) − 2) . . . (l(x) − l(y) + 1)

Yk  
αpi (x) αpi (x) − 1 αpi (x) − αi + 1
= · ···
i=1
l(x) l(x) l(x)

l(x) l(x) l(x)

· · ··· .
l(x) − 1 l(x) − 2 l(x) − l(y) + 1
Let now y as above and suppose that there exists n0 ∈ N such that y|xn for any
n > n0 where (xn )n is a sequence in N∗ with limn→∞ l(xn ) = ∞ and such that for
any p ∈ P the sequence (Kxn (p))n is convergent to a positive real number ϕ(p).
From the above considerations we get
Y
k
lim Kxn (y) = (ϕ(pi ))αi .
n→∞
i=1
Q
Let now (xn )n be a sequence as above and let y ∈ N, y = ki=1 piαi , be such
that there exists a subsequence (xnm )m of the sequence (xn )n such that y - xnm for
m ∈ N. Without lost of generality we may suppose that there exists i0 ∈ {1, 2, . . . k}
αi
such that pi0 0 - xnm for every m ∈ N. We shall have
ϕ(pi0 ) = lim Kxn (pi0 ) = lim Kxnm (pi0 ) = 0
n→∞ n→∞

and therefore, using the relation 0 6 Kxn (y) 6 Kxn (pi0 ), we get

Y
k
lim Kxn (y) = 0 = (ϕ(pi ))αi .
n→∞
i=1
46 NICU BOBOC AND GHEORGHE BUCUR

Hence always the sequence (Kxn (y))n is convergent and the function

y → ϕ(y) := lim Kxn (y)

n→∞

is multiplicative. Since K is compact with respect to the topology of simply con-

vergence on N∗ we get ϕ ∈ K.
Using Theorem 1.3 we just have ϕ ∈ Eh .

THEOREM
P 2.5. Let s ∈ S ∗ be a multiplicative function on N∗ . We have necessary
∗
p∈P s(p) 6 1 and there exists a sequence (xn )n in N such that

lim Kxn (y) = s(y) ∀y ∈ N∗ .

n→∞

Proof. Since P is a subset of N we may consider an increasing bijection b: N →

P and we denote pn := b(n) for every n ∈ N.
If s ∈ S ∗ is a multiplicative function on N∗ then, for any x ∈ N∗ , we have
 
X X X
s(x) > V ∗ s(x) = s(xp) = s(x)s(p) =  s(p) s(x)
p∈P p∈P p∈P

and therefore
X
s(p) 6 1.
p∈P

Obviously a multiplicative function on S ∗ is uniquely determined by its values

on P . So we may construct, using Theorem 2.4, a sequence (xn )n ⊂ N∗ such that
limn→∞ l(xn ) = ∞ and such that

s(p) = lim Kxn (p) ∀p ∈ P .

p→∞

For this purpose we shall consider, for any n ∈ N∗ the family of natural numbers
(αjn )16 j 6 n+1such that
 
X
n+1  αn  1
 j 
αjn > n,  Pn+1 n − s(p j  <
) 1 6 j 6 n.
 j =1 αj  n
j =1

Q αjn
Hence if we consider the sequence (xn )n in N∗ defined by xn = n+1 p
j =1 j then
the sequence (Kxn )n satisfies all required conditions by Theorem 2.4 such that this
sequence is simply convergent to the multiplicative function s.

REMARK. The previous two theorems show that the normalized Poisson kernel
NUMBER THEORY IN TERMS OF POTENTIAL THEORY 47

may be obtained from the Green kernel in the same manner as in classical theory
of potential.

3. Subtractible Elements of S
It is known that an element of S is subtractible iff it is of the form Gf where f is
equal zero as N∗ \P . We denote by Sh the set of all subtractible elements of S.

PROPOSITION 3.1. For any real positive function f on P there exists a sub-
tractible element u of S uniquely determined such that u(p) = f (p) for every
p ∈ P . In fact we have
X
u= f (p)Gp .
p∈P

Proof. Let
X
u := f (p)Gp .
p∈P

Since for every x ∈ N we have

Gp (x) 6 = 0 ⇔ p|x,

it follows that u(x) < ∞. Since Gp is subtractible and Gp (q) = 0 if q ∈ P q 6 = p

and Gp (p) = 1 it follows that u is also subtractible in S and u(p) = f (p) for every
p ∈ P . Suppose now that v ∈ S is subtractible on S and v(p) = u(p) = f (p) for
all p ∈ P . We get

g(p) := (v − V v)(p) = v(p) = u(p) = (u − V u)(p) ∀p ∈ P

and therefore

v(x) = Gg(x) = Vf (x) = u(x) ∀x ∈ X.

For any p ∈ P we denote by p ∗ the element of Eh given by


∗ 0 if q 6 = p n ∀n ∈ N,
p (q) =
1 if q = p n for a suitable n,

and we denote by P ∗ the subset of Eh

P ∗ = {p ∗ /p ∈ P }.
48 NICU BOBOC AND GHEORGHE BUCUR

Obviously any s ∈ S may be considered as a numerical positive function e

s on the
set E by

e
s(y) := [s, y].

In fact we have
s(x)
e
s(Kx ) = ∀x ∈ X,
u(x)
e
s(h) = [s, h] ∀h ∈ Eh .

PROPOSITION 3.2. For every s ∈ S there exists a unique positive real function f
on N∗ such that
X
es(y) = f (x)y(x), ∀y ∈ E.
x∈N∗

Conversely for any real positive function f on N∗ there exists a unique s ∈ S such
that
X
e
s(y) = f (x)y(x).
x∈N∗

Proof. It is known (cf. [2]) that s ∈ S iff there exists a real positive function f
on N∗ such that s = Gf . Conversely for every real positive function f on N∗ the
function Gf is finite and belongs to S. The above proposition follows now from
e
s(y) = [s, y] = [Gf, y]
X X
= f (x)[Gx , y] = f (x)y(x).
x∈N∗ x∈x

We recall that a convex cone of positive numerical functions T on a set X is

termed H -cone of functions (cf. [1]) if the following properties hold:
(1) t1 , t2 , t ∈ T , t1 + t 6 t2 + t ⇒ t1 6 t2 .
(2) for every t1 , t2 ∈ T the function inf(t1 , t2 ) belongs to T .
(3) T contains every positive constant real function on X.
(4) For every increasing and dominated subset A of T the function x → supt ∈A t (x)
belongs to T .
(5) for every decreasing subset A of T there exists the infimum of A in T , denoted
∧A and we have (∧A) + t = ∧(A + t) for any t ∈ T .
(6) T possesses the Riesz decomposition property (i.e. for every t1 , t2 , t ∈ T with
t 6 t1 + t2 there exists s1 , s2 ∈ T , s1 6 t1 , s2 6 t2 and such that t = s1 + s2 ).

THEOREM 3.3. The set of positive numerical functions given by e S = {e

s/s ∈ S} is
an H -cone of functions on the set E. Moreover for every s ∈ S and every y ∈ E0
NUMBER THEORY IN TERMS OF POTENTIAL THEORY 49

we have e
s(y) < ∞, e s is lower semicontinuous on E and continuous at any point
y ∈ E0 and there exists s ∈ S with es = +∞ on Eh .
Proof. (1) follows from the fact that for any s, t ∈ S we have
s(x)
e
s(Kx ) = < ∞, ∀x ∈ N∗
u(x)
and

s 6e
e t ⇔ s 6 t.

(3) follows since e

u = 1 on E.
(4) follows from the fact that for any increasing family (si )i∈I in S the function

x → sup si (x) =: s(x)

i∈I

belongs to S, if it is finite and from the fact that for any y ∈ E we have

e
s(y) = [s, y] = sup[si , y] = sup e
si (y).
i∈I i∈I

(2) follows from the fact that for every s, t ∈ S the function inf(s, t) belongs to
S and for any extremal element y of S ∗ we have

[inf(s, t), y] = inf([s, y], [t, y]),

(see [1]).
(4) follows from the fact that for any family (si )i∈I in S the function infi∈I si
belongs to S.
(5) follows from the fact that S is a cone of potentials on N∗ ([2]).
Hence e S is an H -cone of functions on the set E and for every s ∈ S the function
e
s is finite on E0 . From Theorem 2.3 it follows that any for any s ∈ S the function
e
s is continuous at any point y ∈ E0 . Since the topology on E is the trace on E
of the topology of the simply convergence in the set of functions S ∗ it follows
that this topology coincides with the topology on E generated by the functions
ex /x ∈ N∗ } i.e. the smallest topology on E for which each function G
{G ex with
∗
x ∈ N is continuous. From
G∗x 0 (x)
ex (Kx 0 ) =
x ∈ N∗ ⇒ G ,
u(x)
ex (y) 6 1 for any y ∈ E.
it follows that G
Hence if s = Gf , where f has a finite suport, then s is continuous on E. Since
for every s ∈ S there exists an increasing sequence (sn )n with sn = Gfn (fn having
a finite support) and with supn sn = s then the function es is lower semicontinuous
on E.
50 NICU BOBOC AND GHEORGHE BUCUR

Let now s ∈ S be the function

X
s= Gx .
x∈N∗
P
For every y ∈ Eh we have p∈P y(p) = 1 and

y(x 0 · x 00 ) = y(x 0 ) · y(x 00 ) ∀x 0 , x 00 ∈ N∗ .

Hence from
X
e
s(y) = ex (y)
G
x∈N∗
 2  n
X X X X
= y(x) > ·y(p) +  y(p) + · · · +  y(p)
x∈N∗ p∈P p∈P p∈P

> n + 1,
we get e
s(y) = +∞.

REMARK. The set Eh is a polar set with respect to the H -cone of functions e
S and
therefore for every y ∈ Eh and every s ∈ S we have

e
s(y) = 0 lim inf
0
s(y 0 ).
e
y ∈E0 ,y →y

For any p ∈ P we denote by p the element of Eh such that p(p) = 1 and

p(q) = 0 for every q ∈ P with q 6 = p. In fact we have p(x) = 0 if x is not the
form x = p α with α ∈ N, α > 1 and p(x) = 1 in the contrary case.

THEOREM 3.4. The set

P ∗ = {p/p ∈ P }

is closed and a discrete subset of E. Any two functions e t in e

s, e Sh are equal if they
∗ ∗
coincide on P . For any positive real function f on P there exists a unique s ∈ Sh
such that e
s(p) = f (p) for any p ∈ P .
Proof. Let (pn )n a sequence of P and let h ∈ E be such that p n → h. From
pn (q) → h(q) for every q ∈ P it follows that

h(q) > 0 ⇒ ∃nq ∈ N, with (n > nq ⇒ p n (q) > 0)

and therefore

h(q) > 0 ⇒ ∃nq ∈ N with (n > nq ⇒ p n = p q ).

NUMBER THEORY IN TERMS OF POTENTIAL THEORY 51

Hence from h 6 ≡ 0 we deduce that there exists n0 ∈ N with n > n0 ⇒ p n = h.

s =e
Let now s, t ∈ Sh be such that e t on P ∗ . From
X
e
s(p) = [s, p] = s(q)[Gq , p] = s(p)
q∈P

we get

s=t on P

and therefore s = t, es =et.

Let now f be a positive real functions on P ∗ . If we denote by s the element of
S, subtractible, given by
X
s= f (p)Gp ,
p∈P

s = f on P ∗ .
we get e

References
1. Boboc, N., Bucur, Gh. and Cornea, A.: Order and Convexity in Potential Theory: H -Cones,
Lecture Notes in Mathematics 853, Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York, 1981.
2. Boboc, N. and Bucur, Gh.: ‘Arithmetic and potential theory’, Revue Roumaine Math. Pures et
Appl. 40 (1995), 259–277.