PSYC374: BILOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF CELLS OF Spring 2020-2021

Gözde Özsarfati
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
ABOUT THE COURSE..
oThe content of the course
oIntroduction to the course
oOrigins of Behavioural Neuroscience
oStructures and functions of cells of the nervous system
oStructure of the nervous system
oPsychopharmacology
oMethods and strategies of research
oVision
oAudition, the Body Senses, and the Chemical Senses
oSleep and biological rhythms
oReproductive behaviour
oEmotion
oIngestive Behavior
oLearning and Memory
oTextbook: Carlson, N.R. (2014). Foundations of behavioral neuroscience (Pearson New
International Edition, 9th Ed.). Pearson.
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
vCentral Nervous system
vNeurons in the brain and the spinal cord

v Peripheral Nervous system

vNeurons outside the brain and the spinal
cord

(image from Betts et al., 2017, p. 505)

THE CELLS IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
v Human body consists of cells. Cells are the smallest units. There are different types
of cells: e.g. blood cells, skin cells..
v Neurons and glial cells are the cells in the nervous system. We will mostly talk
about neurons.
v Neurons are special cells that have branches to communicate with other neurons.
Neurons do a lot of information transmission/modification. Glial cells support the
functions of the neurons.

(see Carlson, 2014)

FUNCTIONS OF NEURONS
v Estimated number of neurons in human nervous system: around 100 billion.
vSensory neurons: Collect information from environment. Light, chemicals (odors and
flavors), sounds..
v Motor neurons: They control the contraction of muscles.
v Interneurons: In the central nervous system, all the neurons that are not sensory or
motor neurons.
vLocal interneurons: Analyzing small piece of information by forming local circuits
v Relay interneurons: Connect the small circuits to other brain regions

(see Carlson, 2014)

NEURONS
o Soma (cell body):
Housekeeping activities,
keeping the cell alive.
(image from Betts et al., 2017, p. 512)

o Neurons have special branches for information processing.

o Dendrites are the branches on a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.
o An axon is the branch on a neuron that send information to other neurons (or muscles). The tips
of an axon are called terminal button. The terminal buttons contain vesicles (special bags)
filled with neurotransmitters (chemicals that have inhibitory/excitatory effects when released).
oHow do we classify neurons? One method is to look at the shapes of the branches.

(see Carlson, 2014; Goldstein, 2014)

 NEURON:
CLASSIFICATION

o Unipolar neurons: They are sensory neurons.

o Bipolar cells: Not very common, can be found in the the olfactory epithelium (involved in
smelling and..)
o Multipolar neurons: Basically all other neurons.

(image from Betts et al., 2017, p. 512)

 NEURONS:
CLASSIFICATION
Where else can bipolar cells be
found in humans?
a) Muscles
b) Bones
c) Eyes
d) Ears

o Unipolar neurons: They are sensory neurons.

o Bipolar cells: Not very common, can be found in the the olfactory epithelium (involved in
smelling and..)
o Multipolar neurons: Basically all other neurons.

(image from Betts et al., 2017, p. 512)

NERVES VS. AXONS
v Axons are also called nerve fibers.
v Like a phone cable, bunch of axons are wrapped in a sheath. This structure is
called a nerve.

(see Carlson, 2014)

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A NEURON
vThe membrane separates the neuron from the environment by forming a boundary.
v Members consists of two layers of lipids (fats). There are proteins embedded in the
membrane.
v The inside of the membrane has cytoplasm: cell liquid. Cytoplasm houses special
structures.

(see Carlson, 2014)

(image from Betts et al., 2017, p. 512) (image from Betts et al., 2017, p. 524)
 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A NEURON: CYTOPLASM
v Mitochondria: Energize the cell by breaking down nutrients (e.g. glucose). It creates
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) as the energy current.
vMitochondria has its own DNA, different than the other DNAs in our body. It comes from the female
lineage.

vNucleus is the core of the soma containing chromosomes (

DNA strands that carry genetic information).
v DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA has segments called genes. Genes
are instructions to synthesize proteins.

v What do proteins do?

(image from Betts et al., 2017, p. 512)

(see Carlson, 2014)

ROLES OF PROTEINS IN A CELL
v Proteins form cytoskeleton that gives a shape to the cell.
v Proteins make enzymes. Enzymes are involved in chemical reactions to break down
or merge molecules.
v Axoplasmic transport: Transporting substances within a cell.
vNeurons can be very long. For example, the some of a neuron can be in the skull but its axons can
reach to the toe.
vAxon terminals needs some substances that can only be produced in the soma.
vAxoplasmic transport: An active process that transports substances between the edges of the neurons.
v Microtubules are made of proteins. They are like highways within a neuron.
vFrom soma to the axon termimal: anterograde axoplasmic transport
v From the axon terminal to soma: retrograde axoplasmic transport
vBoth transports need ATP. Anterograde axoplasmic transport is faster than retrograde axoplasmic transport (up to 500mm/day
vs. 250mm/day)

(see Carlson, 2014)

GLIAL CELLS
o Glial means glue in Greek. Glial cells are found in the nervous tissue. They have
important role to support the functioning and communication of neurons.
o Around 85% of cells in the brain are glial cells (Carlson, 2014).
o There are 6 types of glial cells. Four of them are found in the central nervous system
(brain, spinal cord) and two of them is found in the peripheral nervous system (outside
brain and spinal cord).

(image from Betts et al., 2017, p. 515)

 GLIAL CELLS
(image from Betts et al., 2017, p. 515)

o Astrocytes are found in the central nervous system. They clean-up the mess of the neurons. They sweep the
environment from excess chemical, they keep the environment clean. Astrocytes also form blood brain
barrier (which monitors the substance that enters into the CNS).
o They provide nutrients to neurons from blood vessels. They also hold neurons in place. They also limit the release area of
neurotransmitters (Carlson, 2014)
o Some of them eat the dead or damaged neurons (phagocytosis). They move around by extending and retracting their
pseudopodia. If there is a large damaged area, they divide. Once the area is cleaned, some of them form a scar tissue at the
area (Carlson, 2014).

o Microglia also eat the dead or damaged neurons (phagocytosis).

oImmune system of the brain, protects the brain from invading microorganisms, inflammatory reaction.

o Oligodendrocytes are found in the central nervous system. Schwann cells are found in the peripheral
nervous system. They create electrical insulation to the axon by forming myelin sheath around the axon.
(see Carlson, 2014)
 OLIGODENDROCYTES VS. SCHWANN CELLS
v Both provide myelin sheath around axons.
v Oligodendrocytes are in the CNS; while Schwann cells are in the PNS.
v One oligodendrocyte have many protrusions that wrap around more than one axon. However, a schwann
cell wraps itself around a single axon.
v Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an immune disease that attacks only the proteins produced by oligodendrocytes,
but not Schwann cells.

(image from Betts et al., 2017, p. 517) (image from Betts et al., 2017, p. 516) (see Carlson, 2014)
 BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER
Blood-brain barrier monitors the chemical input to the brain. However, it is not uniform in the brain. The
blood-brain barrier at the area postrema is relatively weaker. What does area postrema do?
a) Control limb muscles
b) Regulate emotions
c) Stimulate vomiting
d) Induce wakefulness
A neuron’s membrane consists of two layers of ….. .
A) proteins
B) carbohydrates
C) enzymes
D) lipids
Which of the following is degenerated by the multiple sclerosis?
A) Schwann Cells
B) Oligodendrocytes
C) Astrocytes
D) Microglia
What are the smallest glial cells?
A) microglia
B) astrocytes
C) oligodendrocytes
D) Schwann Cells
NEURONS
o Soma (cell body):
Housekeeping activities,
keeping the cell alive.
(image from Betts et al., 2017, p. 512)

o Neurons have special branches for information processing.

o Dendrites are the branches on a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.
o An axon is the branch on a neuron that send information to other neurons (or muscles). The tips
of an axon are called terminal button.
o What is that structure that is wrapped around the axon? That is a type of glial cells called
oligodendrocytes. Glial cells are the heros of the nervous system.

(see Carlson, 2014;Goldstein, 2014)

 NEURONS
o Soma (cell body):
Housekeeping activities,
keeping the cell alive.
(image from Betts et al., 2017, p. 512)

o Neurons have special branches for information processing.

o Dendrites are the branches on a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.
o An axon is the branch on a neuron that send information to other neurons (or muscles). The tips of an axon are called
terminal button.
o The axons are wrapped by a type of glial cell called oligodendrocyte. Glial cells have many functions (we will talk
about them). Oligodendrocytes create electrical insulation to the axon by forming myelin sheath around the axon.
There are small gaps between the sheaths, those gaps are called Nodes of Ranvier.
o Neurons communicate between each other. So, how are they arranged?
(see Carlson, 2014; Goldstein, 2014)
NEURONS

o Let’s look at the structures and chemical processes that enable two neurons to
communicate.
o Suppose we are looking at those two neurons. Neuron A is the talking neuron
(presynaptic neuron) and neuron B is the listening neuron (postsynaptic neuron).
oThe chemical transmission between the neurons occur in the synapse. The synaptic
cleft is the gap between the terminal button of the presynaptic neuron and the
dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron.
(see Carlson, 2014)
 NEURONS: LET’S INITIATE THE CONVERSATION
o Suppose that the neuron is not engaged in a particular
activity. It is chilling. This is called the resting state.
o When at the resting state, let’s stick two electrodes: one
inside of the neuron (cytoplasm) and another one in the fluid
(extracellular fluid) that the neuron is embedded. The cytosol
has more K+ (positively-charged potassium) than the
extracellular fluid. The extracellular fluid has more Na+
(positively-charged sodium) than the cytosol.
o The neuronal charge during the resting state is -70mV.
o So.. When a presynaptic cell rests, it is charged at -70mV. (image from Betts et al., 2017)

o What happens when this balance changes? What happens

when the inside becomes more positive? Or when it comes
more negative?
(see Carlson, 2014)
LET’S DEPOLARIZE THE POLARIZED NEURON
o Suppose that we have a
presynaptic cell at the resting state.
Its interior is at -70mV. The cell is
polarized.
o Let’s apply a negative charge on
this cell. The cell will become more
negative. The cell stays silent.
o Let’s apply a positive charge on
the neuron. This depolarizes the cell.
o If the charge is small: The membrane
potential does not exceed the threshold, the
cell stays silent.
o A sufficiently large positive charge on the
neuron. How large? Large enough to make
the neuron more positive than the threshold.
The neuron fires an action potential.

o Action potential is a burst of

positive electric charge. Let’s follow
the time course of the action
potential. (see Carlson, 2014)
ACTION POTENTIAL
o Duration of an action potential
is about 1msec (1/1000 sec).
o Once a neuron fires an action
potential, this fast electrical
impulse called action potential
will travel to the tip of the axon
(terminal button).
o What happens at the terminal
button?

(see Carlson, 2014)

ACTION POTENTIALS: WHY, HOW?
v Why is the neuron more negative than the extracellular fluid at the resting state?
Why does an action potential occur?
v Two forces that determine the charge of the neuron: the force of diffusion and the
force of electrostatic pressure.
v Diffusion: Molecules distribute themselves homogenously. The molecules flow from
the high concentrated area to the low concentrated area.
v Electrically charged particles are called ions: + (cations) or – (anions). Opposites
attract each other, the similars repel ach other. Electrostatic force is created due to
the charges. Cations move to more negative environments, and anions move to more
positive environments.

(see Carlson, 2014)

ACTION POTENTIALS: WHY, HOW?
v The difference between the concentrations of ions in the intracellular fluid and the
extracellular fluid give rise to the force of diffusion and electrostatic pressure.
v What are those ions: Organic anions (A-), chloride ions (Cl-), sodium ions (Na+),
potassium ions (K+).
v Organic anions: Proteins and products of the cells. Found only in the intracellular fluid. They cannot
leave the celli because the membrane is not permeable to organic anions.
v Potassium ions: Both in intracellular and extracellular fluid. Mostly in the intracellular fluid.
v Sodium and chloride ions: Both in intracellular and extracellular fluid. Mostly in the extracellular
fluid.

(see Carlson, 2014)

 LET’S CONSIDER THE FORCES
v Potassium (K+)
v Force of diffusion: A lot of them in the intracellular fluid. Hence, the force of diffusion wants them move outside the neuron.
v Electrostatic pressure: Inside of the neuron is more negative, and potassium is a positive ion. Hence, the electrostatic pressure wants them
in the neuron.
v Results: Potassium ions tend to stay as they are.

v Chloride (Cl-)
v Force of diffusion: A lot of them in the extracellular fluid. Hence, the force of diffusion wants them move inside the neuron.
v Electrostatic pressure: Inside of the neuron is more negative, and chloride is a negative ion. Hence, the electrostatic pressure wants them
in the extracellular fluid.
v Results: Chloride ions tend to stay as they are.
v Sodium (Na+)
v Force of diffusion: A lot of them in the extracellular fluid. Hence, the force of diffusion wants them move inside the neuron.
v Electrostatic pressure: Inside of the neuron is more negative, and sodium is a positive ion. Hence, the electrostatic pressure wants them in
the intracellular fluid.
v Results: All the forces want sodium inside the neuron!
v How to kick sodium outside the neuron? Sodium-potassium transporters are special proteins embedded in the membrane. By spending
energy (ATP), they pump 3 sodium ions outside the neuron and pump 2 potassium ions in.
(see Carlson, 2014)
THE ACTION POTENTIAL
v Summary: There are a lot of Na+ outside the neuron during the resting state, which
wants to come into the neuron. There are a lot of K+ during the resting state, and they
are okay.
v What would happen if the membrane momentarily become more permeable to
Na+? Na+ would rush into the neuron and make it positively charged!
v There are ion channels in the membrane. Ion channels are proteins that let the flow
of certain ions. Opening an closing those channels influence the ion concentration of
the neuron.
v If a neuron receives sufficient positive charge and exceeds the threshold, the neuron
will fire an action potential. Let’s follow that..

(see Carlson, 2014)

Speaking of Sodium and Chloride, what is sodiumchloride (NaCl)?
A) acid
B) alcohol
C) salt
D) sugar
E) starch
Intracellular fluid is rich with ….., while extracellular fluid is rich with ….
A) K+;Na+
B) Na+;K+
C) Cl-;Na+
D) Na+;Cl-
Suppose that the intracellular fluid is positively charged at the given moment, and the
concentration of sodium ions is higher in the intracellular fluid in comparison to the extracellular
fluid. What can we say about the forces that act on sodium ions in the neuron?
A) Force of diffusion tries to push sodium ions outside the neuron, force of electrostatic
pressure tries to pull sodium ions inside the neuron.
B) Force of diffusion tries to push sodium ions outside the neuron, force of electrostatic
pressure tries to push sodium ions outside the neuron.
C) Force of diffusion tries to pull sodium ions inside the neuron, force of electrostatic pressure
tries to pull sodium ions inside the neuron.
D) Force of diffusion tries to pull sodium ions inside the neuron, force of electrostatic pressure
tries to push sodium ions outside the neuron.
ACTION POTENTIAL: STEP 1
v If the neuron becomes sufficiently positively charged that
exceeds the threshold, voltage-dependent sodium channels
open.
v When those sodium channels open, sodium ions rush into
the neuron and make the membrane potential more positive
(depolarize).
(see Carlson, 2014)

(image from Carlson, 2014)

ACTION POTENTIAL: STEP 2
v While the neuron is becoming more positive, a new player
enters the game. Voltage-dependent potassium channels
now begin to open.
v Remember that at this moment, the neuron is depolarized.
There are a lot of potassium ions in the cell, and the force of
diffusion push them out. Now that the inside is depolarizing,
potassium ions leave the neurons.
(see Carlson, 2014)

(image from Carlson, 2014)

ACTION POTENTIAL: STEP 3
v After a very short period, the inside of the neuron
becomes very positive (charged +30 mV). At this peak of
the positive charge, Na+ channels become refractory
(meaning, they close and they do not respond). Hence,
sodium flow inside the cell has stopped at this moment.
v The potassium channels are still open. Potassium is still
leaving the neuron.
(see Carlson, 2014)

(image from Carlson, 2014)

ACTION POTENTIAL: STEP 4
vNa+ channels are refractory (meaning, they close and they
do not respond). Hence, sodium flow inside the cell has
stopped at this moment.
v The potassium channels are still open. Potassium is still
leaving the neuron.
v What is happening? No more positive ions coming in the
cell, but some positive ions are leaving the cell. Hence, cell is
polarizing. It is returning back to the resting state potential.
v Potassium channels start to close as the membrane
potential returns back to the resting state potential.
(see Carlson, 2014)

(image from Carlson, 2014)

ACTION POTENTIAL: STEP 5
vSodium channels reset (meaning, get ready to open for
another wave of action potential).
(see Carlson, 2014)

(image from Carlson, 2014)

ACTION POTENTIAL: STEP 6
v Because some voltage-gated potassium channels were still
open, K+ leaks out the neuron and the neuron becomes
hyperpolarized (even more negative than the resting state).
But then, they eventually close.
v Sodium-potassium transporters keeps the balance by
pumping sodium outside the neuron and pumping potassium
in the neuron.
(see Carlson, 2014)
CONDUCTION OF ACTION POTENTIAL
o A neuron produces identical action potentials. The shape, size, and duration of the
action potentials do not change.
o However, the temporal profile of the action potential depends on the intensity of the
stimulus.
o For example, as the intensity of the touch increases, the sensory neurons on the skin
will fire more often (increased temporal frequency).
o There is a limit, though.. When a neuron fires an action potential, it cannot fire
another one for a few msecs. This period is called a refractory period.

(see Carlson, 2014)

 CONDUCTION
OF ACTION
POTENTIAL
(image from Betts et al., 2017, p. 512)

o Most of the axon is covered by the myelin sheath. Only small segments are exposed to the extracellular
fluid. Those small segments are called nodes of Ranvier.
o There are channels at the nodes of Ranvier. Action potentials occur at nodes of Ranvier. Once it occurs, it
travels down the axon.
o While passing through the sheathed part, the electricity is conducted passively. There is no action potential
happening underneath the myelin sheath. Then, an action potential occurs on the next node. This is called
saltatory conduction.
o The myelin sheath makes the makes the job of sodium-potassium pump easier, as there is a limit to flow.
o The myelin sheath increases the speed of the electrical conduct.
(see Carlson, 2014; Goldstein, 2014)
HOW DO ACTION POTENTIALS CODE INFORMATION?
o A neuron produces identical action potentials. The shape, size, and duration of the
action potentials do not change.
o However, the temporal profile of the action potential depends on the intensity of the
stimulus.
o For example, as the intensity of the touch increases, the sensory neurons on the skin
will fire more often (increased temporal frequency).
o There is a limit, though.. When a neuron fires an action potential, it cannot fire
another one for a few msecs. This period is called a refractory period.

(see Carlson, 2014)

 TERMINAL BUTTON
o The action potential generated
by the presynaptic cell reaches
to the axon terminal.
o This event moves the vesicles
(small bags filled with special
chemicals called
neurotransmitters).
o The vesicles fuse with the
membrane. The content of the
vesicles are released into the
synaptic cleft.
o What happens to the
(see Carlson, 2014)
postsynaptic neuron? (image from Betts et al., 2017)
DENDRITE
o There are receptors on the
dendrites of the postsynaptic
neuron. The receptors are like
locks, and the neurotransmitters
are like keys.
o The neurotransmitters released
to the synaptic cleft bind with
the binding sites on the
receptors. Those receptors open
corresponding channels.
o Opening of those channels let
certain ions in/out. The
postsynaptic neuron can be
depolarized or polarized.
(see Carlson, 2014) (image from Betts et al., 2017)
POSTSYNAPTIC
RECEPTORS
o Neurotransmitters released
from the terminal button of the
presynaptic neuron bind with the
binding sites on the postsynaptic
receptors that are located on
the dendrite of the postsynaptic
neuron.
o This binding events leads to
opening of neurotransmitter-
dependent ion channels that are
located on the dendrite of the
postsynaptic neuron.
(see Carlson, 2014)

(image from Betts et al., 2017)

POSTSYNAPTIC
RECEPTORS
o Neurotransmitters released
from the terminal button of the
presynaptic neuron bind with the
binding sites on the postsynaptic
receptors that are located on
the dendrite of the postsynaptic
neuron.
o This binding events leads to
opening of neurotransmitter-
dependent ion channels that are
located on the dendrite of the
postsynaptic neuron.
o Hence, certain ion channels
open. This leads certain ions to
come in/out of the dendrite.
(see Carlson, 2014) (image from Betts et al., 2017)
NEUROTRANSMITTER-
DEPENDENT ION CHANNELS
o Indirect and direct methods to open
a neurotransmitter-dependent ion
channel. What happens when a
neurotransmitter binds with a
receptor? Depends on the receptor.
o Ionotropic receptors: Direct
method.
oThe ion channel has its binding site.
o The neurotransmitter binds with the binding
site on the neurotransmitter-dependent ion
channel, the channel opens. This events lets
in/out certain ions.
(see Carlson, 2014)

(image from Betts et al., 2017)

NEUROTRANSMITTER-
DEPENDENT ION CHANNELS
o Indirect and direct methods to open a
neurotransmitter-dependent ion channel.
What happens when a neurotransmitter
binds with a receptor? Depends on the
receptor.
o Metabotropic receptor: Indirect
method.
o When the neurotransmitter binds with this
kind of receptor, the receptor does not
directly open a channel. Instead, it initiates a
chemical event that requires spending energy.
o Binding of the neurotransmitter, G-protein is
activated. G-protein activates an enzyme. The
enzyme stimulates the production of a second
messenger. Second messenger moves and
attaches itself to an ion channel.
oNeurotransmitter-dependent ion channel
opens. This events lets in/out certain ions.
(see Carlson, 2014) (image from Betts et al., 2017)
DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY.. ION CHANNELS ON THE DENDRITE
OF THE POSTSYNAPTIC CELLS ARE OPEN. NOW WHAT?
v Neurotransmitter-dependent ion channel opens. This events lets in/out certain ions.
v Depending on what type of ions these channels are permeable to, opening of the channels can
make the dendrite more positive (excitatory, depolarizing event) or more negative (inhibitory,
polarizing event).
v Major types of neurotransmitter-dependent ion channels: Chloride (Cl-), sodium (Na+), or
potassium (K+).
v Neurotransmitter-dependent sodium channels: When they open, sodium gets in the dendrite of the
neuron. This makes the neuron more positive. This leads to excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP).
v Neurotransmitter-dependent potassium channels: When they open, potassium gets out of the
dendrite of the neuron. This makes the neuron more negative. This leads to inhibitory postsynaptic
potential (IPSP).
vNeurotransmitter-dependent chloride channels: When they open during the resting state, not much
happens. When they open and if the dendrite is more positive for some reason, they cancel out
EPSP.

(see Carlson, 2014)

A LOT OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS ARE RELEASED
TO THE SYNAPTIC GAP. HOW TO CLEAN?
v The neurotransmitters cannot stay at the synaptic gap forever.
v Reuptake: The presynaptic cells takes back the neurotransmitters it has released.
v Enzymatic deactivation: Postsynaptic membrane releases enzymes that break
down the neurotransmitters at the synaptic gap.
vE.g. Acetylcholine (ACh) is a neurotransmitter. Postsynaptic neuron releases acetylcholinesterase (AChE),
which is an enzyme that breaks ACh into choline and acetate.

vAutoreceptors are located on the terminal button of the presynaptic cell. They
detect how much neurotransmitter it released, and help to regulate the amount of
release. Basically, they signal “It is time to stop releasing neurotransmitters” to itself.

(see Carlson, 2014)

NEURAL INTEGRATION
v We talked about what happens at one synapse. But a postsynaptic neuron has
many dendrites, receive input from many other presynaptic neurons.
v Some of those inputs can be inhibitory, some of them can be excitatory.
v Those input are summed up.
v If the summation of the excitatory input is large enough, it can initiate an action
potential at the stalk of the axon (axon hillock).

(see Carlson, 2014)

NONSYNAPTIC CHEMICAL COMMUNICATION
v Neurotransmitters work locally at the synaptic gap that they are released.
v Neuromodulators are released by neurons to a larger area in larger amounts to
longer distances. They are usually peptides. They generally effect psychological
states.
v Hormones are released by endocrine glands or cells in some organs. They travel in
the bloodstream. Not all cells responds to a hormone (but many neurons do). A target
cell responds to a hormone as they contain special proteins to detect those hormones.

(see Carlson, 2014)

The receptors on the skin respond to the pressure on the skin. Photoreceptors (a neuron
type) in eyes do not receive input from other cells. Instead, they convert light signal
into neuronal signal. What part of those neurons could be missing?
a) Dendrite
b) Soma
c) Axon
 REFERENCES
Betts, J. G, Desaix, P. Johnson, E., Johnson, J. E., Korol, O., Kruse, D. , Poe, B., Wise, J. A., Womble, M.,&
Young,. K. A. (2017). Anatomy and physiology. OpenStax. https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-
and-physiology
Carlson, N.R. (2014). Foundations of behavioral neuroscience (Pearson New International Edition, 9th Ed.).
Pearson.
Goldstein, E.B. (2015) Cognitive Psychology: connecting mind, research, and everyday experience (4th ed.)
Boston, MA: Cengage.