GENETICS

REVIEWER 2
CHROMOSOME
- are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells. Each
chromosome is made of protein (histone) and a single molecule of DNA. Passed from
parents to offspring, DNA contains the specific instructions that make each type of living
creature unique.
- Chroma means color, Soma means body.
- Chromosome is made up of 2 parts; histone or protein and DNA itself.
- The main function is to store genetic material
3 FORMS OF CHROMOSOME
1. CHROMATIN
2. CHROMATID
3. CHROMOSOME
How chromatin is formed?
- Chromatin is a shapeless chromosome where it is actually a packed of DNA
- It was formed by the use of chromosomal packaging
- Chromosomal packaging is the way of how this long DNA segment is being stored in the
cell.
- DNA is long. It can cover 2-meter distance
- H1 job is to prevent the nucleosome to be untangled
- octamer histone – an eight-protein complex
- H2A, H2B, H3, and H4 will form octamer.
- There will be 200 base pairs and will close by H1
- 30 nanometer fiber formed the second compaction of the nucleosome and it forms foil.
- FIRST, THE DNA WILL BE FORMED, THE 200 BASE PAIR WILL COVER THE HISTONE AND
WILL CLOSED BY THE H1, THE 10 NANOMETER WILL FORM, THE COIL WILL FORM AND
THE 30 NANOMETER CELANOID UNTIL IT WILL FORM TO A CHROMATIN
- Technically, a chromatin is a product of chromosome packaging
- During cell division, there will be a formation of the chromosome, and it is the actual
Chromosome.
- The chromosome will cut into half during metaphase, and there will be chromatid.
- A pair of chromosomes is called a homologous pair.
- While a homologous pair is made up of 2 sister chromatids
- It is a sister chromatin if it comes from centromere.
- If it is not the same we call it a non-sister chromatid
STRUCTURE OF A CHROMOSOME
- The middle part is called the centromere
- The space in the left and right side of centromere is called kinetochore
- The lower or shorter arm is called p-arm
- The longer leg arm is called q-arm
- The end part of chromosome is call telomere which prevents the DNA to untangle
- Locus or loci is the exact location of a gene chromosome.
The difference between centromere and kinetochore
Centromere is the actual part, while kinetochore are just proteins touched by the
spindle fiber during cell division.
The difference between H1 histone and telomere
H1 histone’s job is to prevent untangled of the single nucleosome that is in the
molecular level which means smaller. Telomere prevents the whole chromosome to
untangle.
CLASSIFICATION OF CHROMOSOME
According to the position of Centromere
A centromere is very important because;
- it gives the division between the p-arm and the q-arm
- It also gives the division between the sister chromatids since during the cell division, the
sister chromatids need to be separated.
- TELOCENTRIC CHROMOSOME HAS NO P-ARM
- ACROCENTRIC HAPPENS WHEN THE POSITION OF THE CENTROMERE IS TOO HIGH, THE
P-ARM IS EXTREMELY SHORT
- SUBMETACENTRIC, THE POSITION OF CENTROMERE IS ALSO HIGH BUT THERE IS STILL
AN AREA FOR THE P-ARM
- METACENTRIC HAPPEN WHEN THE P-ARM IS ALMOST AT THE SAME HEIGHT WITH THE
Q-ARM
In humans, we have karyotype
- Is the whole copy of chromosomes in an organism.
- In the human karyotype, we will see the homologous pair
CELL CYCLE
- Sequence of stages through which a cell passes during its lifetime
3 MAJOR PHASES
1. Interphase – the stage in between cell division
Interphase consists of 3 stages, during which a cell increases in size, doubles the number
of cytoplasmic components, and replicates its DNA.
 G1: interval of cell growth and activity
(preparation stage)
1. Cell growth (cell sizes)
2. Copies organelles
3. Makes the molecular building blocks

 S: interval of DNA replication (synthesis)

The biggest change in a cell since the mitosis cuts the DNA into two because as it
gave copies.
S-phase is important because it should not go wrong during cell division.
The cell synthesizes a complete copy of the DNA in its nucleus. It also duplicates
a microtubule-organizing structure called the CENTROSOME.
The centrosome helps separate DNA during M-phase.

 G2: interval when the cell prepares for division

During the G2, the cell grows more, makes proteins and organelles, and begins
to reorganize its contents in preparation for mitosis.
G2 phase ends when mitosis begins.

2. Cell division (M-Phase)

3. Cytoplasmic Division (cytoplasm / cytokinesis)
CELLULAR CHECKPOINTS
- A checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which the cell examines internal
and external cues and “decides” whether or not to move forward with division.
 The G1, checkpoint, at the G1/S transition.
Factors might assess in the G1 checkpoint are; size, nutrients, molecular signals,
and DNA integrity
G0 is the resting phase wherein the cell will no longer divides.

 The G2, checkpoint, at the G2/M transition.

Factors might assess in the G2 checkpoint are; DNA integrity, and DNA
replication.
DNA integrity – is any of the DNA damaged?
DNA replication – was the DNA completely copied during S phase?
If the damage is irreparable, the cell may undergo apoptosis, or programmed cell
death.

 The spindle checkpoint, at the transition from metaphase to anaphase

Checks in the metaphase if the chromosomes are aligned in the center.
THERE ARE 2 CHEMICAL ENZYMES THAT ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE CHECKPOINTS
1. CYCLIN
2. CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE
TUMOR SUPPRESOR PROTEINS blocks cells to move forward in cell division. / blocks cancer
cells.
- RETINOBLASTOMA (Rb)
p53
p21