PROCESS CONTROL - is the ability to monitor and adjust a process to give a desired output.

It is used in
industry to maintain quality and improve performance. An example of a simple process
that is controlled is keeping the temperature of a room at a certain temperature using a
heater and a thermostat.

SYSTEMS – refers to a set of components that are connected to form and act as an entire unit.
INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM – is collection of instruments used to measure, monitor, and
control a process.

CONCEPTS OF FEDDBACK AND INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM:

Instrumentation System:
There are many applications of instrumentation systems, within technological areas as large as
those associated with communications, defense, transportation, education, industrial
manufacturing and research and development, and chemical and other process industries.
Developing and building instrumentation systems involves numerous scientific and technical
disciplines, such as electronic, electrical, control, mechanical, chemical, metallurgical, and
industrial engineering. In recent years many factors—such as the development of advanced
mathematical theories, improvements in information and communication systems, and
developments in sensors, measurement technology, computers, digital systems, Internet
technology, and human–machine interactions— have made the widespread application of
instrumentation systems possible. Instrumentation systems have become the main cutting edge
of technology, leading to higher productivity and thus becoming a major factor in deciding the
competitiveness or survival of many businesses.
Modern instruments and instrumentation systems are largely based on digital technology. Digital
instruments are developed by using dedicated ICs, microcontrollers and microprocessors that
give them flexibility in information handling, networking and data communications. In
manufacturing industry, processing plants, control and automation, and in other industrial
applications, many instruments are used together to form very large instrumentation systems.
These large systems can only be handled by a computer, or a number of computers. This article
discusses microprocessor- and computer-based instrumentation systems. Therefore, a large
proportion is dedicated to the basic principles of digital systems and digital process controllers.
Many examples are given.

Today, many advanced instrumentation systems are available, mainly directed at improving the
productivity of industry and product quality. In many applications, instrumentation systems are
custom-designed to meet specific process requirements. At the same time, instrumentation
systems may have high initial costs, and in some cases they may lead to a loss of flexibility in
production. Since the mid-1980s, many large firms have invested heavily in the procurement of
hardware and software, creating extensive demand and accelerating research and development
related to instrumentation and instrumentation systems. Furthermore, publicly-funded
programs such as the Automated Manufacturing Research Facility (AMRF) have led to
collaboration between industry and government. As a result, these efforts have shifted
instrumentation systems from the stage of being general concepts to widespread
implementation. Although instrumentation systems can be used in any continuous process, they
may largely be categorized into two main divisions: process instrumentation and automation.
Advances in computing have played a major role in the development and implementation of
these systems. In industry, computers form the core of direct digital control (DDC), supervisory
control, distributed control systems (DCS), hybrid control systems, and supervisory control and
data acquisition (SCADA), as well as simple systems such as single-loop controllers. SCADA, for
example, allows reliable communication between devices located in remote sites using
communication techniques such as microwave signal transmission and telemetry.
Instrumentation systems constitute the heart of many operation systems, such as remote aircraft
and satellite control, automated vehicle and transport systems, and fully-automated
manufacturing plants and processes. Advanced developments in instrumentation systems are
supported by many secondary concepts such as computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-
aided engineering (CAE). Automation is integrated with management concepts in the computer-
aided manufacturing (CAM), computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), just-in-time (JIT) type
inventory management, and flexible manufacturing systems (FMS).

Instrumentation systems are designed by taking the following factors into consideration:
• user requirements or specifications;
• functional design specifications;
• complete system design and structure;
• the test specification (for example, codes and integrated testing);
• the warranty, and other support such as training; and
• health and safety issues.

Instrumentation systems perform the following major functions:

• on-line mathematics, which establishes the monitoring and controlling process variables
that cannot be measured directly but may be computed from other measurable variables;
• determining set points, and setting limits for variables and signals representing variables;
• selecting variables, and performing programmed operations for control and decision-
making purposes; and
• logical and conditional moves. In the next section an overview of instruments will be
given. Further information can be obtained in the instruments and instrumentation
section of this encyclopedia.
https://www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c05/e6-39a-04-08.pdf

Feedback:

There are several techniques used for the process control system that are useful in the analysis and
design of the modern process control system. The feedback control system is a type used in this type of
control system. Feedback controls are widely used in modern automated systems. A feedback
control system consists of five basic components: (1) input, (2) process being controlled, (3)
output, (4) sensing elements, and (5) controller and actuating devices. These five components
are illustrated in Figure 1. The term closed-loop feedback control is often used to describe this
kind of system.

Feedback control system:

In the feedback, the output of the control system is measured and compared to the input
reference signal. The deviation (error) between the two is used by the controller that will send the
output so that the system error is zero.

A feedback system is one in which a sample of the output signal is taken and then sent to the input
to form an error signal that drives the system.

In a Feedback System, all or part of the output signal either positive or negative is fed back to the
input.

Feedback Systems process signals and as such are signal processors. The processing part of a
feedback system may be electrical or electronic, ranging from a very simple to a highly complex
circuit.
Why feedback control systems are used?

• The characteristics of the circuit, such as the gain and response of the system, can be
controlled with precision.
• Circuit characteristics can be made independent of operating conditions such as supply
voltages or temperature variations.
• The distortion of the signal due to the non-linear nature of the components used can be
considerably reduced.
• The frequency response, gain and bandwidth of a circuit or system can be easily controlled
within tight limits.

There are just two main types of feedback control namely: Negative Feedback and Positive
Feedback.

Positive feedback system:

Positive feedback control of the op-amp is achieved by applying a small part of the output voltage
signal at Vout back to the non-inverting ( + ) input terminal via the feedback resistor, RF.

If the input voltage Vin is positive, the operational amplifier amplifies this positive signal and the
output becomes more positive. Part of this output voltage is returned to the input by the feedback
network. Therefore, the input voltage becomes more positive, causing an even higher output
voltage and so on. Finally, the output saturates in its positive supply lane.

Negative feedback system

In a negative feedback control

system, the set point and output
values are subtracted from each
other since the feedback is out of
phase with the original input. The
effect of negative (or degenerative)
feedback is to reduce the gain.
If the input voltage Vin is positive, the operational amplifier amplifies this positive signal, but
because it is connected to the inverting input of the amplifier, the output becomes more
negative. Part of this output voltage is returned to the input by the feedback network of Rf.
Therefore, the input voltage is reduced by the negative feedback signal, which causes an even
smaller output voltage

Advantage of feedback control system:

• It is very simple technique that compensates for all disturbances

• The controller adjusts the controlled variable (affected by the disturbance) with the set
point
• The feedback control circuit does not worry about the disturbance that enters the
process

Disadvantage of feedback control system

• It does not take corrective measures until after the disturbance has altered the process
and generated an error signal.
• The feedback controllers continue changing its output until measurement and set point
are in agreement.

https://automationforum.co/basics-of-feedback-system/

Introduction:

There are two types of control systems namely Open Loop & Closed Loop system.
Open loop control systems are non-feedback control systems
Closed loop control systems are feedback control systems

Open Loop (Manual Control):

Figure shows what is called OPEN LOOP or MANUAL control. The process is temperature
control. The indicator is a thermometer. The correcting unit is the gas control valve. The
controller is the operator who uses his own judgement to keep the water temperature constant.

Manual control has its uses as it is cheap to install and maintain, and simple to
operate. However, it is very seldom used in industry because:
 • The operator must remain in position at all times.
• It cannot be used if the operator is placed in a dangerous area.
• The process changes faster than the operator can react.
• A mistake by the operator can have dangerous results.

These problems are avoided by using automatic control (closed loop). The job of the instrument
technician is to make sure that this type of control operates correctly.

Modern household appliances now use automatic control to make work easier. For example:-

• Refrigerators and water heaters use automatic temperature control.

• Washing machines use automatic heating and water control

Advantages Disadvantages
• simple • Inaccurate
• stable • unreliable
• easy construction • Remove the disturbances occurring
from external sources.

What are Open Loop & Closed Loop system

Open-loop controller
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses of "Open-loop", see Open-loop (disambiguation).

This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient
corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations.
(January 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

In an open-loop controller, also called a non-feedback controller, the control action from the
controller is independent of the "process output", which is the process variable that is being
controlled. It does not use feedback to determine if its output has achieved the desired goal of the
input command or process "set point".

There are many open-loop controls, such as on/off switching of valves, machinery, lights, motors
or heaters, where the control result is known to be approximately sufficient under normal
conditions without the need for feedback. The advantage of using open-loop control in these cases
is the reduction in component count and complexity. However, an open-loop system cannot
correct any errors that it makes or correct for outside disturbances, and cannot engage in machine
learning.

Contents

• 1 Open-loop and closed-loop (feedback) control

• 2 Applications
• 3 Feedback control
• 4 See also
• 5 References

Open-loop and closed-loop (feedback) control

An electromechanical timer, normally used for open-

loop control based purely on a timing sequence, with
no feedback from the process.

Fundamentally, there are two types of control loop: open-loop (feedforward) control, and closed
loop (feedback) control.

In open-loop control, the control action from the controller is independent of the "process output"
(or "controlled process variable"). A good example of this is a central heating boiler controlled only
by a timer, so that heat is applied for a constant time, regardless of the temperature of the
building. The control action is the switching on/off of the boiler, but the controlled variable should
be the building temperature, but is not as this is open-loop control of the boiler, which does not
give closed-loop control of the temperature.

In closed loop control, the control action from the controller is dependent on the process output.
In the case of the boiler analogy this would include a thermostat to monitor the building
temperature, and thereby feed back a signal to ensure the controller maintains the building at the
temperature set on the thermostat. A closed loop controller therefore has a feedback loop which
ensures the controller exerts a control action to give a process output the same as the "reference
input" or "set point". For this reason, closed loop controllers are also called feedback controllers.

The definition of a closed loop control system according to the British Standard Institution is "a
control system possessing monitoring feedback, the deviation signal formed as a result of this
feedback being used to control the action of a final control element in such a way as to tend to
reduce the deviation to zero.

Applications

Electric clothes dryer, which is open-loop

controlled by running the dryer for a set time,
regardless of clothes dryness.

An open-loop controller is often used in simple processes because of its simplicity and low cost,
especially in systems where feedback is not critical. A typical example would be an older model
domestic clothes dryer, for which the length of time is entirely dependent on the judgement of
the human operator, with no automatic feedback of the dryness of the clothes.

For example, an irrigation sprinkler system, programmed to turn on at set times could be an
example of an open-loop system if it does not measure soil moisture as a form of feedback. Even
if rain is pouring down on the lawn, the sprinkler system would activate on schedule, wasting
water.

Another example is a stepper motor used for control of position. Sending it a stream of electrical
pulses causes it to rotate by exactly that many steps, hence the name. If the motor was always
assumed to perform each movement correctly, without positional feedback, it would be open-
loop control. However, if there is a position encoder, or sensors to indicate the start or finish
positions, then that is closed-loop control, such as in many inkjet printers. The drawback of open-
loop control of steppers is that if the machine load is too high, or the motor attempts to move
too quickly, then steps may be skipped. The controller has no means of detecting this and so the
machine continues to run slightly out of adjustment until reset. For this reason, more complex
robots and machine tools instead use servomotors rather than stepper motors, which
incorporate encoders and closed-loop controllers.

However, open-loop control is very useful and economic for well-defined systems where the
relationship between input and the resultant state can be reliably modeled by a mathematical
formula. For example, determining the voltage to be fed to an electric motor that drives a
constant load, in order to achieve a desired speed would be a good application. But if the load
were not predictable and became excessive, the motor's speed might vary as a function of the
load not just the voltage, and an open-loop controller would be insufficient to ensure repeatable
control of the velocity.

An example of this is a conveyor system that is required to travel at a constant speed. For a
constant voltage, the conveyor will move at a different speed depending on the load on the
motor (represented here by the weight of objects on the conveyor). In order for the conveyor to
run at a constant speed, the voltage of the motor must be adjusted depending on the load. In
this case, a closed-loop control system would be necessary.

Thus there are many open-loop controls, such as switching valves, lights, motors or heaters on
and off, where the result is known to be approximately sufficient without the need for feedback.

Feedback control

A feed back control system, such as a PID (proportional-integral-derivative) controller, can be

improved by combining the feedback (or closed-loop) control of a PID controller with feed-
forward (or open-loop) control. Knowledge about the system (such as the desired acceleration
and inertia) can be fed forward and combined with the PID output to improve the overall system
performance. The feed-forward value alone can often provide the major portion of the controller
output. The PID controller primarily has to compensate whatever difference or error remains
between the setpoint (SP) and the system response to the open-loop control. Since the feed-
forward output is not affected by the process feedback, it can never cause the control system to
oscillate, thus improving the system response without affecting stability. Feed forward can be
based on the setpoint and on extra measured disturbances. Setpoint weighting is a simple form
of feed forward.

For example, in most motion control systems, in order to accelerate a mechanical load under
control, more force is required from the actuator. If a velocity loop PID controller is being used
to control the speed of the load and command the force being applied by the actuator, then it is
beneficial to take the desired instantaneous acceleration, scale that value appropriately and add
it to the output of the PID velocity loop controller. This means that whenever the load is being
accelerated or decelerated, a proportional amount of force is commanded from the actuator
regardless of the feedback value. The PID loop in this situation uses the feedback information to
change the combined output to reduce the remaining difference between the process setpoint
and the feedback value. Working together, the combined open-loop feed-forward controller and
closed-loop PID controller can provide a more responsive control system in some situation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-loop_controller

Closed Loop (Automatic Control)

Figure shows a simple automatic controller. The boiler now has the loop closed and no
operator is required. The following items are added.

• The temperature transmitter (T.T) which measures (senses) the temperature of the hot
water and changes it to a standard signal.
• A signal line from the transmitter to the controller, the signal may be either pneumatic
or electrical.
• A controller which keeps the temperature of the hot water at a position set by the
operator (set point)
• The controller adjusts the correcting unit (automatic control valve) using an output
signal line similar to the input line from the transmitter.
• The controller may provide alarm signals to alert the operator if the system fails. It may
also shut off the gas if the water starts to boil.

Advantages

• Accuracy
• Noise reduction ability

Disadvantages:

• complex construction
• reduces the overall gain of the system.
• less Stable than open loop
Types of Industrial Control Systems

Many industries have uses for different sorts of ICS electronic applications. Virtually all critical
infrastructure and areas of industrial production, water treatment, transportation, and power
management require some type of ICS, along with its associated procedures and devices.

Industrial Control Systems are organized into several classes by reference to their control action’s
relative complexity of the overall functions of the ICS. Common types of these control systems
that will be discussed further include:

• Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

• Distributed Control Systems (DCS)
• Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs)
• Supervisory control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
• Programmable Automation Controllers (PACs)
• Human-Machine Interface (HMI)
• Industrial Automation and Control Systems (IACS)
• Remote Terminal Units (RTUs)

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

PLCs are solid-state control systems with sturdy, robust construction and a suite of special
functionalities. Some of these functionalities include an intuitive programming interface, I/O
control, three modes (PID) control, arithmetic, counting and timing mechanisms and sequential
control.

PLCs are crafted to be highly resilient, capable of holding up to extreme weather conditions such
as very high and low temperatures, high humidity, electrical noises and strong vibrations. These
controllers are designed to monitor and manage large numbers of actuators and sensors, and
they stand out when compared to typical computer and processor systems due to their high
amount of I/O setups.

Applications of PLC include the following:

• Injection Molding Control System (IMCS) for plastics

• Corrugation Machine Control System
• Safety Control Systems in the travel industry
• Escalator and Lift Operation
• Ball milling, shaft kiln and coal kiln in the manufacture of cement
• Controls for processing flat glasses and glass material ratio in the glass industry
• Controls for the production of newspapers or book pages in the offset type of web printing
process
• Washing machines
 • Traffic signal control and operation

Distributed Control Systems

In a Distributed Control System (DCS), there are various control systems distributed in a way
that they can be individually controlled. Distributed Control Systems are systems of controllers,
sensors and specialized computers that are distributed through industrial plants. Each
component of the DCS has a unique function, such as graphical display, process control, data
acquisition and data storage. The DCS serves as the industrial plant’s “central brain,” with the
system’s elements communicating with each other through a centralized control computer
network, a type of local area network. The DCS can track industrial processes and make
automated, real-time decisions using the production matrices and trends that the system notes
throughout the entire plant.

DCS can be used in batch and continuous applications, and have the following applications:

• Chemical plants
• Sewage treatment plants
• Water treatment plants
• Nuclear power plants
• Mining
• Agricultural applications
• Boiler control systems
• Pulp, paper mills
• Quality Control Systems
• Automobile manufacturing
• Environmental control systems

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

The Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition is a computer system that processes and gathers
data and exercises operational controls over significant distances. SCADA systems were designed
to solve communication issues, particularly data integrity and delay issues stemming from the
various communication media.

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition systems are used in many applications, some of which
are:

• Pipeline systems
• Power transmission and distribution
 • Microwaves
• Satellites
• Phone lines

Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs)

Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) are electronic devices manufactured for many purposes in
the areas of communication, metering, power monitoring and controlling. IEDs are incorporated
into ICS structures to facilitate highly sophisticated power automation capabilities. They typically
are electronic components with microprocessors, such as a circuit controller and regulator
device. These electronic devices can communicate through several different protocols, such as
through real-time Ethernet or Fieldbus, a digital communication method. IEDs can be found in
many processes and industrial control systems such as DCS and SCADA.

There are many applications for Intelligent Electronic Devices, such as:

• Metallurgical process plants

• Environmental control instruments
• Pharmaceutical manufacturing
• Food and food processing
• Sewage treatment plants
• Quality control
• Automotive manufacturing
• Mining
• Water treatment plants
• Paper mills
• Agrochemical and fertilizer
• Sugar refining plants
• Petrochemical and refineries
• Water management

Programmable Automation Controllers (PACs)

Programmable Automation Controllers (PACs) enable systems to provide higher-level,

complicated instructions to various automated equipment. These types of controllers are well-
suited for a variety of industrial and infrastructure sectors and applications. PACs often have
more connectivity options and a wider capability of controlling systems than most PLC systems.
PACs have five main elements: one multi-discipline development platform; enterprise network
compatibility; adaptable software tools that improve process flow; multi-domain functionality;
and a modular, open architecture.

Applications of PACs include the following:

 • Vision systems (signal processing, data logging)
• Process control
• Motion systems
• Logic systems

Human-Machine Interface (HMI)

Human-Machine Interfaces (HMIs) are hardware and software-based means of communication

and information exchange between human operators and machines and/or computerized
systems. With an HMI, various device processes can be controlled, visualized and managed
through interactions between people and machines.

There are many applications of HMIs, including:

• Portable handheld devices

• Machine and process control for factory floors
• Various types of machines
• Digital signage
• Medical appliances
• Centralized control rooms
• Building and industrial automation
• Automotive appliances

Industrial Automation and Control Systems (IMACS)

Industrial Automation and Control Systems (IACS) are an assortment of solid-state,

electromechanical and mechanical devices that perform several control, monitoring and
actuation processes on many logic devices and intricate process-type systems. IACS can track
and control many processes through sensors on machines, smart devices and other software
and hardware that turns sensor information into different control outputs.

Applications of IACS include:

• Motor controls and accessories (AC and DC brakes, motor controllers, adjustable
speed and variable frequency drives)
• Autotransformers, reactors, transducers
• Process control systems
• Integrated manufacturing
• Various human-machine interface devices
• Machine logic control systems (PLCs, Process Controllers (PCs), DCS)
• System integration services
• Automotive
 • Transportation
• Facility management

Remote Terminal Units (RTUs)

A Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) is an industrial control system that is microprocessor-based.

RTUs electronically connect various kinds of hardware to other control systems such as SCADA
or DCS. These electronic units carry sensor data through input and output streams, which are
transmitted to a centralized ICS through a control loop. RTUs also manage connections to
remote or local controls, which is why they are known as remote units of telecontrol or remote
units of telemetry.

Some applications of RTUs are:

• Offshore platforms and oil wells

• Pipeline pump stations (water supply, wastewater collection)
• Outdoor warning sirens
• Natural gas networks and related equipment
• Air Traffic equipment (ILS, GP, DVOR)
• Environmental monitoring systems (emissions, pollution, air quality)

MECHANICAL, ELECTRONICS TRANSDUCERS AND INSTRUMENTATION

DEVICES:

TRANSDUCER- is an electronic device that converts energy from one form to another. Common
examples include microphones, loudspeakers, thermometers, position and pressure
sensors, and antenna.

A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. Usually a transducer
converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another.

Transducers are often employed at the boundaries of automation, measurement, and control
systems, where electrical signals are converted to and from other physical quantities (energy,
force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.). The process of converting one form of energy to
another is known as transduction.

TYPES:

Transducers that convert physical quantities into mechanical quantities are known as mechanical
transducers; transducers that convert physical quantities into electrical quantities are known as electrical
transducers. Examples are a thermocouple that changes temperature differences into a small voltage, or
a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) used to measure displacement.
Sensors and actuators:

Transducers can be categorized by which direction information passes through them:

• A sensor is a transducer that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus from a physical
system.[3][4][2] It produces a signal, which represents information about the system, which is used
by some type of telemetry, information or control system.
• An actuator is a device that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism or system. It is
controlled by a signal from a control system or manual control. It is operated by a source of
energy, which can be mechanical force, electrical current, hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic
pressure, and converts that energy into motion. An actuator is the mechanism by which a control
system acts upon an environment. The control system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or
electronic system), software-based (e.g. a printer driver, robot control system), a human, or any
other input.[2]
• Bidirectional transducers convert physical phenomena to electrical signals and also convert
electrical signals into physical phenomena. An example of an inherently bidirectional transducer
is an antenna, which can convert radio waves (electromagnetic waves) into an electrical signal to
be processed by a radio receiver, or translate an electrical signal from a transmitter into radio
waves. Another example is voice coils, which are used in loudspeakers to translate an electrical
audio signal into sound and in dynamic microphones to translate sound waves into an audio
signal.

Active vs passive sensors

• passive sensors require an external power source to operate, which is called an excitation signal.
The signal is modulated by the sensor to produce an output signal. For example, a thermistor does
not generate any electrical signal, but by passing an electric current through it, its resistance can
be measured by detecting variations in the current or voltage across the thermistor.[5][2]
• active sensors, in contrast, generate an electric current in response to an external stimulus which
serves as the output signal without the need of an additional energy source. Such examples are a
photodiode, and a piezoelectric sensor, thermocouple.[6]

Characteristics:

Some specifications that are used to rate transducers

• Dynamic range: This is the ratio between the largest amplitude signal and the smallest amplitude
signal the transducer can effectively translate.[2] Transducers with larger dynamic range are more
"sensitive" and precise.
• Repeatability: This is the ability of the transducer to produce an identical output when stimulated
by the same input.
• Noise: All transducers add some random noise to their output. In electrical transducers this may
be electrical noise due to thermal motion of charges in circuits. Noise corrupts small signals more
than large ones.
• Hysteresis: This is a property in which the output of the transducer depends not only on its current
input but its past input. For example, an actuator which uses a gear train may have some backlash,
 which means that if the direction of motion of the actuator reverses, there will be a dead zone
before the output of the actuator reverses, caused by play between the gear teeth.

Applications:

Transducers are used in electronic communications systems to convert signals of various physical forms
to electronic signals, and vice versa. In this example, the first transducer could be a microphone, and the
second transducer could be a speaker.

1. MOTION TRANSDUCERS

In motion control applications, transducers can refer to any one of a number of sensors
such as rotary or linear encoders for position feedback, sensors such as tachometers for
speed sensing, and even proximity switches to initiate or halt some machine action.

In applications using hydraulic motion control systems, pressure transducers are a key
part of the control. Particularly in applications where pressure changes quickly, the
pressure transducers need to respond quickly. Where pressure transducers are mounted
can make a big difference in response times. It’s best to mount transducers as close as
possible to the points of interest on the cylinder; the fluid flow is less turbulent in the
larger areas of the cylinder, and there are no propagation delays as would be caused if
pressure were measured in the tubing outside the cylinder.

Another common approach to measuring position in

a motion system are magnetostrictive linear
displacement transducers (MLDTs), which are
typically mounted in the cylinders. MLDTs are best
because they use moving magnets that don’t come
in contact with the sensor tube, avoiding
mechanical wear, and they provide an absolute
position readout, requiring no homing step before
beginning to work with the position information
from the MLDT. Advances in MLDT technology have
led to resolutions down to 1 μm, with fast signal
processing of up to 1.5 MHz.
There are a few key factors to consider when selecting any transducer including the desired
variable to be measured, the accuracy or resolution needed, the type of output, as well as
any size or space restrictions, environmental factors, and product lifetime and cost.

For instance, if measuring rotary position, an encoder may be the best choice. A linear
motion system may need a linear position transducer, so a rotary encoder may not be the
best solution. Next, how accurate does the position data need to be?

Environmental conditions are another important consideration. The sensor/transducer

should be able to withstand the environmental conditions of the application. Some of the
most common environmental conditions to watch out for are EMI/RFI noise, shock and
vibration disturbances, extreme heat or cold,

https://www.motioncontroltips.com/what-is-a-transducer/

A motion sensor (or motion detector) is an electronic device that is designed to detect and
measure movement. Motion sensors are used primarily in home and business security
systems, but they can also be found in phones, paper towel dispensers, game consoles, and
virtual reality systems. Unlike many other types of sensors (which can be handheld and
isolated), motion sensors are typically embedded systems with three major components: a
sensor unit, an embedded computer, and hardware (or the mechanical component). These
three parts vary in size and configuration, as motion sensors can be customized to perform
highly specific functions. For example, motion sensors can be used to activate floodlights,
trigger audible alarms, activate switches, and even alert the police.

There are two types of motion sensors: active motion sensors and passive motion
sensors. Active sensors have both a transmitter and a receiver. This type of sensor detects
motion by measuring changes in the amount of sound or radiation reflecting back into the
receiver. When an object interrupts or alters the sensor’s field, an electric pulse is sent to
the embedded computer, which in turn interacts with the mechanical component. The most
common type of active motion detector uses ultrasonic sensor technology; these motion
sensors emit sound waves to detect the presence of objects. There are also microwave
sensors (which emit microwave radiation), and tomographic sensors (which transmit and
receive radio waves).
 Active ultrasonic motion sensor. (https://ultrasonicsensor.wordpress.com/)

Unlike an active motion sensor, a passive motion sensor does not have a
transmitter. Instead of measuring a constant reflection, the sensor detects motion based
on a perceived increase of radiation in its environment. The most widely used type of
passive motion sensor in home security systems is the passive infrared (PIR) sensor. The
PIR sensor is designed to detect the infrared radiation emitted naturally from the human
body. The receiver is contained in a filter that only allows infrared to pass through it.
When a person walks into the PIR sensor’s field of detection, the difference in radiation
creates a positive charge within the receiver; this perceived change causes the sensing
unit to send electrical data to the embedded computer and hardware component.

https://www.fierceelectronics.com/sensors/what-a-motion-sensor

2. PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

The pressure transducer is used to measure the pressure of a specific quantity like gas or
liquid by changing the pressure into electrical energy. The different kinds of these
transducers like an amplified voltage transducer, strain-gage base pressure transducer,
millivolt (mv) pressure transducer, 4-20mA pressure transducer, and pressure transducer.

The applications of pressure transducer mainly involve altitude sensing, pressure sensing,
level or depth sensing, flow sensing, and leak testing. These transducers can be used for
generating electrical power under the speed breakers on the highways or roads where
the force of the vehicles can be converted into electrical energy.
3. TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCERS

A temperature transducer is an electrical device that is used to convert the temperature

of a device into another quantity like electrical energy or pressure or mechanical energy,
then the quantity will be sent to the control device for controlling the temperature of the
device.

Application of Temperature Transducer

A temperature transducer is used to measure the temperature of the air such that to
control the temperature of several control systems like air-conditioning, heating,
ventilation, and so on.

Arduino based automatic fan speed regulator controlling of temperature Block Diagram

Let us consider a practical example of a temperature transducer that is used to control

the temperature of any device based on the necessity for different industrial applications.
An Arduino based automatic fan speed regulator controlling temperature and exhibiting
a measure of temperature on an LCD display.

In the proposed system, IC LM35 is used as a temperature transducer. An Arduino board

is used to control the various functions that include analog to digital conversion and an
LCD display that is connected in the above fig.
 The temperature can be fixed by using settings like INC and DEC for increasing and
decreasing. Based on the temperature measured a pulse width modulation o/p will be
generated by the program of an Arduino board. The output of this is used to control the
DC fan through the motor driver IC.

4. LIGHT TRANSDUCERS

Light transducers are used in those places where it is

required to activate, for example, an artificial light source
or when daylight intensity decreases and a source of light
is necessary. Light transducers capture light intensity and
convert it into an electrical signal. They use a light beam
and convert it into a usable electric signal. This allows for
example a production room to maintain the same
brightness. This ensures that workplace conditions are
always equal. Light transducers allow a constant source of
light whenever this is needed, therefore, their usage is
very common in the industrial sector. In connection with
a data logger, the light transducers can store the values of
brightness over a long period of time, allowing for
example to determine the hours of sunlight, which can be
very useful in many situations. Light transducers are a
comfortable option to maintain and regulate a constant
source of light, a very useful resource in many cases,
especially in working environments

Light is one of the most important and meaningful phenomena for humans. The
transducers quantify light in one unit to make it possible for machines and electrical
installations to distinguish between light and dark environments. No matter whether it is
the control of awnings or blinds, or to determine the hours of daylight before building a
photovoltaic system, or if you just need a twilight switch, all these applications require a
light transducer. The conversion of light into an electrical signal may be done, for example
using photoresist (LDR = light dependent resistor) with the increase in electrical resistance
in low light. Additionally, you can use semiconductors in case of changes in the light level
that will cause variations in certain electrical properties. The electronics connected to the
sensors will have the task of linearizing the signal if it is necessary and turn it into a
standard signal.
https://www.industrial-needs.com/systems/light-transducers.htm
Note:
read also: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/io/io_4.html for additional information
about light sensor and your references in constructing a project.