History Test-4

Download All PDF form here :- https://t.
me/pdf4exams
IAS 2018
HISTORY
TEST SERIES
By: PIYUSH KUMAR
TEST: 4
www.iasscore.in
https://t.me/testseries4exams
Download All PDF form here :- https://t.me/pdf4exams
Test - 04
History Test Series 2018
HISTORY
Time Allowed: 3 hr. Max. Marks: 250
1. Identify the following places marked on the map supplied to you and write a short note of
about 30 words on each of them in your Question-cum" Booklet. Locational hints for each of
the places marked on the map are given below seriatim.
1. A Neolithic-Chalcolithic Site
E
2. A Mesolithic Site
3. A port site
4. A capital city
OR
5. A Paleolithic site
SC
6. A late Harappan site
7. A Harappan site
8. An capital city
9. An Art Centre
GS
10. An Inscription site
12. A Chalcolithic site
13. A Buddhist centre
14. A trade centre in Ancient India
15. An ancient capital
16. An Early Harappan site
17. A Temple site
19. A political and cultural center
20. An ancient town
2. Critically examine the following statements in about 150 words:
(a) Evaluate the contribution of Hasan Nizami'sTajulMa'asiras a source of Medieval Indian

History.
History [1]
(b) It was the royal patronage, which promoted the Bhakti Movement. Analyse.
(c) What has Al-Biruni explained about the caste system existing in India?
(d) What was the status of women in the Mughal agrarian society?
(e) Evaluate the importance of malfulzatliterature as a source of Medieval Indian history.
3. (a) Social recognizance emerged around the temples in early medieval India. Comment.
(b) The evolution of the Rajputs was nothing but the social mobility. Comment.
(c) What factors contributed for the emergence of bhakti movement in South India during early
Medieval period.
4. (a) Discuss the contributions of the sultans in medieval period in the expansion of education
in India.
(b) "Although 'Urdu' as a language originated in North India but its actual development could
be seen in South India." Critically evaluate.
(c) "Sufism became very popular in a short span during Sultanate period and put many
influences on Indian society." Discuss.
5.
E
(a) Discuss the stratification in the medieval rural society during the Mughal rule in India.
OR
(b) Draw a picture of development in painting throughout the Mughal period with special
reference to European contribution.
(c) Huge, strong and expensive buildings of Mughals were nothing but one of the means to get
the legitimacy in India. Analyse.
SC
GS

[ 2 ] History
Test - 04
HISTORY
Time Allowed: 3 hr. Max. Marks: 250
Instructions to Candidate
• Please read each of the following instructions carefully before attempting questions
• There are FIVE questions, printed in ENGLISH.
• Candidate has to attempt all the FIVE questions.
• The number of marks carried by a question/part is indicated against it.
• Answers must be written in the medium authorized in the Admission certificate which must
be stated clearly on the cover of this Question-cum-Answer (QCA) booklet in the space
provided. No marks will be given for answers written in medium other than the authorized
one.
• Word limit in questions, wherever specified, should be adhered to.
• Attempts of questions shall be counted in chronological order. Unless struck off, attempt of
a question shall be counted even if attempted partly.
• Any page or portion of the page left blank in the answer book must be clearly struck off.
Name _______________________________
Mobile No.___________________________
1. Invigilator Signature _______________ Date ________________________________
2. Invigilator Signature _______________ Signature ____________________________
2
REMARKS
Remarks
3
Roll No.____________
1. Identify the following places marked on the map supplied to you and write a short note
of about 30 words on each of them in your Question-cum" Booklet. Locational hints for
each of the places marked on the map are given below seriatim. (2.5 × 20 = 50 Marks)
1. A Neolithic-Chalcolithic Site
2. A Mesolithic Site
3. A port site
4. A capital city
6. A late Harappan site
7. A Harappan site
8. An capital city
9. An Art Centre
10. An Inscription site
12. A Chalcolithic site
13. A Buddhist centre
14. A trade centre in Ancient India
16. An Early Harappan site
17. A Temple site
19. A political and cultural center
20. An ancient town
Remarks
4
Remarks
5
Remarks
6
Remarks
7
Remarks
8
Remarks
9
Remarks
10
Remarks
11
2. Critically examine the following statements in about 150 words: (10×5=50 Marks)
(a) Evaluate the contribution of Hasan Nizami'sTajulMa'asiras a source of Medieval
Indian History.
(b) It was the royal patronage, which promoted the Bhakti Movement. Analyse.
(c) What has Al-Biruni explained about the caste system existing in India?
(d) What was the status of women in the Mughal agrarian society?
(e) Evaluate the importance of malfulzatliterature as a source of Medieval Indian history.
Remarks
12
Remarks
13
Remarks
14
Remarks
15
Remarks
16
Remarks
17
Remarks
18
Remarks
19
(15 Marks)
(b) The evolution of the Rajputs was nothing but the social mobility. Comment.
(15 Marks)
(c) What factors contributed for the emergence of bhakti movement in South India
during early Medieval period. (20 Marks)
Remarks
20
Remarks
21
Remarks
22
Remarks
23
Remarks
24
Remarks
25
Remarks
26
Remarks
27
4. (a) Discuss the contributions of the sultans in medieval period in the expansion of
education in India. (20 Marks)
(b) "Although 'Urdu' as a language originated in North India but its actual development
could be seen in South India." Critically evaluate. (15 Marks)
(c) "Sufism became very popular in a short span during Sultanate period and put many
influences on Indian society." Discuss. (15 Marks)
Remarks
28
Remarks
29
Remarks
30
Remarks
31
Remarks
32
Remarks
33
Remarks
34
Remarks
35
5. (a) Discuss the stratification in the medieval rural society during the Mughal rule in
India. (15 Marks)
(b) Draw a picture of development in painting throughout the Mughal period with special
reference to European contribution. (20 Marks)
(c) Huge, strong and expensive buildings of Mughals were nothing but one of the means
to get the legitimacy in India. Analyse. (15 Marks)
Remarks
36
Remarks
37
Remarks
38
Remarks
39
Remarks
40
Remarks
41
Remarks
42
Remarks
www.iasscore.in
HISTORY
Answer Hints: Test No. 4
1. Identify the following places marked on the map supplied to you and write a short note of
about 30 words on each of them in your Question-cum" Booklet. Locational hints for each
of the places marked on the map are given below seriatim.
1. A Neolithic-Chalcolithic Site - Hallur
2. A Mesolithic Site - Loteshwar
E
3. A port site - Sutkagen-dor
4. A capital city - Kannauj
5. A Paleolithic site - Singhbhum
OR
6. A late Harappan site - Kalibangan
7. A Harappan site - Banawali
SC
8. An capital city - Purushpur

9. An Art Centre - Ajanta
10. An Inscription site - Uttiramerur
11. A Paleolithic site - Nagarjunakonda
GS
12. A Chalcolithic site - Malwa

13. A Buddhist centre - Vallabhi
14. A trade centre in Ancient India-
15. An ancient capital - Mosali
16. An Early Harappan site - Kulli
17. A Temple site - Deogarh
18. An ancient capital - Kushinagar
19. A political and cultural center - Madurai
20. An ancient town - Vaishali
2. (a) Evaluate the contribution of Hasan Nizami'sTajulMa'asiras a source of Medieval Indian
History.
Hasan Nizami'sTajulMa'asir-`The Crown of Exploits', deals primarily with the history of
QutbuddinAibek. The author was an immigrant from Khurasan; he was born at Nishapur in an
Hints: History [1]
aristocratic family of repute.He writes that he `never dreamt of travelling abroad' until the troubles
of his native country 'compelled him to seek a residence elsewhere.' He came to Ghazni, made
acquaintances with the courtiers of Sultan Muhammad Ghori and soon migrated to Delhi. Hs
joined service under QutbuddinAibek, then the viceroy of northern India on behalf of Muhammad
Ghori. Hasan Nizami took up the writing of this book on the orders of Aibek in 1205. After the
death of Muhammad Ghori, Aibek became an independent ruler of northern India; it naturally
added to the social status of the author and enhanced the value of his official assignment. The
narrative commences from the year 1191-92 when Muhammad Ghori invaded India as a wounded
tiger, to avenge his defeat suffered previously at the hands of Prithvi Raj III, the Chauhan ruler of
Delhi and Ajmer, and fought the second battle of Tarain. The author gives in detail the military
exploits of Aibek from 1192 to 1206 though his achievements as independent ruler (1206-10) find
mention in bare outlines, in a single chapter. The author does not mention Aram Shah but describes
the events of Iltutmish's reign upto 1217.
TajulMa'asir is a marvelous production in more than one respect. It is the first historical narrative
which deals with the beginning of the Muslim rule in India; it thus untags the history of the Delhi
E
Sultanate from that of Ghazni, Central Asia or Islam, the usual starting points of many other
contemporary chronicles. Its medium of expression is a unique mixture of Arabic and Persian
OR
languages, in poetry as well as prose. The author starts in Arabic and, all of a sudden, switches
over to Persian while giving details of certain events, and again reverts to Arabic at his convenience;
a learned scholar and literary wizard, Hasan Nizami displays his command over both the languages,
and his expression is rich in vocabulary and juicy phrases. Similarly, the author was a good poet
who could compose verses in both the languages with equal competence; therefore, his prose passages
are interspersed with fine pieces of poetry which are of literary merit in their own right. The book
SC
comprises twelve thousand lines of which above seven thousand are in verse, both Arabic and
Persian. TajulMa'asir has some more unique features to its credit; it is partly history and partly
fiction; in the midst of the historical narrative, the author starts giving fantastic accounts of certain
other subjects or characters in an eloquent style. Not only this; Hasan Nizami introduces, in the
style of Panchtantra literature of ancient India, a subordinate series of descriptions (sifats) within
one leading subject, which include qualities of mirrors, rules of chess, natural elements, seasons,
GS
fruits, flowers and what not. To a man of literature, with proficiency in Arabic and Persian, the
book offers interesting reading; no wonder, it was very popular in the literary circles of early medieval
India.
2. (b) It was the royal patronage, which promoted the Bhakti Movement. Analyse.
There were several important chiefdoms in the Tamil region in the early first millennium CE. From
the second half of the first millennium there is evidence for states, including those of the Pallavas
and Pandyas (c. sixth to ninth centuries CE). While Buddhism and Jainism had been prevalent in
this region for several centuries, drawing support from merchant and artisan communities, these
religious traditions received occasional royal patronage. Interestingly, one of the major themes in
Tamil bhakti hymns is the poets' opposition to Buddhism and Jainism. This is particularly marked
in the compositions of the Nayanars.
Historians have attempted to explain this hostility by suggesting that it was due to competition
between members of other religious traditions for royal patronage. What is evident is that the
powerful Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions,
making land grants and constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva. In fact, some of the most
magnificent Shiva temples, including those at Chidambaram, Thanjavur and
Gangaikondacholapuram, were constructed under the patronage of Chola rulers.
[ 2 ] Hints: History
This was also the period when some of the most spectacular representations of Shiva in bronze
sculpture were produced. Clearly, the visions of the Nayanars inspired artists. Both Nayanars and
Alvars were revered by the Vellala peasants. Not surprisingly, rulers tried to win their support as
well. The Chola kings, for instance, often attempted to claim divine support and proclaim their
own power and status by building splendid temples that were adorned with stone and metal sculpture
to recreate the visions of these popular saints who sang in the language of the people.
These kings also introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns in the temples under royal patronage,
taking the initiative to collect and organise them into a text (Tevaram). Further, inscriptional evidence
from around 945 suggests that the Chola ruler Parantaka I had consecrated metal images of Appar,
Sambandar and Sundarar in a Shiva temple. These were carried in processions during the festivals
of these saints.
2. (c) What has Al-Biruni explained about the caste system existing in India?
According to Al-Biruni the highest caste is the Brahmana, who were created from the head of
Brahman. The next caste is the Kshatriya, who was created from the shoulders and hands of
E
Brahman. After them the Vaishya, who were created from the thigh of Brahman. At last the Shudra,
who were created from his feet.
As these classes differ from each other, they live together in the same towns and villages, mixed
OR
together in the same houses and lodgings.
Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by looking for parallels in other societies. He noted that in
ancient Persia, four social categories were recognized a) knights and princes; b) monks, fire-priests
c) lawyers, physicians, astronomers and other scientists; and d) peasants and artisans.
He attempted to suggest that social divisions were not unique to India. At the same time he pointed
SC
out that within Islam all men were considered equal, differing only in their observance of piety.
In spite of his acceptance of the Brahmanical description of the caste system, Al-Biruni disapproved
of the notion of pollution. As we have seen, Al-Biruni's description of the caste system was deeply
influenced by his study of normative Sanskrit texts which laid down the rules governing the system
from the point of view of the Brahmanas.
2. (d) What was the status of women in the Mughal agrarian society?
GS
Unlike in the ancient Indian period, the position and status of women in the Mughal period (age)
was not quite high. Purdah and child marriage had become common. Except those of the lower
classes, women in Mughal period did not move out of their houses.
• The Muslims women observed purdah much more strictly than the Hindus. The birth of a
daughter was considered inauspicious, while that of a son was an occasion for rejoicing. On
account of early marriage, there were many widows in our society. Generally, women in
Mughal Period were not allowed to remarry.
• Polygamy was common among rich society. Divorce was not common among the Hindus,
while it was permitted both for Muslim men and women.
• However, women exercised great influence at home and some of them helped their husbands
in their avocations. Generally, it was the responsibility of the men to look after the economic
affairs, and the women would take care of the needs at home.
• Though, the overall position of women in Mughal period was low, there were many Hindu
and Muslim women of outstanding ability, whose fame is still relevant today.
• There were many Hindu women of outstanding ability during this period, notably Rani
Durgawati of Gondwana, Rani Karmawati, Mira Bai, Tarabai, etc.
Hints: History [3]
• Among the Muslim women in Mughal Period, Salima Sultan Begum, Ruqaiya Sultan Begum,
Nur Jahan, Mumtaz Mahal, Chand Bibi, Jahanara, Raushanara, Zeb-un-nisa, etc. played an
important part in the affairs of that time.
2. (e) Evaluate the importance of malfulzatliterature as a source of Medieval Indian history.
The Malfuz writing is one of the most important literary inventions of medieval India. The word
'Malfuz' is a derivative of 'lafz' ('word'), meaning uttered, spoken. The Malfuz writing is that branch
of literature in which the utterances and teachings of eminent sufis are recorded, generally
chronologically in book form, by one or more of their devotees (Murids/ students), present at those
talks during different sufi orders-Chistiya, Suhrawardiya, Qadriya and Naqshbandiya had flourished
and the saints orders produced considerable Tazkirah (memory/ commemoration text) and Malfuz.
Fawa'id al-Fawad, a collection ofShaikh Nizam al-din Awliya's discourses (malfuzat), beside offering
many insights into the true sufi way of life and explaining through symbolical utterances and
anecdotes suited to the occasion as well as contain some basic principles of "Islamic mysticism".
For nearly seven hundred years , Fawa'id al-Fawad by Amir Hassan 'Ala' Sijzi Delhvi (1253-1336
A.D) has been acknowledged as among the earliest examples of the genre of Malfuzat, which enjoy
E
such a long afterlife in sufi-literature culture. It is also held that unlike many later Malfuzat, which
establishes the value of the text as a reliable historical document from the Tughlaq shahi period of
the medieval Indian history.
OR
Activity, that dramatized emerging social identities appear in temple inscriptions. Rituals performed
by Brahmans using Sanskrit liturgies brought cosmic spiritual powers down to earth to sanctify a
caste social order. Temples were sites for enacting social rank among worshippers who protected
dharma and financed rituals; and the rituals brought a variety of local, regional, and imperial gods
SC
together.
Medieval societies witnessed many kinds of rituals, by all kinds of spiritualists and officiates, from
all kinds of social backgrounds, in all manner of locations, which brought rain, secured crops,
drove away disease and delivered healthy babies and bolstered dynasties. Temples to these great
sovereign gods rose on the land as towering sacred landmarks and monuments to political power.
The temple as a ritual and architectural complex emerged in its glory in the later Gupta period. Its
GS
elaboration and spread from the sixth to the fourteenth century provide a legacy for us to study
from Mahaballipuram to Khajuraho. The absorption of local deities, rituals, symbols, and spiritualism
into Puranic literature and related myth, folklore, and artistic representation constituted the dominant
worship by enhancing the cultural potency of local deities, their devotees, and their patrons. Local
cults were woven into Puranic traditions and temple rituals as local communities came under royal
authority. The greatness of the gods enhanced the glamour of royal patrons.
We do come across a number of inscriptions referring to temples and the grants given there along
with the rituals performed. In many a cases we find the local deity be accorded a higher status in
the religious pantheon and the advent of Bhakti paved a different type of integration that was more
open. Social identities emerged around temples as people and gods lived together. Gifts by kings,
landed elites, merchants and others to Brahmans and temples increased the spiritual stature of the
donor. Inscriptions are contracts and advertisements. The more popular a temple became - the
more praised in song and more attractive for pilgrims - the greater became the value of its patronage
and the number of people whose identity attached to it. Rising bhakti devotionalism enhanced the
virtue, volume, and commercial value of pilgrimage, as it increased temple donations and
investments. Donations became increasingly popular as a means and marker of social mobility as
temples became commercial centres, landowners, employers, and manufacturing centres. Increasing
participation in temple rituals made them more effective sites for social ranking, as temple honours
were distributed according to rank and all worshippers were positioned in ranked proximity to the
deity. Rulers came first. Rich donors came in the order of the value of their temple endowments.
Popular bhakti movements made sovereign gods ever more central in everyday social life, even for
the poorest people who did all the hardest manual labour who were prohibited from ever setting
foot in the temple, whose exclusion marked them as the people of the lowest social rank.
Some powerful bhakti saints came from the lowest of the low, whose devotion was so strong that
gods came out of temples to return their love. People who joined temple society gave gifts to gods
and Brahmans that increased the status of donors, executors of the grant, and by extension, and all
their kin. Over time, kinship circles formed around lineages and clans that fed gods and Brahmans,
and Early Medieval Societies these kin groups formed high-status, non-Brahman elite jatis, elevated
above others in ritual and society. Brahmans reaped major benefits. In some instances, thousands
of Brahmins were granted rights to hitherto uncultivated land. In the open spaces of Rashtrakuta
power, one inscription records a gift of 8,000 measures of land to 1,000 Brahmans, and 4,000
measures to a single Brahman.
In each specific context, an inscription of this kind appears to mark an effort by a non-Brahman
power block to enhance its status and that of its local allies. In other cases, Brahmins were appointed
E
as the local representatives of the state authorities in what are described as agrahara villages where
Brahmins presided over small peasants, who in Bihar were mostly landless sharecroppers or bonded
labourers. These agrahara villages were typically small villages and satellites of bigger villages that
OR
included members of several castes and bigger land-holders. In Bihar, such agrahara villages
proliferated and it is quite likely that in such agrahara oppressive social relations and some of the
most egregious patterns of caste-centered discrimination and exploitation may have developed. But
these developments took time to spread elsewhere in India, first spreading to Bengal and eastern
UP, and very gradually elsewhere in India. However, this pattern was not necessarily replicated in
SC
identical form throughout India and some parts of India virtually escaped this trend. In agrahara
villages in other parts of India, Brahmins did take on the role of local administrators and tax collectors,
but the status of the small peasantry was not always as miserable as in Bihar.
The degree of exploitationand oppression appears to be related to the extent of alienation from
land-ownership. In religions that paid tremendous stress on "revealed truth" (such as Christianity
or Islam) there have always been strong tendencies towards dogmatic rigidity. But even at the peak
of their influence, India's Brahmins were never quite able to impose any comparable sort of rigid
GS
uniformity in the practice of Hinduism on a national (let alone, international) scale. In some localities,
the lower castes did without the Brahmins entirely while elsewhere, especially in the South, or in
Central India and Orissa - Brahmins often felt obliged to give due deference to dissenting and
heterodox cults, and incorporated their belief systems into mainstream Hinduism. The existence of
these numerous cults was partly an expression of the struggle for social equality and freedom from
exploitation, but for some, it was also a means for accessing greater social privileges. The Brahmins
of Tamil Nadu (along with the rulers) attempted to manage these social tensions through co-option,
philosophical accommodation and synthesis. In Andhra, folk religions played a powerful role in
mediating Brahmanical influences, and a vibrant example of the deep penetration of folk influences
in popular religion is to be seen in the sculpted array of folkloric panels in the temple of Srisailam
(sponsored by the Vijayanagar rulers in the 14th-15th C.). In neighbouring Karnataka, the Bhakti
ideal and Jain influences put their stamp on prevailing religious practices. Religion in India thus
developed in a much more organic fashion than is commonly realized, and it was never completely
divorced from popular inputs. Both male and female deities drew followers, and while goddesses
were sometimes displayed in demonic warrior roles, gods were sometimes displayed with feminine
qualities. In the Yogini temples, all the deities were women and although today, there are only a
handful of surviving Yogini temples, (mostly in Orissa and Madhya Pradesh) it is not unlikely that
many more may have been in existence.
Hints: History [5]
3. (b) The evolution of the Rajputs was nothing but the social mobility. Comment.
The centuries that intervened between the death of Harsha and the Muhammadan conquest of
India were marked by the ascendancy of the Rajputs and establishment of numerous powerful
kingdoms by them in Northern India. This period has conveniently been termed as the `Rajput
period' of Indian history. The Rajputs filled the political canvas of India during this period.
There is a keen controversy among scholars regarding the origin of the Rajputs. There is difference
in the views of various scholars.In the absence of any definite theory on the origin of the Rajputs,
we can merely discuss the salient views about it.
The Rajputs trace their origin to the legendary Solar and Lunar dynasties. Some of them claim to be
lineal descendants of the Kshatriyas of Vedic fame. The word Rajaputra is mentioned in the Puranas.
The term `Rajput' seems to have been derived from the Sanskrit word Rajaputra. Bana uses the
term to denote a high-born Kshatriya. These points lead to the conclusion that the term Rajaputra
or Rajput was known in early times.
The poet Chand Bardai in his poetical work `PrithvirajRaso' has recorded a legend that the Rajputs
E
of Parmar, Chauhan, Pratihara and Chalukya clans sprang from Vasishta's sacrificial fire pit at
Mount Abu. This is known as the theory of Agnikula origin. Some Rajputs firmly advocate even
now their `Agnikula origin'.
OR
Ethnology and tradition point to Aryan origin of the Rajputs. Although there are some similarities
in the manners and customs of the Rajputs with that of the Sakas and other foreigners, these are
not conclusive proofs of their foreign origin. The Asvamedha sacrifice, the practice of Sati, and the
worship of Sun practice by the Rajputs are not clear marks of foreign heritage. These practices were
ingrained in Hindu society. The theory of Kshatriya origin of Rajput clan has more acceptability.
SC
Some historians have suggested that the Rajputs were descendants of the Sakas, Huns, Kushanas
and the Gurjaras, who became hinduized. Smith has further suggested that the invasion of the
Huns and other associate foreign tribes in the fifth and sixth centuries shook the Indian society in
the North to its foundation. It brought about a rearrangement of castes and ruling families. When
the equilibrium was reached it was found that people belonging to many diverse races were lumped
together and were called Rajputs. However, the theory of foreign origin of the Rajputs has less
acceptability.
GS
But the best interpretation of evolution of rajputas could be seen in social mobility of peasantry
community in Rajasthan. This community managed to get some land and administrative powers in
early medieval period. These communities were already organized on clan basis. Ultimately with
lessening power of central authority they grabbed some power. Once they got into power with the
help of Brahmins, upgraded themselves as kshtriyas. So it could be better interpreted as social
mobility.
3. (c) What factors contributed for the emergence of bhakti movement in South India during
early Medieval period.
Bhakti movement constitutes a very important chapter in the socio-cultural history of India.
The movement started in the 9th century A.D. by Shankaracharya which continued up to 16th
century A.D. by a number of Hindu devotees, preachers and religious reformers.
The word Bhakti is a very familiar word in the Hindu religious system.
It is derived from the Sanskrit root word Bhaja whose literal meaning is 'to utter'. But the inner
significance of the word Bhaja is 'to adore' or 'to love with honour'. In the devotional literature the
word is used to mean 'unquestionable faith and utter devotion to God'. Thus in a general sense
Bhakti means devotion to God.
The concept of Bhakti is an age-old one. Right from the time of the compilation of the Vedas, the
word Bhakti has come into vogue. In Rig Veda Samhita, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chhandyoga
Upanishad, Katha and Kausitaki Upanishad, the word Bhakti has been referred to several times.
The Bhakti Yoga of Shrimad Bhagavad Gita is more descriptive on this point. It prescribes Gnana
(knowledge), Karma (action) and Bhakti (devotion) as the three essential features to shatter the
bondage of material world and to serve the Almighty God. Thus Bhakti is one of the three recognized
means of achieving salvation.
Causes for the Origin of Bhakti Movement:
The concept of Bhakti was not a new one in the Indian tradition. It is as old as Hinduism itself. But
when we talk of Bhakti movement in the context of socio-religious background it has a different
connotation. Bhakti movement deals with the Indian response to face a new challenge that appeared
in the form of Islamic religion. As a matter of fact Bhakti movement was the direct outcome of the
emergence of Islam in India. The reasons for the birth and growth of this movement are therefore
not far to seek.
Evils in the Hindu Society:
E
The genesis of the Bhakti movement lies in the social evils prevalent in the-then Hindu society.
During the time of Muslim rule in India the Hindu society was full of many social anomalies like
OR
rigidity of caste system, irrelevant rituals and religious practices, blind faiths and social dogmas.
The society also suffered from polytheism, segregation, severe economic disparity due to casteism,
untouchability etc.
The religion itself was monopolized by the Brahmins who themselves led a degenerated and corrupt
moral life. Common men in general had developed an averse attitude towards these social evils and
were in need of a liberal form of religion where they could identify themselves with simple religious
SC
practices. Therefore, popular dissatisfaction against the existing social religious evils was a major
catalyst behind the spread of Bhakti movement all over India for a long period of time.
Challenge from Rival Religion:
In the ancient period Hinduism had to face challenges from new religions like Buddhism and Jainism.
Even some of the prominent rulers of India became ardent followers of these religions. They not
only patronized these new religions but also extended whole-hearted support to the spread of these
GS
religions. But in due course of time both these religions lost much of their vitality due to the tolerant
and liberal outlook of Hinduism. Even Lord Buddha came to be regarded as the ninth incarnation
of Lord Krishna in the Hindu pantheon.
However, the case of Islam was totally different. The Muslims first arrived in India in the 8th
century AD. Subsequently by the beginning of the 13th century AD they began to rule over the
destiny of the Indians. So it became the religion of the ruling community. This religion had its own
individual characteristics like universal brotherhood, equality of all in the society, absence of any
caste system or untouchability, opposition to idol worship and above all, practice of monotheism or
oneness of God.
Among all these, absolute monotheism or equality of all men greatly appealed to the Hindus, especially
the Sudras who were the worst sufferers and had no religious freedom. These Islamic ideas threw
a powerful challenge to the existing corrupt aspect of Hinduism and the accompanying social evils.
After living together for generations and continuous interaction between the people of two
communities there grew a feeling of magnanimity and generosity among the Hindus and Muslims.
Both consciously and unconsciously the ideals of Islam produced a benevolent effect upon the
minds of a section of Hindus and fostered the growth of a liberal attitude. Giving up their mutual
suspicion, hatred and rivalry a new bond of unity and fraternity began to emerge. There was an
absolute need to change the existing system as well as bring radical changes in the fabric of Hindu
beliefs. Prof Srivastav remarks,
Hints: History [7]
"Hinduism, therefore, tried to defend itself by purging off some of its evil practices particularly
those related to regions of caste and image worship." Thus, Hinduism needed purification. The
Bhakti movement aimed at the purification of Hindu religion and liberation of the people from the
monopoly and injustices of the priestly classes.
Influence of Sufism:
The influence of Sufism cannot be set aside from the origin of Bhakti movement in India. Sufism is
an old religious sect of Islam. It is a reform movement within the Islamic religion which started in
Persia. It came to India towards the beginning of the 13th century A.D. and with the rise of the
Muslim power Sufism became more popular.
The term Sufi has come from the word Safa meaning pure which implies purity of thought and
action. In the words of Sheikh- al-Islam Zakariyah Ansari, "Sufism teaches how to purify one's self,
improve one's morals and build up one's inner and outer life in order to attain perpetual bliss."
Thus, according to Sufists, self-purification is the best way to attain eternal bliss.
Prominent Sufists like HazratKhwajaMoinuddinChisti, HazratKhwajaNizamuddinAuliya and
Naseeruddin Chirag fostered a spirit of reconciliation among the Hindus and Muslims in the medieval
E
society. The Hindu saints of India were influenced by the liberal approach of Sufism.
The high philosophy of the Vedas and Upanishads were very complicated for the common people.
OR
They wanted a simple way of worship, simple religious practices and simple social customs. The
paths of Gnanamarga and Karma marga were difficult for them to practise in day to day life. So the
next alternative was Bhakti marga-a simple way of devotion to get salvation from worldly life.
4. (a) Discuss the contributions of the sultans in medieval period in the expansion of education
in India.
SC
Muslim rulers promoted urban education by endowing libraries and literary societies. They also
founded primary schools (maktabs) in which students learned reading, writing, and basic Islamic
prayers, and secondary schools (madrasas) to teach advanced language skills,
Medieval period witnessed a radical transformation in the Indian subcontinent. The country was
invaded by various foreign rulers and several traders from around the world came and settled in
the country. The tradesmen and the invaders brought with them their own cultures and intermingled
with the people of the each district of the state. Besides, religion, society and culture, Education in
GS
medieval India also experienced a new perspective. The Mughal rulers came to India and established
their rule, Education developed with a fresh aspect during that period as there was an excellent
interaction between Indian and Islamic traditions in all fields of knowledge like theology, religion,
philosophy, fine arts, painting, architecture, mathematics, medicine and astronomy.
Later on when the Muslim rulers established permanent empire in India, they introduced a new
system of education. Consequently the ancient system of education was greatly changed. In fact,
the education during the Muslim period was much inferior than that of the Hindu period. No
Muslim ruler except Akbar did commendable works in the field of education. Education in medieval
India flourished mostly during the Mughal rule from the beginning of 1526 until the end of Mughal
political presence in 1848
However, before the advent of the Muslims in India, there was a developed system of education,
but Education in medieval India was shaped with the founding of the institutions of learning.
Muslim rulers promoted urban education by bestowing libraries and literary societies. They founded
primary schools (maktabs) in which students learned reading, writing, and basic Islamic prayers,
and secondary schools (madrasas) to teach advanced language skills In India. Several Madrasahs
were set up by Sultans, nobles, and their influential ladies. The main objective of these Madrasahs
was to train and educate scholar who would become eligible for the civil service as well as performing
duties as judge
Iltutmish was the first to establish a madrasah at Delhi, naming it "Madrasah-e-Muizzi", after the
name of Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori. Balban, the Chief Minister of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud,
founded "Madrasah Nasiriyya" after the name of his master. MinhajusSiraj, the author of
"TabaqatNasiri", was appointed its principal. Gradually many madrasahs came into being. In
Muhammad Tughlag's period there were 1000 madrasahs only in Delhi. Sultan Firoz Shah founded
"Madrasah FirozShahi" on the southern side of the HauzKhaz in Delhi. There were many Madrasahs
in small and big, rural and urban areas. However, the important scholars were only in the madrasah
of important centers.
The grants, which were given to ulama in the form of Madad-e-Ma'ash (financial support) lead to
the foundation of many madrasahs. The education was given in Sufi centers also. This trend of
education continued during the Khilji Dynasty. Though Alauddin himself was uneducated and it
was proved as a threat to the future of his dynasty. However, Delhi continued to project as an
important center of knowledge, scholars and writers. Due to the influence of Hz. Nizamuddin,
there was demand for religious and mystic teachers as well.
The minister of AlauddinKhilji, Shamsul Malik patronized the knowledge. During this period there
was a tremendous progress in fiqh, theology, lexicography and exegetic writing during this period.
E
The study of Greco-Arab medicine was also given special attention. The most important physician
of this period was BadruddinDimashqi and Juwaini.
OR
Sultan SikandarLodhi brought some changes in the system of education. Apart from religious
educations, rational educations were also included. Under him the progress of philosophy took
place. Thestudents used to copy themselves since the books were rare. Learnedmen from Arabia,
Persia and Central Asia were invited to take charge of education in India. The tendency that started
in the time of SikandarLodhi found its culmination in the reign of Akbar. Heintroduced reforms in
the curriculum of primary schools and included the logic, arithmetic, moral, mensuration, geometry,
SC
astronomy, agriculture, physiognomy, and public administration, in the course of study. In studying
Sanskrit, students ought to learn the Bayakaran, Niyai, Vedanta and Patanjal.
4. (b) "Although 'Urdu' as a language originated in North India but its actual development
could be seen in South India." Critically evaluate.
Historically, Urdu developed in the post-12th century period under the impact of the incoming
Muslims as a linguistic modus vivendi from the sub-regional apabhramshas of north-western India.
GS
Its first major folk poet is the great Persian master, Amir Khusrau (1253-1325), who is known to
have composed dohas (couplets) and riddles in the newly-formed speech, then called Hindavi.
Through the medieval time, this mixed speech was variously called by various speech sub-groups
as Hindavi, Zaban-e-Hind, Hindi, Zaban-e-Dehli, Rekhta, Gujari. Dakkhani, Zaban-e-Urdu-e-
Mualla, Zaban-e-Urdu, or just Urdu. There is evidence to establish that the name Hindustani was
in vogue in the late 11th century, which later became synonymous with Urdu. Literally, the word
Urdu (originally Turkish) means camp, or the royal camp. It also stood for the city of Delhi which
was the seat of the Mughals for centuries. Nonetheless, major Urdu writers kept referring to their
speech as Hindi, or Hindavi till as late as the beginning of the 19th century:
Urdu literature made its beginning away from Delhi, in Deccan, in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.
As the Mughal rulers in the north generally patronised Persian, court patronage came to the new
speech in South India, i.e., Golkunda (present Hyderabad) and Bijapur, where for literary pursuits
the new speech was used in the first place by the Sufi saints and folk poets. Hence the name Dakkhani.
The earliest work extant is a verse narrative, Kadam Rao Padam Rao by Nizami (1421-1434). Sabras,
an allegorical tale by Wajhi (d.1635) is considered the first prose classic. The major Dakkhani poets
include Mohammad QuliQutb Shah (d.1626), Gawwasi (d.1631), Nusrati (d.1674), Ibn-e-Nishati
(d.1655) and WaliAurangabadi (d. 1707). Inspired by Wali's example, the Delhi poets adopted their
speech for poetry, considering it as elegant for poetic creation as Persian. This virtually proved the
turning of the tide in favour of Urdu.
Hints: History [9]
4. (c) "Sufism became very popular in a short span during Sultanate period and put many
influences on Indian society." Discuss.
Sufism: Concept, Order and Impact of Sufi Movement!
The most remarkable feature of medieval period in Indian History was the emergence of an intellectual
current leading to the rise and growth of various religious orders, sects and schools of thought in
Islam and Hinduism.
The objective parameters which underlie these movements had stirred the souls of Indians across
the country with a reforming zeal who made an attempt to introduce philosophical, spiritual content
into the religious practices followed by them.
Accordingly, Islam witnessed the intellectual reformation process in the form of Sufism, which
influenced Hinduism also. One common cause of both Hindu and Muslim movements and
interpretations was the reaction against the priestly domination and obsession with rituals in both
the religions.
E
Sufism: Concept and Orders:
Some described Sufism as a complex phenomenon; it is like a stream, which gathers volume by the
joining of tributaries from many lands. Its original source is the Quran and the life of Prophet
OR
Muhammad. It is essentially a religion of love without a creed or dogma. There is a controversy
amongst scholars regarding the origin of Sufism.
There is a view that Sufism was born in the bosom of Islam and the foreign ideas and practices
exercised no influence on it. The other assertion is that Sufism was profoundly influenced by Hindu
thought, beliefs, and practices. The concept of loving God and the relations between God and soul
SC
as one of the beloved and the lover are peculiar to Hinduism and were adopted by Sufis in India.
The pacifism and non-violence, which were imbibed by the Sufis, were peculiar to Hinduism,
Buddhism, and Jainism. Some of the ascetic practices involving starvation and torturing of the body
were borrowed from the Hindu and Buddhist practices.
The asceticism of the early Sufis gave birth to the regular movement of Tasawwuf aiming at the
loving devotion to God and a discipline of the individual soul. The man who played a decisive role
GS
in the history of Sufism was a Persian, BayazidBustami, who gave a definite turn to the movement
by introducing the element of ecstasy and the mystic doctrine of the immanence of God.
Sufi Movement: Impact:
The movements of this period (Shattari, Raushaniyah, and Mahdhawi) emphasized the spirit of
religion rather than its form, and drew their inspiration from the Islamic philosophy of the day.
That way Sufism was essentially a faith, or rather an intellectual and emotional reserve for
philosophers, authors, and mystics free from bigotry.
The eastern variety of Sufism is mainly an offshoot of the vedanta philosophy of the Hindus and it
spread rapidly during the time of Akbar. In short, the Sufi philosophy tended to bring the ruling
race and the subject people closer together. Such doctrines were attacked by orthodox followers of
Islam and the Sufis were regarded as heretics.
This led to their becoming secretive and aloof and living in seclusion. Their language became highly
symbolic and esoteric. The Sufis in India dissociated themselves from the established centers of
orthodoxy often as a protest against what they believed to be a misinterpretation of the Quran by
the Ulema. They believed that the latter, by combining religion with political policy and cooperating
with the Sultanate, were deviating from the original democratic and egalitarian principles of the
Quran.
[10] Hints: History
The Ulema denounced the Sufis for their liberal ideas and the Sufis accused the Ulema of having
succumbed to temporal temptations. The Islamic stress on equality was respected by the Sufis more
than by the Ulema, and this brought the mystic orders into contact with the artisans and cultivators.
Thus, the Sufis became more effective religious leaders than the distant Ulemas for the peasants.
The Sufi often reflected the non-conformist elements in society, and on occasions even the rationalist
forces. Nizam-ud-din Aulia, for instance, followed an inquiry on the laws of movement, which
displayed a remarkable degree of empirical thought.
5. (a) Discuss the stratification in the medieval rural society during the Mughal rule in India.
The medieval rural society was highly stratified. This stratification was the result of many factors a)
Resource base -availability of seeds, oxen, agricultural implements, Persian wheel, wells for irrigation,
etc.; and b) Caste also intensified the stratification - the higher castes were assessed at lower rates
and lower castes had to pay revenue at much higher rate; c) nature and pattern of crops produced
further intensified the gulf - those who could produce cash crops would be better placed than those
cultivating food crops. The differentiation further deepens on the basis of those who reaped one
crop a year and those growing more than 4-5 crops. Referring to the khasra-jamabandidocuments
E
(AD 1776) of parganaChatsu (eastern Rajasthan) S.P. Gupta highlights that out of the 36 cultivators
16 cultivated one crop only, the next 11 cultivated 2-4 crops; while 9 cultivated more than 5 crops.
Out of these nine cultivators two were patels(village headmen). The khasra documents (AD 1791)
OR
of qasbaSoabdaspur, parganaSawaiJaipur also show the same trend where 6-9 crops were produced
by 6 patels. Irfan Habib argues that the peasants cultivating more crops 'usually cultivated larger
areas of land'.
Irfan Habib states that the claims on individual property 'gave rise to condition of social hierarchy'
in the medieval period. He adds that, 'the retrogressive nature of the land tax was also likely to
SC
assist the process of differentiation...' While commercialization on the one hand resulted in
intensification of social stratification, on the other hand it led to increase in cash flow and thus
added prosperity. According to Satish Chandra monetisation, cash nexus and natural calamities
'accentuated the process of social segmentation'. But Chetan Singh thinks that it definitely benefited
the prosperty of the 'small peasants' in the Punjab region. For him 'social stratification was greater
in the more developed region… Such change was more noticeable at the level of intermediary
zamindars'. As a result of commercialisation of agriculture at Bayana, chief centre of indigo
GS
production, many rich merchants involved themselves in its production thus turned into farmers.
5. (b) Draw a picture of development in painting throughout the Mughal period with special
reference to European contribution.
Background
The Mughal school of painting has steadily gained recognition as a distinctive style of painting
which had a rich tradition to fall back upon, and which reached full maturity during the seventeenth
century. It created a living tradition of painting which continued in different forms in different
parts of the country long after the glory of the Mughals had disappeared.
Paintings are referred to in some of the Sanskrit literary works, and the murals of Ajanta are an
eloquent testimony to the richness of the pictorial tradition in ancient India. Although the tradition
decayed from the 8th century, that it had not died is shown in some of the illustrated Jain palm -leaf
works.
A new phase was reached with the introduction of paper in the 13th century. The painter found
more freedom in his choice of colours and more working space at his disposal. The miniatures,
therefore, began to show "signs of improvement in colouring, composition, delineation and decoration
detail." The change was slow and hesitant. Gujarat and Malwa appear to be the two regions where
such improvements took place.
Hints: History [11]
We have no illustrated manuscripts of the Sultanat period, although Amir Khusrau tells us that the
art of painting was practised among the ruling classes. Firuz had the wall paintings in his palace
erased.
Meanwhile, a rich tradition of painting was developing at Shiraz in Persia. This school was
influenced by the Chinese style of painting. During the fifteenth century when the provincial
kingdoms of Gujarat, Malwa and Jaunpur emerged as patrons of the fine arts and literature, painters,
littérateurs etc. moved from Shiraz to these kingdoms. Thus, the earliest contact between the Persian
and the West Indian style of painting took place during the fifteenth century. The best example of
this is the Niamat Nama or Cookery Book, illustrated at Mandu in which Indian rounded body
contours are displayed against a background of Persian formalized leaves and vegetation.
Painting in the Fifteenth Century:
Until recently it was believed that the art of painting did not flourish during the rule of the Delhi
Sultans and that the illuminated manuscripts of the Mughals were, in fact a revival of painting
after a lapse of several centuries from the end of the tenth. Lately, however, enough evidence has
E
come to light suggesting the existence of:
• A lively tradition of murals and painted cloth during the 13th and 14th centuries;
OR
• A simultaneous tradition of the Quranic calligraphy, lasting upto the end of the 14th century,
and
• A tradition of illustrated Persian and Awadhi manuscripts, originating probably at the
beginning of the 15th century.
Of this last tradition, a notable number of illustrated manuscripts from the period between the 15th
SC
and 16th century have become known. Some of these works were commissioned by independent
pawns in the Sultanate located outside the court. From the former category mention may be made
of:
a) theBostan of S'adi, illustrated by the artist Hajji Mahmud, and
b) Ni'mat Nama (a book on cookery)
GS
c) Miftah al Fuzala by Muhammed Shadiiadi

These manuscripts were illustrated at Mandu (Malwa) during the second half of the fifteenth century.
A fine example of the latter category is the illustrated manuscript of Laur Chanda (in Awadhi)
executed for a patron seemingly not related with the court.
It is, thus, evident that at the time of the advent of the Mughals in India there did exist a live
tradition of painting focused mainly on illuminating manuscripts, made possible by the use of paper
as the new material.
Mughal school of painting
Babur, the founder of Mughal rule in India (in 1526), ruled for four years only. He was not able to
contribute anything to the growth of painting. His successor Humayun was mostly engaged in
containing his rivals till he was forced out of India by Sher Shah in 1540. It was, however, during
his refuge at the court of ShabTahmasp of Persia that Humayun acquired love of the art of painting.
Humayun was so influenced by the art practised there that he commissioned Mir Syed Ali and
KhwajaAbdusSamad, two Persian masters, to illustrate manuscripts for him. These two painters
(first joined him in Afghanistan) joined Humayun's entourage on his triumphant return to India.
Humayun's contribution to the evolution of Mughal painting is very important. There are several
important features of the Mughal school which seem to have originated in the paintings done
[12] Hints: History
during Humayun's period. An important painting from Humayun's period is titled 'Princes of the
House of Timur' and dated c. 1550. It has been executed on cloth, quite large in size, measuring
approximately 1.15m. square. Such a large format is unusual even for paintings in Persia, and it has
been suggested that it probably relates to the Mongol tradition of having paintings in their tents.
The Persian master artists AbdusSamad and Mir Sayid Ali, who had accompanied Humayun to
India, were in charge of the imperial atelier during the early formative stages of Mughal painting,
but large numbers of artists worked on large commissions, the majority of them apparently Hindu.
Mughal painting flourished during the late 16th and early 17th centuries with spectacular works of
art by master artists such as Basawan, Lal, Miskin, Kesu Das, and Daswanth.
Under Akbar
The emergence of the Mughal School of painting as distinct from all otha styles was mainly due to
the deep intercst Akbar took in the promotion of this art.
The first major project undertaken during Akbar's regime was that of illustrating the Hamza Nama.
In about 1567, Akbar ordered the preparation of a lavishly illustrated manuscript of the Persian
E
translation of the Hamza Nama a celebrated Arab epic about a legendary Hamza. Under Saiyid Ali
and AbdusSamad, a group of roughly one hundred painters drawn from Gwaliyar, Gujarat, Lahore,
OR
Kashmir, Malwa etc. were collected. It took fifteen years to complete the work, and one thousand
and four hundred pages of illustrations were made. This proved to be a training period for many
Indian painters.
The illustration of many other manuscripts was also taken up during this period. Thus, Anwar
Suhaili, epics such as Mahabharata and Ramayana, history books such as Chingiz Nama, Akbar
Nama etc. were illustrated. Unfortunately, many of them have been destroyed, or scattered over
SC
many European libraries. This has made the study of the Mughal paintings a difficult task.
The illuminated manuscript Khamsa of Nizami is a lavishly illustrated manuscript of the Khamsa
or "five poems" of NizamiGanjavi, a 12th-century Persian poet, which was created for the Mughal
Emperor Akbar in the early 1590s by a number of artists and a single scribe working at the Mughal
court, very probably in Akbar's new capital of Lahore.
Some of the orthodox thinkers of the time objected to the art of painting as being un-Islamic. AbulFazl
GS
answers their objection by arguing that painting made the painter and others recognize God because
while sketching anything which had life they realized that God alone could provide individuality
to them.
Establishment of Royal Atelier
Akbar was very fond of painting and during his reign, painting was organized as an Imperial
establishment or karkhana called TasvirKhana where the painters worked. AbulFazl says: "His
Majesty from his earliest youth, has shown a great predilection for this art, and gives it every
encouragement."
Although AbulFazal enumerates the names of only seventeen artists (thirteen were Hindus), we
now know that the number was very large. S.P. Verma has prepared a list of 225 artists who
worked at Akbar's atelier. These artists belonged to different places, but among them the majority
were Hindus. Interestingly, several low caste people, due primarily to their artistic skill, were also
raised to the status of royal artist. The case of Daswant, who was the son of a Kahar (palki-bearer),
may be especially cited. The painters were assisted by a set of gilders, linedrawers and pagers.
Govardhan was a noted painter during the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Farrukh Beg
(1545- 1615) was a Persian born Mughal painter who served in the court of Mirza Muhammad
Hakim before working for Mughal Emperor Akbar and Jahangir. His most noted work was under
the Mughal emperor Jahangir called as the Gulshan Album.
Hints: History [13]
The painters were given monthly salaries, and the Emperor gave them further rewards on the basis
of their works which were laid before him regularly. Commodities needed by the painters were
provided to them. SP. Verma opines that the lowest paid worker in the atelier received an amount
between 600 to 1200 dams. (40 dams = one rupaya).
There are paintings which bear the names of two artists. Sometimes even three artists worked on a
single painting. On one painting from Akbarnama, four artists have worked. The painting was
thus a collaborative team work. The sketching of figures and colouring were done by a team of two
different artists. In cases where three artists have worked the outlining was done by one artist, the
other artist coloured the faces and a third one coloured the remaining figure. It is however not
known to us as to how was such a complex management worked out. Probably in such a team
work the sketching and colouring were done by separate artists.
The atelier was supervised by daroghas with the assistance of clerks. They were responsible for
making materials of painting easily available to the artists and to oversee the progress of their work.
They also arranged for periodical presentation of the artists' works before the Emperor.
E
Style and Technique
The illustration done at Akbar's court are considered as representative works of the Mughal art.
OR
Notably, however, in these paintings, there is evident of a gradual evolution in the style and
technique. The illustrations of the early phase are clearly influenced by the Persian tradition, the
identifying features of which are listed below:
• Symmetrical compositions;
• Restricted movement of figures;
SC
• Fineness of the lines of drawings;

• Flat depiction of architectural columns; and
• Profuse embellishment of buildings in the manner of jewels.
Later, the paintings acquired a distinctive character of their own. They assumed a more eclectic
character composed mainly of the Persian and Indian traditions with touches of European influence.
GS
Distinctive Features
The Mughal style became recognisable within a span of fifteen years since the setting up of royal
atelier under Akbar. In the next decade or so, i.e. by about 1590 it acquired a distinctive form which
was marked by:
• Naturalism and rhythm
• Clothing objects of daily use assuming Indian forms
• Picture space having subsidiary scenes set in background
• Extraordinary vigour of action and violent movement
• Fuxuriant depiction of foliage & brilliant blossoms
It should be emphasized here that the identity of the Mughal paintings under Akbar was as much
made of an original style as a fusion of the Persian and Indian traditions. Specific mention may be
made here of the depiction of action and movement which is not to be found in either the pre-
Mughal art of India or the art of Persia.
[14] Hints: History
Painting under Akbar's period distinguishes itself as a tradition from Persian painting as well as
from Indian styles particularly by the presence of historical subject matter. The two most commonly
used themes are:
• Daily events of the court, and
• Portraits of leading personalities.
While portrait painting was known in Persia, painting as a chronicle of actual events was certainly
a new emphasis. Painters used familiar forms for hunting or battle scenes regardless of the fact that
the literary reference for the scene was historical or purely imaginary.
Moreover specific events illustrated are frequently reworkings of scenes 'recording' quite different
events in the earliest known historical manuscript of this period, the Timur Nama of about 1580
AD. Possibly, painters conceived scenes according to a repertoire of types e.g. the seize of a fortress,
crossing a river, an audience or battle scene. In the working of whole volumes such as the Akbar
Nama, the artists seem to have reworked or adapted these compositional types. Painters usually
created new compositions only when no prototypes existed, and only a few artists were capable of
E
such invention.
Other features OR
The painters covered a vast field. Their themes included war, hunting scenes, mythical beings,
building activities etc. Portrait painting was another favourite theme. Akbar ordered to have the
likeliness taken of all the grandees of the realm. He also sat for his portrait. According to AbulFazl,
Basawan was excellent in drawing of features, portrait painting and several other branches.
However, there was little scope for specialization: two or even three painters could be used to
SC
complete a picture. If one drew the outline, another would fill in the colours, and a third complete
the face. The person who drew the outline might be asked to colour the next one, and the one who
drew the face draw the outline. Later, Jahangir claimed that he could distinguish which painter
had drawn the outline, and who had filled in the colours or drawn the face.
Despite the composite nature of many of the pictures, differences of style did emerge. Overall, the
Akbari period not only established painting firmly, it freed itself from the Persian rigidity of form by
GS
introducing the plastic roundness of Indian painting in order to give a three dimensional effect in
place of the flat, two dimensional effect.
Indian trees and flowers, Indian buildings etc. were also introduced in the pictures.
Indian colours, such as peacock blue, the Indian red etc. also began to be used. Attempts were
made to improve the mixture of colours.
Under Akbar, European painting was introduced at the court by the Portuguese priests. AbulFazl
praises the skill of the European style of painting. Under its influence, the principles of fore-shortening
whereby near and distant people and things could be placed in perspective was adopted. However,
Indian painters never fully mastered the art of perspective. Distant objects are often shown in a
vertical manner rather than foreshortened as necessary. The earlier bird's eye-view perspective
whereby action at different levels could be shown in the same picture was replaced by circular
effect.
Under Jahangir
Mughal painting reached a climax under Jahangir who had a very discriminating eye. Jahangir
took a deep interest in painting even as a prince. He maintained his own studio apart from Akbar's
large atelier. Jahangir's preference was for paintings of hunting scenes, birds and flowers. He also
continued the tradition of portraiture.
Hints: History [15]
Jahangir was a keen naturist. Whenever he came am a strange animal or bird, his artists painted
the same immediately. We have paintings of birds and animals in the most realistic fashion.
Apart from painting hunting, battle and court scenes, under Jahangir special progress was made in
portrait painting and paintings of animals, flowers, etc. Ustad Mansur was the great name in this
field.
Introduction of New Styles
In the period of Jahangir's rule (1605-27), manuscripts became less important than individual
pictures. Jahangir, with his personal involvement, may have functioned effectively as head of the
royal studio. Therefore, artistic decisions were made by the Emperor himself consequently introducing
his own stylistic preferences in the printings.
Brushwork became finer and the colors lighter.
Jahangir was also deeply influenced by European painting. During his reign he came into direct
contact with the English Crown and was sent gifts of oil paintings, which included portraits of the
King and Queen. He encouraged his royal atelier to take up the single point perspective favoured
E
by European artists, unlike the flattened multi-layered style used in traditional miniatures.
He particularly encouraged paintings depicting events of his own life, individual portraits, and
OR
studies of birds, flowers and animals.The Jahangirnama, written during his lifetime, which is an
autobiographical account of Jahangir's reign, has several paintings
Two important new elements in the style of Mughal painting during the first half of the seventeenth
century have been identified as below:
• Jahangir's paintings seem to accentuate a formalist style, i.e., making the work realistic and
SC
preferring the precise recording of contemporary reality.

• The paintings of this period have broad margins which are gorgeously decorated with the
depiction of flora and faces of human figures, etc. designs from plant motifs.
Despite very lively studies of animals and birds, the Mughal painters had little interest in the study
of nature independently. However, trees, birds, streams of water, hillocks often formed the
GS
background of many hunting and war scenes. A special feature was the tonal and rounded effect
of the tree trunks.
Under Shah Jahan
Painting continued to be patronized by Shah Jahan, but he lacked Jahangir's aesthetic sense in this
field. Hence, there is a profusion of court scenes and a lavish use of gold. The colours of the paintings
became more decorative and gold was more frequently used for embellishment.
Shah Jahan was a great patron of architecture, but he did not neglect the painting. Under him, the
previous tradition of doing portraits, preparing albums, and, illustrating books, was continued.
Additionally we find the paintings depicting charming love scenes and portraits of female members.
Another important theme chosen for painting was super imposition of animals and the scenes of
performing acrobats.
Aurangzeb and later Mughals
Aurangzeb, who succeeded Shahjahan, had begun his rule on a bitter note by executing his brothers
and imprisoning his father. The arts were ignored during his regime. Painting did not stop altogether,
though it list the patronage of the Emperor and became confined to the studios of the nobles. There
exist some commissioned portraits of the nobles and their relations from the courts of the Rajput
principalities. Large number of karkhana records (on paintings) are located in the Rajasthan State
[16] Hints: History
Archives, Bikaner. There also exist a few interesting pictures of the emperor himself during his
campaigns. The skill of the painters is evident, though the paintings are more formal and seem to
have lost their earlier liveliness.
Aurangzeb's lack of interest in painting led to a dispersal of the artists to different places of the
country. This helped in the development of painting in the states of Rajasthana and the Punjab
hills. During the first half of the 18th century, many Mughal-trained artists left the imperial workshop
to work at Rajput courts. These include artists such as Bhawanidas and his son Dalchand.
A brief revival was noticed during the reign of Muhammad Shah 'Rangeela' (1719-48), when interest
got renewed in depicting pleasure loving scenes. By the time of Shah Alam II (1759-1806), the art of
Mughal painting had lost its glory. By that time, other schools of Indian painting had developed,
including, in the royal courts of the Rajput kingdoms of Rajputana, Rajput painting and in the
cities ruled by the British East India Company, the Company style under Western influence.
European Impact on Mughal Painting
In its later phases, especially during the Seventeenth Century, the Mughal painting was influenced
E
by the European art. Some of the themes of European art were incorporated by Mughal painters
and they also adopted a few of the techniques of European artists. According to A.J. Qaisar, a large
number of European paintings were either copied or adapted or even reinterpreted, sometimes, by
OR
Mughal painters. At the same time many original prints from Europe were collected and preserved
in the albums of Jahangir, Dara Shikoh and several Mugbal nobles.
The contact Mughal court painters had with European paintings prompted them initially to make
exact copies in their own hands. Such imitations, as noted by contemporary European travellers,
were impeccably done. But Mughal painters also made experiments by making new paintings on
SC
the subjects chosen from European paintings.

• One important feature that becomes noticeable in some Mughal paintings is the attempt to
make them three dimensional. Clearly it speaks of the impact of European technique.
• Another European convention acceptable to Mughal painters was the effect of light and
shade, mostly utilized in fight scenes.
GS
• The depiction of motifs like 'hals', winged angles and roaring clouds in Mughal paintings
was again under the influence of European paintings.
• Jahangir encouraged his royal atelier to take up the single point perspective favoured by
European artists, unlike the flattened multi-layered style used in traditional miniatures.
• One important technique that of oil painting from Europe, somewhat did not attract the
Mughals. There is no work from this period that was executed in oil.
5. (c) Huge, strong and expensive buildings of Mughals were nothing but one of the means
to get the legitimacy in India. Analyse.
• Architecture provides an insight into the system of structural thought used by a society to
conceptualize their world
• Rulers use architecture as a means to represent their rule and demonstrate their power over
the people they rule. In doing so, they embody the nature of their rule in plans of building
and cities.
• It also depicts their power to mobilize the resources in the state.
• These plans are thus visual statements of their ideology of power.
Hints: History [17]
• Such architecturally based structural thought includes an understanding of social and political
relationships.
• Interestingly, a pattern exists wherein axial building and cities are created by authoritarian
powers concentrated in a single ruling figure, which can be contrasted to a non-axial pattern
in more egalitarian societies. Axial building and city plans are consistently related to power
from high, divine or lineage based power, which dominates the community
• For example, architecture played a crucial role in Mughal dynasty in medieval India
• It provided the empire a means to assert power over the people and transcend time as ruler
• The Mughal architecture epitomized a certain political and cultural ideology.
• The mosques, palaces and garden served as symbol of Mughal presence and authority and
highlighted the social and cultural hegemony established by Mughals.
• For example, the use of white marble in the construction of buildings was meant to emphasize
emotions, since white signifies piety.
E
OR
SC

GS
[18] Hints: History

History Test-4

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

History Test-4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Download All PDF form here :- https://t.

History Test Series 2018

6. A late Harappan site

10. An Inscription site

11. A Paleolithic site

12. A Chalcolithic site

13. A Buddhist centre

14. A trade centre in Ancient India

15. An ancient capital

16. An Early Harappan site

17. A Temple site

18. An ancient capital

19. A political and cultural center

20. An ancient town

2. Critically examine the following statements in about 150 words:

(a) Evaluate the contribution of Hasan Nizami'sTajulMa'asiras a source of Medieval Indian

(e) Evaluate the importance of malfulzatliterature as a source of Medieval Indian history.

History Test Series 2018

• There are FIVE questions, printed in ENGLISH.

• Candidate has to attempt all the FIVE questions.

• The number of marks carried by a question/part is indicated against it.

• Word limit in questions, wherever specified, should be adhered to.

6. A late Harappan site

10. An Inscription site

11. A Paleolithic site

12. A Chalcolithic site

13. A Buddhist centre

14. A trade centre in Ancient India

15. An ancient capital

16. An Early Harappan site

17. A Temple site

18. An ancient capital

19. A political and cultural center

20. An ancient town

(e) Evaluate the importance of malfulzatliterature as a source of Medieval Indian history.

History Test Series 2018

8. An capital city - Purushpur

12. A Chalcolithic site - Malwa

Hints: History [5]

Hints: History [9]

Hints: History [11]

c) Miftah al Fuzala by Muhammed Shadiiadi

• Fineness of the lines of drawings;

[14] Hints: History

preferring the precise recording of contemporary reality.

the subjects chosen from European paintings.

Hints: History [17]

[18] Hints: History

You might also like