Lecture Notes 1panel

11185
Linear Algebra Course 24
 Linear equation is the equation of a linear geometric object
(i.e. equation of a line, plane, etc.).
Example
2 3 6 : line equation
Example
2 3 6 : plane equation
 Usually in linear algebra, we use , , ⋯ instead of , , .
Definition
 A linear equation is an equation that can be written in the
form
⋯
 , ⋯, are the unknowns (or variables).
 ⋯ are the coefficient.
 is the right hand side constant.
 can be any positive integer.
Note All the variables appear to the first power.
Example 1
5 3 1
is a linear equation.
Example 2
2 5 3 8
is a linear equation since it can be rewritten as
3 3
Example 3
2 π 5
is a linear equation.
Example 4
2 1 3 0
is not a linear equation since it is equivalent to
6 2 3
which include the nonlinear term 2 .
Example 5
3
is not linear.
Example 6
0
is not linear.
Example 7
1 1 1
is linear. Why?
1 1
0 0
Note An equation is linear if it can be written in the form.
⋯
Questions
1. 4 5 2
2. 2 6 +
3. 5 2
4. 4 6
5. 2 7
Definition
 A system of linear equations (or linear system) is a collection
of one or more linear equations involving the same variables.
Example
3 2 4
5 1
is a linear system if we consider , , as variables. This is
a system with 2 equations in 3 unknowns.
Definition
 A solution of the system is a list , ⋯ , of numbers that
makes each equation a true statement when the values
, ⋯ , are substituted for , ⋯ , (in that order).
Example
3 2 4
5 1
 1,0,1 i.e. 1, 0, 1, is a solution of this system.
Example
3 2 4 ⇒ 3 1 2 0 1 4
5 1⇒ 5 0 1 1
1,0,1 substitution gives equality.
 1,1,3 i.e. 1, 1, 3, is not a solution since

substitution gives
3 2 4 ⇒ 3 1 2 1 3 4
5 1⇒ 5 1 3 8 1
Definition
 The solution set of a linear system is the set of all possible
solutions of the system.
Example 1
∶ 3
∶ 2 3 1
 The pair of numbers , satisfies
both equations iif it lies on both lines.
 The solution set consists of the single
solution 2,1 .
Example 2
∶ 2 2
∶ 2 0
 Lines are parallel and have no
points in common.
 The system has no solutions.
 The solution set is empty.
Example 3
∶ 2 2
∶2 4 4
 Two lines coincide (i.e. and
are the same line).
 Any point on the line is a solution.
 There are infinitely many
solutions!!
 We have 3 different types of solution sets.
Note
 A system of linear equations has either
 No Solution System is Inconsistent
 Exactly one solution
System is Consistent
 Infinitely many solutions
 This property is special to linear systems.
 The equation has exactly 2 solutions ( 2). It is not linear
because it does not correspond to one of 3 types above.
 In order to simplify calculations, we often encode the info of a
linear system in a matrix.
Example
 For the system, we have two matrices:
Coefficient matrix augmented matrix
 In our previous example:
Coefficient matrix augmented matrix
The coefficient matrix has size 3 4 and the augmented matrix has
size 3 5.
Definition
 A matrix has size if it has rows and columns.
 Sometimes the vertical bar in the augmented matrix is omitted.
 A system in which each equation involves only a single
variable, with coefficient 1.
Example
1
1
1
1
 We can just read off the solution!
 Getting a solution of a system = Changing a complex system into
an easy system like this.
 Let's solve a particular linear system by changing a complex
system into an easy system.
R1
R2
R3
 Let’s begin with in row 1 (R1).
 Our goal is to make coefficient of to be one and to remove
from rows below.
1
2
 No in row 2, so skip row 2.
 is in row 3, so remove it.
 Let’s consider in R2.
from other rows below.
 Let’s consider in R3.
from other rows below.
1
8
 Now the system is now in triangular form.
 Let’s consider in R3 again.
 Now our goal is to remove from other rows above.
3
 Let’s consider in R2 again.
 Our goal is to remove from other rows above.
2
 Now we reach to simplified form of the system.
 We can just read off the solution
 The unique solution is
 We should check that our solution is correct.
 Maybe we made some mistakes along the way.
 Substitute our solution(s) into the original system of equations!
Example
 In our example, we substitute into the system 1, 0, 2 in
the system.
 Let’s verify the answer.
 (29, 16, 3) is indeed a solution of the
original system?
 When solving linear systems, we will use three basic row
operations. We call this Elementary Row Operations.
Note
 Replacement: Replace one row by the sum of itself and a multiple
of another row.
 Interchange: Interchange two rows.
 Scale: Multiply all entries in a row by a nonzero constant.
Definition
 Two matrices are row equivalent if one can be obtained from the
other by a sequence of elementary row operations.
Example
 From our previous example,
Original
Simplified
are row equivalent since we obtained the second from the first via row
operations.
 All the row operations are reversible.
Example
 Replacement operation: Add cR1 to R2.
 Reverse: Add ‐cR1 to R2.
 Interchange operation: Interchange R2 and R3.
 Reverse: Interchange R2 and R3.
 Scale operation: Multiply R2 by c.
 Reverse: Multiply R2 by 1/c.
Example
 Replacement operation: Add cR1 to R2.
 Reverse: Add ‐cR1 to R2.
Theorem
 If the augmented matrices of two linear systems are row
equivalent, then the two systems have the same solution set.
 If a matrix A is obtained from a matrix B by row operations, then
any solution of the system A is a solution of the system B.
Note
 To get a solution of complex system A,
 Change complex system A to simple system B.
 Get a solution of system B that is easy to solve.
 This is possible because system A and B have the same solution.
Example
 These are three different systems, but they are row equivalent because
they have the same solution set (3,2).
 Determine if the following system is consistent (has either a
solution or infinite solutions):
 Solution: Let’s represent the system as an augmented matrix.
 We use row operations to make it to triangular form.
 Back to equation notation:
 Row 3 is never true.
 The system is no solution.
 The system is inconsistent.
 Find the point of intersection of the lines 2 13 and
3 2 1.
 Solve the following system using row operations.
3 8
2 2 9 7
5 2
 Determine if the following system are consistent.
2 4 10
3 3 0
4 1
3 2 3 5
 Take Home Message
 Definition of linear equations
 3 different type of solution sets
 How to build augmented matrix
 3 elementary row operations
 Next time
 We will develop a systematic procedure for solving systems of
equations.
 Our procedure will allow us to solve any system of equations.
11185
 Last class
 Linear equations
 Systems of linear equations (linear systems)
 Solution sets
 Matrices (coefficient matrix and augmented matrix)
 Today
 Develop a precise procedure for solving any system.
 We have considered some linear systems in two variables.
 If we plot the solutions to each equation individually, we get lines.
 Solutions to the system correspond to points on the intersection of the
lines.
Example
∶ 3
∶2 3 1
 The pair of numbers ( , )
satisfies both equations if it lies
on both lines.
 The solution set consists of the
singles solution (2, 1).
 If we plot the solutions to a single equation in three variables,
what do we get?
Example
 The solutions to each individual equation form a plane.
 The solutions to the system correspond to the points of
intersection of the planes.
 How can planes intersect?
 The three planes intersect at exactly one point
 The three planes intersect along a line → infinitely many solutions
 No point is common to all three planes → no solution
Exactly one point Infinitely many solutions No solution
Note
 Zero row or column: row or column with all entries equal to zero
 Nonzero row or column: row or column with at least one nonzero
entry
 Leading entry of a row: leftmost nonzero entry
Example
 A matrix is in echelon form if it satisfies the following 3 conditions:
Note
1. All nonzero rows are above all zero rows.
2. The leading entry of a nonzero row is to the right of the leading
entry of any row above it.
3. All entries in a column below a leading entry are zeros.
Example 1
In echelon form (EF)
Example 2
Not in echelon form
Example 3
Not in echelon form
Example 3
 Generally the matrix above is in echelon form (EF).
 A matrix in echelon form is called an echelon matrix.
 The word “echelon" means step‐like formation.
 A matrix is in reduced row echelon form if it satisfies the 3
echelon form conditions and 2 more conditions like:
Note
4. All leading entries are 1.
5. Each leading 1 is in the only nonzero entry in its column.
Example 1
In reduced row echelon form
(RREF)
Example 2
 Generally the matrix above is in reduced row echelon form (RREF).
Theorem
 Every matrix is row equivalent to exactly one reduced row echelon
matrix.
 In case of echelon form, however, a matrix may be row equivalent
to many echelon matrices.
Example
are all row equivalent and are all in echelon form. However, only the
leftmost matrix is in reduced row echelon form.
 Develop an algorithm for solving linear systems
 We first focus on the bottom arrow (row reduction).
 Let's work through another example and try to keep track of
why we are performing each step.
 Reduce the following matrix to EF.
Definition
 A pivot position in a matrix A is a location that corresponds
to a leading entry in an EF of A.
 A pivot column is a column of A that contains a pivot position.
Example
 The boxed positions are the pivot positions and the first, third and
fourth columns are the pivot columns.
Definition
 A pivot is a nonzero number in a pivot position used to create
zeros via row operations.
Example
 The pivots are 2,‐1, and 4.
 Reduce the following to EF and then RREF.
 Step 1: Begin with the leftmost nonzero column. This is a pivot
column and the pivot position is at the top.
 Step 2: Select a nonzero entry in the pivot column as a pivot. If
necessary, interchange rows to move a nonzero entry into the
pivot position.
 Step 3: Use row replacement operations to create zeros in all
positions below the pivot.
 Step 4: Ignore the row containing the pivot position and all rows
above it. Apply steps 1‐3 to the remaining submatrix. Repeat this
process until there are no more nonzero rows to modify.
 Step 5: Beginning with the rightmost pivot and working up/left,
use a scaling operation to make each pivot a 1 and use
replacement to create zeros above each pivot.
 Our algorithm allows you to reduce any augmented matrix to EF
or RREF.
 The algorithm is not unique.
 However, the RREF of any matrix is unique. Thus any valid algorithm
will give you the same RREF in the end.
 Reducing a matrix to EF or RREF is called row reduction.
 Reducing a matrix to EF is called Gaussian elimination.
 Reducing a matrix to RREF is called Gauss‐Jordan elimination.
 We can row reduce the augmented matrix of a Linear System (LS) to the
RREF's.
 What is the solution set of the LS?
Example 1
RREF
 Only solution is 3, 2, and 5.
Example 2
EF
 The solution set is empty (i.e. no solution).
Example 4‐1
RREF
 The variables corresponding to or leading entry in RREF are called basic
variables ( , , here) and the others are called free variables ( here).
Example 4‐2
 We have the reduced system.
 We solve the reduced system of equations for the basic variables in terms
of the free variables.
Example 4‐3
 Each basic variable occurs in exactly one equation.
 The free variables can have any value.
 If the value of the free variable is chosen, the above equations
determine the values of the basic variables.
 If =2, the solution is
 (1) is called the general solution of the LS because it gives an explicit
description of all solutions.
Example 4‐4
 Our system was
and our solution was
 Substituting gives
 Determine which matrices are in reduced echelon form and which
others are only in echelon form.
 Row reduce the matrix to reduced echelon form. Circle the pivot
positions in the matrix and list the pivot columns.
 Find the general solutions of the systems whose augmented
matrix is given.
 Echelon Form, Reduced Row Echelon Form
 Pivot Position, Pivot Column
 Solution of LS
 Reading Assignment
 Section 1.3
 Next time
 More on general solutions
 Geometric interpretation of linear systems
 Existence of solutions (when is a system consistent?)
 Uniqueness of solutions (is there just one solution or many?)
11185
 Last class
 Echelon Form, Reduced Row Echelon Form
 Pivot Position, Pivot Column
 Solution of Linear System
 Basic Variable, Free Variable
 This class
 Represent equations as vectors
Example
 Find the general solutions of the systems whose augmented
matrix is given above.
EF RREF
Definition
 A vector is a matrix with only one column.
 R is the set of all vectors with entries (i.e. 1 matrices).
Example
 ∈ means “is an element of”.
 Vectors are often written in bold (e.g. instead of ).
Definition
 Two vectors are equal (if and only if) they have the same number
of entries and corresponding entries are equal.
Example
Vector addition
 We add two vectors in R by adding corresponding entries.
Example
93
Scalar multiplication
 We multiply a vector in R by a scalar by multiplying each
entry in by .
Example
Example
 We sometimes write as following forms to save space.
 Note that
 is a matrix that has one row.
 Each point in the plane is determined by its coordinates ‐ an
ordered pair of real numbers.
 We write , for a point with coordinates , .
 We can identify the point , with the vector and view R
as the set of points in the plane.
Parallelogram Rule
 If , ∈ R are represented as points in the plane, then
corresponds to the fourth vertex of a parallelogram whose other
vertices are , 0 and .
“Tip‐to‐tail”
 Another geometric interpretation of adding vectors, is that we
place them “tip‐to‐tail”.
 We slide the vector until its tail is at the tip of the vector .
 Then is the vector from the origin to the tip of .
 Note that this is really the same as the parallelogram rule.
Scalar multiples
 Multiples of a given vector lie on a line
 So | ∈ is the line through the origin in the direction .
 Vectors in R are represented by points in 3‐dimensional space.
 To plot a point in R , move, in the direction of each axis, the
number of units given by the coordinates of the point.
Example
 Plot the points 3,4,6 and 6, 4,0 .
 To draw a vector in R , plot the point with the same coordinates
and then draw an arrow from the origin to that point.
Example
3 6
 Plot the vectors 3,4,6 4 and 6, 4,0 4 .
6 0
 For all , , ∈ R and scalars and , the following are true:
 Commutativity
 Associativity
 0 0
 0
 c Distributivity
 c Distributivity

 1 =
 Subtraction of vectors

Definition
 For , ,⋯ ∈ and scalars , ,⋯, , the vector
⋯ (1)
is called a linear combination of , ,⋯ with weights (or coefficients)
, ,⋯, .
Example
are linear combinations of and .
 We think of the vector in (1) as being obtained by traveling times the

length of in the direction of , then times the length of in the
direction of , etc.
 Suppose
 Let’s write as a linear combination of , , ? If so, find the

weights/coefficients in such a linear combination?
 We want to find scalars , , such that
 The equation
is the same as
 This is true iif
This is a linear system!
 We solve the linear system as before, using our algorithm
 Write down the augmented matrix:
 Then row reduce:
 The only solution is
 Returning to our original question, the vector can be written as
and this is the only linear combination of , , and that is

equal to .
 Check the answer!
Theorem
 A vector equation
has the same solution set as the LS with augmented matrix
 can be written as a linear combination of , , ⋯ if and only
if there exists a solution to the LS corresponding to (2).
 So questions about linear combinations are closely related to
questions about linear systems.
 Therefore, we introduce a special name for the set of all linear
combinations of a set of vectors ‐ Span.
Definition
 If , , ⋯ ∈ , then the set of all linear combinations of
, ⋯ , is called the subset of spanned (or generated) by
, ⋯ , . It is denoted
Span ,⋯,
 So Span ,⋯, is the set of all vectors that can be written as
⋯
for some scalars , ,⋯, .
Example 1: (Span by one vector)
 ∈ R , Span is the set of all scalar multiples of .
 Span is the line through the origin, in the direction given by .
Example 2: (Span by two vectors)
 , ∈ R , then
 If is a scalar multiple of ,
Span , is the line through the origin,
parallel to and .
 If is not a scalar multiple of ,
Span , is a Plane through the origin

containing and .
 We have two different ways of representing a linear system.
Example 1
 Suppose the following vector equation.
 Write a system of linear equations that is equivalent to the vector equation.
Example 2
 Suppose the following linear system.
 Write a vector equation that is equivalent to the linear system.
Example 3
 Suppose
 The following questions are equivalent:
 Is a linear combination of , , and ?
 Does the linear system
have a solution?
 Suppose
 Is Span , ?
 So Span , is a plane. Is in this plane?
 So the answer is NO, is not in Span , .
 Write a system of equation that is equivalent to the given vector
equation.
 Write a vector equation that is equivalent to the given system of
equations.
1 2
 Let 0 , 1 , and 3 . For what value of is
2 7 5
in the plane generated (spanned) by and ?
 vector addition, scalar multiplication
 Represent a linear system as a vector equation.
 linear combinations, Span of vectors
 Section 1.4, Section 1.5
 Next time
 Matrix equations.
11185
 Last class
 Vector: matrix with one column
 R : the set of all 1 matrices
 Plotting points and drawing vectors
 Vector addition & scalar multiplication
 linear combinations, span
 This class
 Reformulate linear equations as matrices
Definition: linear combination
 For , ,⋯ ∈ and scalars , ,⋯, , the vector
⋯ (1)
is called a linear combination of , ,⋯ with weights (or coefficients)
, ,⋯, .
Example
are linear combinations of and .
Theorem: Vector equations and linear systems
 A vector equation
has the same solution set as the LS with augmented matrix
 can be written as a linear combination of , , ⋯ if and only if
there exists a solution to the augmented matrix.
Definition: Span
 If , , ⋯ ∈ , then the set of all linear combinations of , ⋯ , is
called the subset of spanned (or generated) by , ⋯ , . It is
denoted
Span , ⋯ ,
 Suppose
 Is in Span , , ?
 Answer) we want to know if the vector equation
has a solution.
 0 2 and so the answer is NO.
Definition
 Suppose
 A is an matrix with columns , ,⋯ .
 ∈R
 Then we define
Example 1
 The number of entries in the result is the same as the number of rows in A.
Example 2
 The number of entries in the result is the same as the number of rows in
the matrix. This will always happen.
Example 3
 Not defined: since the number of columns in the matrix is not equal to
the number of entries (rows) in the vector.
 We can skip the middle step.
Example
 Suppose , , , ∈ R Then
 We see from the above that our matrix‐vector multiplication is another
way of writing linear combinations!!
 So we can easily translate between matrix‐vector multiplication and
linear combinations.
 The linear system
is equivalent to the vector equation
which is equivalent to the matrix equation
 Note that the matrix on the left is the coefficient matrix of the linear
system!
 The matrix equation
is equivalent to the vector equation
which is equivalent to the linear system
Theorem
 If A is an matrix with columns , ,⋯ and ∈ R , then

 the matrix equation ,
 the vector equation ⋯ , and
 the LS with augmented matrix
(1)
All have the same solution set.
 In the above,
 All of the above solution sets are found by row reducing the augmented
matrix in (1).
Theorem
 Suppose
 A is an matrix with columns , ,⋯ , and
 ∈R
 Then the following statements are equivalent:
 The matrix equation has a solution.
 The vector equation ⋯ has a solution.
 is a linear combination of , ,⋯ .
 is in Span , , ⋯ .
 The LS with augmented matrix has a solution.
 So there are 5 ways of asking the same question!
 All are answered by row reducing the matrix
 Suppose
 Does the matrix equation have a solution?
 If so, find the general solution.
 Solution: By our translation theorem, we find the solution by row
reducing the Augmented matrix to RREF.
 So the answer is YES. There is a unique solution:
Example
 Is a linear combination of , , ?
 Answer: Write down the corresponding augmented matrix and row
reduce.
 The last column is a pivot column, so the answer is NO.
Original question
 Is a linear combination of , , ?
 Variation 1: Does the vector equation ⋯ have a
solution?
 Variation 2: Is in Span , , ?
 Variation 3: Does the matrix equation with
have a solution?
 Variation 4: Does the following linear system have a solution?
 For what matrices A does the equation have a solution, no
matter what is?
 Answer: We solve the equation by row reducing
 This will have a solution when the rightmost column is not a pivot
column.
 What ensures that the rightmost column will never be a pivot column?
 If A has a pivot position in each row, then there will never be a pivot
position in the rightmost column of !
Theorem
 Suppose A is an matrix. Then the following statements are
logically equivalent (i.e. they are either all true or all false).
 For any ∈ R , the equation has a solution.
 A has a pivot position in every row.
 Every ∈ R is a linear combination of the columns of .
 The columns of span all of R (i.e. every ∈ R is in the span of the
columns of ).
 Does the equation
have a solution for every ∈ R ?
 Solution: We need to find out if the matrix has a pivot position in every
row. So we row reduce.
 There is a pivot position in each row and so the answer is YES.
 Equivalent conclusions:
 Every ∈ R is a linear combination of

Linear Algebra Course
138
 Use the definition of to write the matrix equation as a vector equation.
 Write the augmented matrix for the linear system that corresponds to
the matrix equation. . Then solve the system and write the
solution as a vector.

is in the subset of R spanned by the columns of ? Why or why not?
Does , , span R ? Why or why not?
 Vector and matrix equations for discussing problems equivalent to
linear systems.
 Next time
 We will discuss how to describe solution sets in terms of vectors.
11185
 Last class
 Three languages: Solution sets
 Three languages: Existence of solutions
 This class
 describing solution sets in terms of vectors.
Theorem
 If A is an matrix with columns , ,⋯ and ∈ R , then

 the matrix equation ,
 the vector equation ⋯ , and
 the LS with augmented matrix
(1)
All have the same solution set.
 In the above,
 All of the above solution sets are found by row reducing the augmented
matrix in (1).
Theorem
 Suppose
 A is an matrix with columns , ,⋯ , and
 ∈R
 Then the following statements are equivalent:
 The matrix equation has a solution.
 The vector equation ⋯ has a solution.
 is a linear combination of , ,⋯ .
 is in Span , , ⋯ .
 The LS with augmented matrix has a solution.
 So there are 5 ways of asking the same question!
 All are answered by row reducing the matrix
 Question 1: Is a linear combination of , , ?
 Question 2: Does the vector equation ⋯ have a
solution?
 Question 3: Is in Span , , ?
 Question 4: Does the matrix equation with
have a solution?
 Question 5: Does the following linear system have a solution?
 We solve all of these questions by row reducing the matrix
 Since the system is consistent, the answer to all the questions is YES.
 If possible, express as a linear combination of , , and .
 Solution: We row reduce:
 The general solution is
 General solution:
 Since we are asked to express as a linear combination of , , and ,

So we can pick any value for we like. Let's take 0. Then
 Then we have
 Other choices for give other answers.
 For which values of , , make ∈ Span , , ?
 The system is consistent if and only if 0.
 Therefore, ∈ Span , , if and only if 0.
Definition
 A LS is homogeneous if it can be written in the form
where is an matrix and 0 ∈ R .
 A homogenous system always has the solution 0 ∈ R , called the
trivial solution.
 A nontrivial solution is a solution 0.
Theorem
 The homogeneous equation has a nontrivial solution iff it has at
least one free variable.
Example 1
 This linear system is homogenous. This system is consistent (it has at
least the trivial solution 0). To find out if it has
nontrivial solutions, we have to row reduce and see if there are free
variables.
Example 2
 This linear system is not a homogenous system. To know if this system is
consistent or inconsistent, we would have to row reduce.
 Consider the linear system:
 We write down the augmented matrix and row reduce:
 So the general solution is
 Since there are free variables, the system has nontrivial solutions.
 So the general solution to , where is the coefficient matrix of
the above LS has the following form:
 This is the vector parametric form of the solution.
 The solution set is Span , the line
through 0 and . It consists of all scalar
multiples of . The trivial solution
corresponds to the zero multiple (
0).
 Consider the equation (also a LS)
 The solution set is given by
vector parametric form
where , can be any scalars.
 So the solution set is Span , .
 This is a plane through , and 0.
Definition
 The solution set of a homogeneous system can always be written in the
form
for some vectors , ⋯ , .
 To find the set of vectors , ⋯ , we:
 solve the linear system as usual,
 replace basic variables by their expressions in terms of free variables,
 split the vector into a sum, one term for each free variable, and factor
out the free variables.
E.g.
 Example: Describe all solutions of where
 Solution: We first row reduce:
Then we write the general solution:
 Then we switch to vector notation:
 So the vector parametric form of the general solution is
where 1,2,0 , 3,1,1 , and .

 The solution set is a line through , parallel to .
Question
 What is the relationship between homogeneous and nonhomogeneous
systems?
 In our previous example, we solved and described the solution
set as
 If we solved the corresponding homogeneous system
 We would get the solution
 The only difference is the presence of the vector , which is a solution of
the nonhomogeneous system (when 0).
Theorem
 If is consistent and is any solution, then the solution set of
nonhomogeneous system is the set of all vectors of the form
where is any solution of the corresponding homogeneous system

0.
Notation
 In the above, is called a particular solution.
 So if we know all the solutions to the homogenous system (obtained by
setting the constant terms to zero), then we get all the solutions to the
nonhomogeneous system just by adding any particular solution .
 Question 1: Find the solution set to the matrix equation
 Question 2: Write the answer in vector parametric form.
 Solution:
 The general solution is
 We switch to vector notation:
 Question 3: What is the solution set to the corresponding homogeneous
equation (same equation but with zeros on the right)?
 Answer: We just remove the particular solution. The solution set is
 Question: What is the vector with tail at point and tip at point ?
Example
 Vector with tip at point 3, 1,5 and tail at 2,0,8 is
Procedure
 To find the vector equation of a line
 Find a vector parallel to the line (can use any two points on the line
and find the vector from one to the other).
 Find a point on the line.
 The vector equation is then
 Question: Find the vector equation of the line through the points
2,0,3 and 1,1,2 .
 Answer: A vector parallel to the line is
 A point on the line is
 Therefore, the vector equation is
 Note: There are lots of other vector equations of any given line.
 Example: Another vector equation of the above line is
 Describe all solutions of 0 in parametric vector form, where is
row equivalent to the given matrix.
 Find the parametric equation of the line through parallel to .
 Find a parametric equation of the line through and . [ Hint: is
parallel to the vector . See the figure below].
 Solution Sets of homogeneous and nonhomogeneous systems
 Section 1.7
 Next time
 Linear dependence/independence
11185
 Last class
 Wrote solution sets in vector parametric form.
 Solution sets of homogeneous and nonhomogeneous systems.
 This class
 Linear dependence of vectors.
 Find the general solution to the homogeneous equation 0.
 Solution: We row reduce.
 The general solution is then:
 We want our solution in vector parametric form.
 So the solution set is:
 Question 1: Does the above vector equation have a solution?
 YES! It is homogeneous and thus has the trivial solution 0.
 Question 2: Does it have nontrivial solutions?
 We row reduce to echelon form:
 Since there are free variables, the answer is YES, there are nontrivial
solutions.
Definition
 Consider a list of vectors , ⋯ , in R and the equation

(1)
 If (1) has only the trivial solution, the list of vectors is linearly
independent.
 If (1) has a nontrivial solution, the list of vectors is linearly dependent.
 The list of vectors is linearly dependent if there exist some scalars
, ⋯ , not all zero, such that
(2)
 (2) is called a linear dependence relation.
 Question: Are , , linearly independent? If not, find a linear
dependence relation among , , .
 Answer: We are interested in solutions of
 So we row reduce:
 This homogeneous system has 1 free variable. So there are nontrivial
solutions.
 Thus, , , are not linearly independent (they are linearly dependent).
 Any nontrivial solution gives a linear dependence relation.
 Our general solution was
 We pick any nonzero value for the free variable.
 So
is a linear dependence relation.
 Problem: We're given a matrix and asked whether the columns are
linearly dependent.
 Solution: If
 then we want to know if
has a nontrivial solution. This is the same as asking if the matrix equation
has a nontrivial solution.
 So we row reduce and look for free variables.
 Are the columns of linearly independent or dependent?
 Solution: We need to know if the matrix equation
has a nontrivial solution.
 So we row reduce
 There are no free variables.
 So there are no nontrivial solutions (only the trivial solution).
 Thus the columns are linearly independent.
 So if you're given a list of vectors
 and you want to know if they're linearly dependent or independent,
 Form the matrix
 Row reduce
 Then
▪ if there are free variables, → nontrivial sol. → the vectors are
dependent,
▪ if there are no free variables, → trivial sol. → the vectors are
independent.
 Question: When is a list , of two vectors linearly independent?
 Answer: The set is linearly dependent iff
has a nontrivial solution ‐ that is, a solution with 0 and/or 0 .

 If 0 , then
 If 0 , then
 So a list , of two vectors is linearly dependent iff at least one of the

vectors is a multiple of the other.
 Is the list , linearly independent or dependent?
 Solution: Since
the list is linearly dependent.
 Is the list , linearly independent or dependent?
 Solution: Neither of these two vectors is a multiple of the other. Thus,
they are linearly independent.
Theorem
 A list , , ⋯ , of two or more vectors is linearly dependent iff at least

one of the vectors in the list is a linear combination of the others.
Example  , , are linearly dependent.
 is a linear comb of and .
 is a linear comb of and .
 is not a linear comb of and .
 Then , are linearly independent (neither is a multiple of the other).
 So:
Is a plane through the origin.
 , , are linearly dependent iif one vector is a linear combination of
the other ones.
 Thus
 , , are linearly dependent if lies in the plane Span( , ).
 , , are linearly independent if does not lie in the plane
Span( , ).
Theorem
 If
 , ,⋯, is a list of vectors in R , and

then the set is linearly dependent.
Reason
 Arrange the vectors into a matrix:
 Since , the equation 0 has more variables than equations.

 So it has free variables. Thus, it has a nontrivial solution.
 Therefore, the columns are linearly dependent.
 Are the vectors linearly dependent or independent?
 Solution
 We could use the previous theorem to say right away that it is linearly
dependent because it consists of 5 vectors in R and 5 4.
Theorem
 If a list of vectors contains the zero vector, the vectors are linearly
dependent.
Reason
 Suppose our list is , ,⋯, .
 Suppose 0.
 Then
has non‐trivial solutions and is a linear dependence relation.
 So the vectors are linearly dependent.
 Determine if the vectors are linearly independent.
 (a) What values of is in Span , , and (b) what values of is

, , linearly dependent?
 Determine by inspection whether the vectors are linearly independent.
 How to know if they're linearly dependent or independent
 Section 1.8
11185
 Last class
 linear dependence/independence of vectors.
 This class
 Linear transformanti0n
 Definition & Examples (e.g. Matrix Transformations)
Another Way to View
 Matrix is a way to produce a new vector from by multiplication.
Example
Matrix Transformations
 Suppose is . Solving amounts to finding all in R which

are transformed into vector in R through multiplication by .
Example
∈ R , ∈R
∈ R , ∈R
Definition
 A transformation from R to R

is a rule that assigns to each vector in
R a vector in R .
Terminology
R : domain of , R : codomain of
 in R is the image of under the transformation .
 Set of all images is the range of
image
Example 1
Example 2
 (a) Find an in R whose image under is .

 (b) Is there more than one under whose image is ?
 (c) Determine if is in the range of the transformation .
 Solution of (a)
Solve
 If we pick 1, 1, then 1.
1
1
1
 Solution of (b) “Is there more than one under whose image is ? "
 The equivalent question is
 General solution was
 Free variables exist
 Solution of (c) “Determine if is in the range of the transformation "
 The equivalent question is
 Augmented matrix for
 Answer
 No solution because 0 1.
 is not in the range of the transformation
 Matrix transformations have many applications – including computer
graphics
Example
 Shear transformation
 Transform the square into the parallelogram.
p p
Definition
 A transformation T is linear if:

 for all , in the domain of .
 for all in the domain of and all scalars .
 Proof
 If is a matrix, then the transformation

 =
 .
Example
 Solution
 First note that and
3
 Also 3 +2
2
 Solution
3
 Then the image of is
2
3
▪ = 3 +2 3 2 3 2
2
1 0 3
3 0 2 1 2
2 1 8
 Also the image of is
1 0
▪ = = 0 1
2 1 2
Example
 Solution
 Another way to write the transformation is

2 5
 Provide a counterexample that violate or
or .
 Solution
 counterexample that violate
0 0
0 0
▪ Let 0 , then 0
2 5 2 0
0 0
 counterexample that violate .
1
▪ Let c 1, 1
1
1 1
2 2 2
▪ 1 , but c 1 1 1 = .
3 7 7
1 1
▪ .


 How to know if they're linearly dependent or independent
 Section 1.8
11185
 Last class
 Linear transformati0n
 Definition & Examples (e.g. Matrix Transformations)
 This class
 Matrix Transformation: Identity Matrix
 Linear Transformation: Generalized Result
Definition
 A transformation from R to R

is a rule that assigns to each vector in
R a vector in R .
Terminology
R : domain of , R : codomain of
 in R is the image of under the transformation .
 Set of all images is the range of
image
Identity Matrix
 is an matrix with 1's on the main diagonal and 0's elsewhere.

The ith column of is labeled .
Example
 The corresponding vector equation is
Identity Matrix
 In general, for in R , .
Linear Transformation
Generalized Result
Example


 Solution

 Then
 So
Theorem


Example
 Find matrix .
 Solution
2
is 3 2 matrix because : → and 4 .
3 2
2 1
0 1
0 . 4 .
1 0
2 3

 Find a Matrix

11185
 Last class
 Matrix Transformation: Identity Matrix
 Linear Transformation: Generalized Result
 This class
 Matrix Addition
 Matrix Multiplication
 Matrix Power
 Matrix Transpose
 Suppose is an matrix
 denotes the j‐th column.
 We number rows/columns from top/left.
 entry in i‐th row and j‐th column
i‐th entry (from top) in
Example
 If
 Then
 7
 1
 5
 ?
 Diagonal entries of are the entries , , ⋯ and the form the main
diagonal.
 Diagonal matrix: square (i.e. for some ) matrix such that

nondiagonal entries are zero.
 E.g.
 identity matrix:
 Zero matrix: a matrix whose entries are all zero.
 Denote the zero matrix by 0 or 0
 Equality: two matrices are equal if they are the same size and their
corresponding entries are equal.
 Example
Definition
 If and are both matrices, then is the matrix

obtained by adding corresponding entries of and . In other words,
Example
Definition
 If is a scalar and is a matrix, then is the matrix obtained from by

multiplying all entries of by .
Example
Definition
 We define
 Suppose
 Then
?
Note
 Remember that vectors are just matrices with one column.
 We defined vector addition and scalar multiplication for vectors.
 Matrix operations satisfy a following list of properties.
Theorem
 Suppose , and are matrices of the same size and and are scalars.

 Then
 Suppose A is an matrix and is an matrix.
 Question: What kind of vectors can we multiply by?
 Answer: In order for to be defined, we must have ∈ R .
 Question: If ∈ R , what type of vector is ?
 Answer: ∈ R? .
 So we have the maps
A is an matrix and is an matrix
 We want to define the product of matrices so that multiplying a
vector by has the same effect as multiplying it by and then A.
 Suppose ∈ R and ⋯ is an matrix.
 Then ⋯ .
 So
 So we define
Definition
 Suppose is an matrix and is an matrix.

⋯
 Then is the matrix.

 Its columns are ⋯ .
Note
 In order for the product to be defined, we must have
# columns of = # rows of
 Note what determines the size of the product:
( matrix)( matrix) = matrix
Note
 An matrix can be multiplied by vectors in R , and the result is a
vector in R .
( matrix)( 1 vector) = 1 vector
 In the following, are and defined and if so, what are their
sizes/dimensions?
 A is 7 5, B is 5 2.
 AB is defined and is 7 2. BA is not defined.
 A is 4 6, B is 8 4.
 AB is not defied. But BA is defined and is 8 6.
 A is 4 5, B is 6 7.
 Neither AB nor BA is defined.
 If is a positive integer, we define
 We also define
 Note: Powers of a matrix are only defined if the matrix is square.
Definition
 If is an matrix, then its transpose is the matrix whose

i‐th column is the i‐th row of .
 Alternatively, the , entry of is the , entry of .
Example
Theorem
 Suppose and are matrices such that the following operations are defined.

 Then
 Compute 5 and 5 A, where
 How many rows does have if is a 5 4 matrix?

 Compute the product by computing and
11185
 Last class
 Matrix Addition
 Matrix Multiplication
 Matrix Power
 Matrix Transpose
 This class
 Inverse of Matrix
 How to find matrix inverses
Definition
 An (square) matrix is invertible if there is an matrix such

that
 We call an inverse of .
Example
 Suppose and are both inverses of . Then

 So inverses are unique (i.e. a matrix has at most one inverse)!

 We denote the (unique) inverse of by So
Note
 For non‐square matrices, can have and .
 Example
Terminology
 A matrix that is not invertible is sometimes called singular.
 An invertible matrix is sometimes called nonsingular.
 If is a positive integer and is an invertible matrix, we define
Theorem
 Suppose .
 If 0, then is invertible and
 If 0, then is not invertible.
The determinant
 The quantity is called the determinant of and we write

det
 Justification
Example
 Thus is invertible and
 Thus is not invertible (it has no inverse).
 We can use multiplicative inverses to solve simple equations.
Example
 Suppose we want to solve the equation for .
 If 0, we multiply both sides by :
Example
 Suppose we want to solve the following matrix equation for .
 If is invertible, we multiply on both sides by :
 Suppose we want to solve the linear system
 This system is equivalent to
 Since is invertible, we can multiply on the left by .
 So
Theorem
 If A is invertible, then is invertible and
 If and are invertible matrices then is invertible and
 More generally, if , ,⋯, are all invertible then so is ⋯

and
 If is invertible then is invertible and
Theorem
 An matrix is invertible iif is row equivalent to .
Reason
 If is invertible, then has a solution.
 Thus has a pivot position in each row.
 Since is square, it has a pivot position in each column.
 Thus its RREF is .
Algorithm for finding
 Find the inverse of
 Solution: We row reduce the superaugmented matrix.
 Therefore A is invertible and
 Check your answer!
 Find the inverse of
 Solution: We row reduce the superaugmented matrix.
 is not row equivalent to and so is not invertible.
 Find the inverses of the matrices
 Suppose is invertible and . Solve for in terms of .
 Find the inverse of the matrix
11185
 Last class
 Inverse of Matrix
 Elementary matrices
 How to find matrix inverses
 This class
 Invertible Matrix Theorem
Definition (Inverse of a matrix)
 An (square) matrix is invertible if there is an matrix such

that
 We call an inverse of .
Theorem (Inverses of 2 2 matrices)
 Suppose .
 If 0, then is invertible and
 If 0, then is not invertible.

Algorithm for finding
Theorem
 If is an square matrix, the following statements are equivalent:









Warning
 The Invertible Matrix Theorem assumes the matrix is square!

Note
 If and are square and , then both and are invertible and
 Question: Determine if the matrix is invertible.
 Answer: The matrix is not invertible.
 The matrix is 3 3. But it does not have 3 pivot.
 The matrix is not row equivalent to I .
 Determine if the matrix is invertible.
 If an matrix cannot be row reduced to , What can you say

about the columns of ? Why?
 is a linear transformation from R into R . Show that is invertible and

find a formula for .
11185
 Last class
 Invertible Matrix Theorem
 This class
 Subspaces of R
 Column space, Null space
 Basis for subspace
Definition
 A subspace of R is a subset of R that satisfies:



Example 1
 0 . Is a subspace of R ? We check the 3 conditions.


Thus is a subspace of R .

Example 2



Example 3





Example 4



 0,0,0 : subspace of R

 1,0,0 : is not subspace of R
 , 0,0 | ∈ R : subspace of R
 0 → 0,0,0 ∈
 ( , 0, 0 ( , 0, 0 ( , 0, 0 ∈
 , 0, 0 , 0, 0 ∈
 , | ∈ R : is not subspace of R
 0, 0 ∈
 ( , ( , ( , ∈

 ??
 ??
 The set of all vectors of the following form for and arbitrary real

numbers??
 Consider the set of all vectors of the form
3 6 , 2 7 , 3 ,0
for , , arbitrary real numbers.
 Since
 Contain 0,0,0,0 when 0, 0, 0.

 Closed under vector addition
 Closed under scalar multiplication
 This set is a subspace of R
Definition
 The column space of a matrix is the set of all linear combinations of the
columns of .
 It is denoted Col .
 The column space of an matrix is a subspace of R .
Example
 is a linear combination of , and ∈R
 Question:
 Answer:
 Question:
Definition
 The null space of a matrix , denoted Nul , is the set of all solutions to
the homogeneous equation 0.
Example
 , Determine if is in Nul .
Theorem
 If is an matrix, then Nul is a subspace of R .
 Note that the column space of an matrix is a subspace of R .
Example
 ∈R
Definition
 Suppose is a subspace of R .
 A basis of is a linearly independent set of vectors in that span .



Theorem
 The pivot columns of a matrix form a basis for its column space.
Procedure for finding a basis of a column space
 To find a basis for the column space of a matrix we:
 Row reduce the matrix to EF to determine which columns are the pivot
columns.
 A basis for the column space is the set of pivot columns of the original
matrix .
 We are given a matrix and an augmented matrix of .
 Question: Find a basis for Col and a basis for Nul .
 Give integers and such that Nul is a subspace of R and C is a
subspace of R .
11185
 Last class
 Subspaces of R
 Column space, Null space
 Basis for subspace
 This class
 Coordinate vector
 Dimension
 Rank, Nullity
Definition (Subspace)
 A subspace of R is a subset of R that satisfies:



Definition (Basis)
 Suppose is a subspace of R .
 A basis of is a linearly independent set of vectors in that span .



How to find a basis of the null space of a matrix
 To find a basis of the null space of a matrix , we:
 Solve the homogeneous equation 0 by row reduction.
 Write the general solution in vector parametric notation.
 The set of vectors appearing in this form of the solution is a basis for
Nul .
 Find a basis for the solution set of the homogeneous system
 Solution: This is the same as finding the null space of the coefficient
matrix. We row reduce:
 The general solution in vector parametric form is:
 So a basis of the solution set is 2,1,0,0 , 0,0,3,1 .
Definition
 Suppose the set ,⋯, is a basis for a subspace . For ∈ ,
 The coordinates of are the weights c , ⋯ , c such that
c ⋯ c .
 The coordinate vector of is
c
⋮
c
 Basis is , .
 Question: Find the coordinate vector of relative to .
 Solution: Find c and c such that c c .
 Row reduce the augmented matrix:
2
 Thus c 2, c 3. The coordinate vector is .
3
Definition
 The dimension of a nonzero subspace , denoted dim , is the number
of vectors in any basis of .
 We define dim 0 0.
 Find a basis of .
 What is the dimension of ?
 Solution: We form a matrix with these vectors as columns and row
reduce:
 We see that the first, third and fourth columns are the pivot columns.
 Thus a basis of is given by the first, third and fourth vectors in the
original set:
 Since the basis has 3 elements, we have
 Consider a line through 0.
 A basis for the line is for any 0 on the line. Why?

 The set is linearly independent.
 Since Span | ∈ R is the line, the set spans the line.
 Thus the line is 1‐dimensional (1 vector in basis) .
 Consider a plane through 0.
 A basis for the plane is , where , are non‐parallel vectors in the

plane. Why?
 The set , is linearly independent because and are not parallel.
 Since Span , is the entire plane, the set , spans the plane.
 Thus the plane is 2‐dimensional (2 vector in basis) .
 Question: What is the dimension of Nul ?
 Answer: Remember that we have
 Since the general solution to 0 will have 2 free variables, we have
dim Nul 2:
Proposition
 Suppose is a matrix with columns. Then
 rank = number of pivot columns in ,
 dim Nul = ‐ number of pivot positions in .
The Rank Theorem
 If a matrix has columns, then
Terminology:dim Nul is sometimes called the nullity of .
 Find the rank and nullity of
 Since has ? pivot positions, rank ?, and the nullity of is ? ( has ?

columns that do not contain pivot positions or has ? free variables.).
 Recall Invertible Matrix Theorem
 We can now add some conditions to this list.
Addition to Invertible Matrix Theorem
 Suppose is an matrix. Then the following statements are
equivalent:









11185
 Last class
 Coordinate vector
 Dimension
 Rank, Nullity
 This class
 Determinant of a general matrix
Definition
 The dimension of a nonzero subspace , denoted dim , is the number
of vectors in any basis of .
 We define dim 0 0.
Example
 Lines through the origin are 1‐dimensional subspaces.
 Planes containing the origin are 2‐dimensional subspaces.
 R is ‐dimensional.
Definition (Rank)
 rank is the dimension of the column space of .
 rank is the number of pivot columns of .
Definition (Nullity)
 Nullity of is the dimension of Nul .
 Nullity of is the number of non‐pivot columns in .
 If has columns, then
Rank Theorem
 If a matrix has n columns, then
Definition (determinant of a 2 2 matrix)
 The determinant of is
 is invertible if and only if det 0.
 Today's goal
 We want to define a determinant for arbitrary square matrices.
Definition
 Suppose is an matrix and 1 , . Then is the 1
1 matrix obtained by removing the ‐th row and ‐th column of .
Example
Definition
 For 2, the determinant of an matrix is
 We continue until we reduce the computation to determinants of 2
2 or 1 1 matrices.
 We often use vertical bars to denote a determinant.
 The , cofactor of is defined by
 Thus
 This is the cofactor expansion along the first row.
Theorem
 If is an matrix, then
 We can expand along any row or column.
 So we choose rows or columns that make the computation easy (e.g.
rows/columns that have a lot of zeros).
 Consider the matrix from the previous example:
 Let's compute the determinant by cofactor expansion along the third
row. Then
 Note: Expanding along the third row was easier because it had a zero.
 Compute det if
 Solution: We first expand along the second column:
 Then we expand along the second row:
Definition
 Suppose is a square matrix.
 If has all zeros below the main diagonal, it is upper triangular.
 If has all zeros above the main diagonal, it is lower triangular.
 is triangular if it is upper or lower triangular.
Example
Theorem
 If is triangular, then det is the product of the entries on the main
diagonal.
Example
 Compute the determinant by cofactor expansion. At each step, choose a row
or column that involves the least amount of computation.
 Compute the determinant of the upper triangular matrix.
11185
 Last class
 Determinant of a general matrix
 This class
 Relation between determinant and
▪ Row operation
▪ Matrix Inverse
▪ Matrix transpose
▪ Matrix product
 Recall: Remember that row reduction involves 3 row operations.
Theorem
 If is obtained from by a row replacement operation, then
det det .
 If is obtained from by interchanging two rows, then
det det .
 If B is obtained from by multiplying a row of by a scalar , then
det · det .
 Compute det if
 Solution: Recall that the determinant of a triangular matrix is the product
of entries on the main diagonal.
Theorem
 A square matrix is invertible if and only if det 0.
 We can row reduce to an echelon matrix by using only interchange

and row replacement, then
 is the number of interchanges needed to reduce to , and

 det ⋯ (product of diagonal entries) because is an
upper triangular matrix.
 Note: If is invertible, the diagonal entries ⋯ are all pivots.

hence nonzero, det 0.
 Otherwise, at least one diagonal entry is zero and so det 0.
 The second quiz will be on May 28th (Monday).
 The 2nd quiz will cover chapters 2.3, 2.8, 2.9, 3.1, and 3.2
 You can continue to show your potential if you got a good score on
Midterm exam.
 You can still have a chance if you got a not good score on Midterm
exam.
.
Theorem
 If is a square matrix, then
Column operations
 Rows in correspond to columns in .
 Thus, previous theorem relating row operations to determinants is also
true if we replace the word “row” everywhere by “column”.
Theorem
 If is obtained from by a column replacement operation, then
det det .
 If is obtained from by interchanging two columns, then
det det .
 If B is obtained from by multiplying a column of by a scalar , then
det · det .
 Important note: Only use column operations when computing
determinants, NOT when row reducing.

Theorem
 If and are matrices, then
Example
 Suppose is an invertible matrix.
 Then det 0.
 We have
Proposition
 If is an invertible matrix (so det 0), then
 Suppose , , are 3 3 matrices with det 2, det 3 and
 Find det . Is invertible? If so, find det .

 Solution: We have
 Since det 0, is invertible and
 2 dimensions:
 The absolute value of the determinant of a 2 2 matrix is the area
of the parallelogram determined by the two column vectors.
 3 dimensions:
 The absolute value of the determinant of a 3 3 matrix is the
volume of the parallelepiped determined by the three column vectors.
 Find the determinant, where
 Use determinant to find out if the matrix is invertible.
11185
 Last class
 Relation between determinant and
▪ Row operation
▪ Matrix Inverse
▪ Matrix transpose
▪ Matrix product
 This class
 Vector spaces Definition & Examples
 Subspace of vector spaces
Definition
 A vector space is a nonempty set of vectors, satisfying the ten axioms
below.
 The axioms must hold for all , and in and for all scalars and .

1. is in .
2.
3.
4. There is a zero vector in such that .
5. For each in , there is vector in satisfying
6. is in .
7.
8.
9.
10. 1
Example

is in a vector space because satisfies the
aforementioned ten axioms.

is not in a vector space because the zero vector is not in .
(It violates axiom 4)
Example
 Let 0 be an integer and let
the set of all polynomials of degree at most :
 Elements of have the form like
⋯
where ,⋯, are real numbers and is a variable.
 Then the set is a vector space.
 Note
 is called polynomial.
 The degree of above is .
 Let’s verify 3 out of the 10 axioms here.
 Let ⋯ and
⋯ .
 Let be a scalar.
 Axiom 1
 The polynomial is defined as follows:
=
 Therefore,
= ⋯
which is also a polynomial of degree at most .
 So is in .
 Axiom 4
=0 0 ⋯ 0
 So zero vector is in . And
= 0 0 ⋯ 0
= ⋯
=
 So .
 Axiom 6
= ⋯
which is in .
 The other 7 axioms also hold, so is a vector space.
Definition
 A subspace of a vector space is a subset of that has three
properties:
 The zero vector of is in .
 For each and are in , + is in . (In this case we say is closed
under vector addition.)
 For each in and each scalar , is in . (In this case we say is
closed under scalar multiplication.)
 Note
 Recall a subspace of n‐dimensional space (you already know).
Example
 Show that is a subspace of R .
 Solution
 The zero vector of R is in (when 0 and 0 ).
 Adding two vectors in always produces a vector whose second entry
is 0 and therefore the sum of two vectors is also in .
 Multiplying a vector in by a scalar produces a vector in .
 Since all properties hold, is a subspace of R .
Example
 R ?
 Solution
0 0
 The zero vector of R is not in (when 0, .
0 1 0
 Thus is not a subspace of R .
Theorem
 If , ⋯ , are in a vector space , then Span ,⋯, } is a subspace

of .
 In other word, if we can rewritten as linear combination of
, ⋯ , , then Span , ⋯ , } is a subspace.
 Proof
 is in Span ,⋯, } .
0 ⋯ 0
⋯
⋯
Example
 Solution
 Write vectors in in column form.
2 2
2 3 2 3
1 2
+b
2 3
 So Span , } and therefore is a subspace of R .
Example
 Solution
 Write vectors in in column form.
2 2 0
1 0 1
0 0
1 2 0
1 0 1 +b + is not a linear
1 0 0 combination of
, ,
 Thus is not a subspace of R .
 Determine if the given set is a subspace of .
 Determine if the given set is a subspace of .
11185
 Last class
 Vector spaces Definition & Examples
 Subspace of vector spaces
 This class
 Null Spaces
 Column Spaces
 The Contrast Between Nul A and Col A
 Null Spaces & Column Spaces: Review
 Null Spaces & Column Spaces: Examples
 Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation
Definition

Theorem


Example


Definition

Theorem

Example


Example
Example
Definition
Theorem
Example
Example
Example




11185
 Last class
 Null Spaces
 Column Spaces
 Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation
 This class
 Linearly Independent Sets
 Basis Set
 Spanning Set Theorem
Definition


Fact 1

Fact 2

Example 1
Example 2

Definition



Example 1
Example 2

Example 3
Example 4
Example


Example

Theorem

Example



Theorem

Example


11185
 Last class
 Coordinates and Coordinate Vector
 Change‐of‐Coordinates Matrix
 Isomorphic
 This class
 Eigenvectors/eigenvalue
Definition



Definition

 An eigenvector of a linear
transformation is a non‐zero vector
whose direction does not change
when that linear transformation is
applied to it.





Procedure for finding eigenvectors
Definition










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11185

 1,0,1 i.e. 1, 0, 1, is a solution of this system.

 1,1,3 i.e. 1, 1, 3, is not a solution since

Exactly one point Infinitely many solutions No solution

 We think of the vector in (1) as being obtained by traveling times the

 Let’s write as a linear combination of , , ? If so, find the

and this is the only linear combination of , , and that is

 So Span ,⋯, is the set of all vectors that can be written as

Span , is a Plane through the origin

 If A is an matrix with columns , ,⋯ and ∈ R , then

is in the subset of R spanned by the columns of ? Why or why not?

Does , , span R ? Why or why not?

 If A is an matrix with columns , ,⋯ and ∈ R , then

 Since we are asked to express as a linear combination of , , and ,

where 1,2,0 , 3,1,1 , and .

where is any solution of the corresponding homogeneous system

 Consider a list of vectors , ⋯ , in R and the equation

has a nontrivial solution ‐ that is, a solution with 0 and/or 0 .

 So a list , of two vectors is linearly dependent iff at least one of the

 A list , , ⋯ , of two or more vectors is linearly dependent iff at least

 Since , the equation 0 has more variables than equations.

 (a) What values of is in Span , , and (b) what values of is

 Matrix is a way to produce a new vector from by multiplication.

 A transformation from R to R

 (a) Find an in R whose image under is .

 A transformation from R to R

 is an matrix with 1's on the main diagonal and 0's elsewhere.

 Diagonal matrix: square (i.e. for some ) matrix such that

 If and are both matrices, then is the matrix

 If is a scalar and is a matrix, then is the matrix obtained from by

 Suppose , and are matrices of the same size and and are scalars.

A is an matrix and is an matrix

 Suppose is an matrix and is an matrix.

 Then is the matrix.

 If is an matrix, then its transpose is the matrix whose

 Alternatively, the , entry of is the , entry of .

 Suppose and are matrices such that the following operations are defined.

 How many rows does have if is a 5 4 matrix?

 An (square) matrix is invertible if there is an matrix such

 We call an inverse of .

 If is a positive integer and is an invertible matrix, we define

 If 0, then is invertible and

 If 0, then is not invertible.

 The quantity is called the determinant of and we write

 If and are invertible matrices then is invertible and

 More generally, if , ,⋯, are all invertible then so is ⋯

 If is invertible then is invertible and

 An matrix is invertible iif is row equivalent to .

 If is invertible, then has a solution.

 is not row equivalent to and so is not invertible.

 Suppose is invertible and . Solve for in terms of .

 An (square) matrix is invertible if there is an matrix such

 We call an inverse of .

 If 0, then is invertible and

 If 0, then is not invertible.

 If and are square and , then both and are invertible and

 If an matrix cannot be row reduced to , What can you say

 is a linear transformation from R into R . Show that is invertible and

 The set of all vectors of the following form for and arbitrary real

 Contain 0,0,0,0 when 0, 0, 0.

 is a linear combination of , and ∈R

 If is an matrix, then Nul is a subspace of R .

 So a basis of the solution set is 2,1,0,0 , 0,0,3,1 .