A key problem in analyzing power systems is the large number of transformers.

It
would be very difficult to continually have to refer impedances to the different sides
of the transformers. This problem is avoided by a normalization of all variables.
This normalization is known as per unit analysis.

actual quantity
quantity in per unit =
base value of quantity
1
In the power systems analysis, a per-unit system is defined as the ratio of actual
value of any to the base value of same quantity.
❖In a large interconnected power system with various voltage levels and various
capacity equipments, it has been found quite convenient to work with per unit (p.u)
system of quantities for analysis purpose rather than in absolute values of quantities.
❖ The per unit quantity is defined Actual value of the quantity
as: Per unit quantity =
Base value of that quantity
❖ To completely define a per unit system, minimum four base quantities are required.
Let us define:
Actual Curent
Current (I ) p.u =
Actual Voltage Base Current (I B )
Voltage (V ) p.u =
Base Voltage (V B )
Actual impedance
impedance (Z ) p.u =
Base impedance (Z B )

Actual Apparent Power

Apparent Power (S) p.u =
Base Apparent Power (S B )
2
❖The selection of base quantities are also very important. Some of base quantities are
chosen independently and arbitrarily while others automatically follow depending upon
the fundamental relationships between system variables.

❖The rating of the equipment in a power system are given in terms of operating
voltage and the capacity in kVA. Hence, universal practice is to use machine
rating power (kVA) and voltage as base quantities and the base values of current
and impedance are calculated from both of them.
❖In electrical engineering, the three basic quantities are voltage, current and
impedance. If we choose any two of them as the base or reference quantity, the third
one automatically will have a base or reference value depending upon the other two.
❖ E.g. if V and I are the base voltage and current in a system, the base impedance of
the system is fixed and is given by:

BaseVoltage (V B)
Base impedance(Z B ) =
Base Current (I B )
3
 Vbase Vbase V 2 base
Z = = =
base
I base S base /Vbase Sbase

=
ZA ZA = Z A  I B Z A  SB Z A  SB
Z p.u = = =
Z B VB / I B VB VB VB V 2B

❖This means that the per unit impedance is directly proportional to the base kVAand
inversely proportional to the square of base voltage.
❖When all the quantities are converted in per unit values, the different voltage levels
disappear and power network involving synchronous generators, transformers and line
reduces to a system of simple impedances.
❖ When the problems to be solved are more complex, and particularly when
transformers are involved, the advantages of calculations in per unit are more apparent.
❖A well chosen per unit system can reduce the computational effort, simplify
evaluation and facilitate the understanding of system characteristics.
4
❖For an engineer, it is quite easy to remember the per unit values for all quantities
rather than to remember actual values of all quantities.
❖Look at the Table and realize how per unit system is easy to remember than actual
value system.
Actual V at 0.9 p.u V at 0.95 V at 1.0 p.u V at 1.05 V at 1.1 p.u
Voltage p.u p.u
220 V 198V 209V 220V 231V 242V
440 V 396V 418V 440V 462V 484V
11kv 9.9kV 10.45kV 11kV 11.55kV 12.1 kV
33kv 29.7kV 31.35 kV 33kV 34.65kV 36.3kV
66kv 59.4kV 62.7kV 66kV 69.3kV 72.6kV
132kv 118.8kV 125.4kV 132kV 138.6kV 145.2kV
220kv 198kV 209kV 220kV 231kV 242kV
500kv 450kV 475kV 500kV 525kV 550kV

5
❖ It can be observed that only for voltage at different levels, it is quite difficult to
remember all these limits. However, on the other hand, per unit is easy to remember.
❖Furthermore, it is quite difficult to find the error in the actual values as compared to
per unit system. For example, if voltage goes below 0.9 p.u. limit, it can be easily
understood that voltage has gone below its safe limit; but in actual voltage values, it is
difficult to know whether voltage has crossed the safe limit or not.

❖The per unit representation of the impedance of an equipment is more meaningful

than its absolute value.

6
❖The per unit system has the advantage that base impedance expression remains same
for single phase as well as three phase system. E.g. in single phase, we have the formula
for Zbase as:
❖ Now, for three phase, voltage and
current are given by:
VB SB
VB = IB =
3 3VB
Now, the formula for Zbase will become:

VB
VB VB VB  3 V 2 B V 2 Base
ZB = = 3
SB
=  = =
IB 3 SB SB S Base
VB  3

❖Hence, it can be seen that per unit system has no effect of single phase
and three phase system for base impedance expression.
7
❖The per-unit system was originally developed to simplify laborious hand calculations
and while it is now not always necessary (due to the widespread use of computers), the
per-unit system does still offer some distinct advantages over standard SI values:
❖The per unit values of impedance, voltage, and current of a transformer are the same
regardless of whether they are referred to the primary or the secondary side. This is a
great advantage since the different voltage levels disappear and the entire system
reduces to a system of simple impedance. This can be a pronounced advantage in power
system analysis where large numbers of transformers may be encountered.

❖Per-unit impedance values of equipment are normally found over a small range of
values irrespective of the absolute size. On the other hand, ohmic values may have
significant variation and are often proportional to nominal rating.

❖Similar apparatus (generators, transformers, lines) will have similar per-unit

impedances and losses expressed on their own rating, regardless of their absolute size.
Because of this, per-unit data can be checked rapidly for gross errors.A per unit value
out of normal range is worth looking into for potential errors.

8
❖ Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of apparatus in per unit values.
❖The per unit value of the resistance of a machine furnishes almost at a glance its
electrical losses in the percent of its rated power. For example, a transformer operating
under rated conditions at unity power factor with a winding resistance of 0.01 per unit
has a copper loss of 1%.

I 2 R = (1.0) 2  0.01 = 0.01p.u = 0.01100 = 1%

❖This information is very useful to a power system engineer because he can estimate
and locate the quantity of the various copper losses simply by looking at the one line
per unit impedance diagram.
❖The per unit system simplifies the analysis of problems that include star delta types of
winding connections. The factor of 3 is not used for the per unit analysis.
❖ When a transformer is present in a power system, the power rating on either
side of the transformer remains the same. The voltage rating changes, and so
the base voltage across the transformer sides will change. If the voltage base in
the primary of a transformer is (Vb), then the voltage base in the secondary of
this transformer [Vb × (N2/N1).
9
❖Some times the per unit impedance of a component of a system is expressed on a base
other than the one selected as base for the part of the system in which the component is
located.
❖Since all impedances in any part of a system must be expressed on the same
impedance base when making computations, it is necessary to have a means of
converting per unit impedances from one base to another.
❖ We know that Z A  SB
Z p.u =
V 2B

Z act S ( Base)new
Z ( p.u)new V 2
S V 2
= (Base)new
= act
Z  ( Base)new
 ( Base)old
Z ( p.u)old
Z act  S ( Base)old V 2
( Base)new Z act  S ( Base)old
2
V ( Base)old

 V( Base)old  S ( Base)new
2
2
Z ( p.u)new V ( Base)old S ( Base)new
= 2  =  
Z ( p.u)old V ( Base)new S ( Base)old V( Base)new  S ( Base)old
10
  V( Base)old  S ( Base)new
2

Z ( p.u )new = Z ( p.u )old    

V( Base)new  S ( Base)old

 base kVgiven  base kVA new

2

Z ( p.u) new = Z ( p.u)old    

 base kVnew  base kVA given

❖If the old base voltage and new base voltage are the
same, then formula becomes:

 base kVA new

Z = Z ( p.u )old
( p.u) new base kVA given

11
 This example is taken from the book Power System
❖ Example: analysis by Stevenson, Chapter one, Example 1.5.

❖The reactance of a generator designated X’’ is given as 0.25 per unit based on the
generator’s nameplate rating of 18 kV, 500 MVA. The base for calculations is 20 kV, and
100 MVA. Fins X’’on the new base.

❖ Data:
X’’given = 0.25 p.u, Base kVgiven =18 kV, Base kVNew = 20 kV,
Base kVAgiven = 500 MVA, Base kVANew = 100 MVA, X’’new = ?
❖ Solution:
❖ We know that the formula for finding the new impedance is given as below:

 base kVgiven  base kVA new

2

Z ( p.u) new = Z ( p.u)old    

 base kVnew  base kVA given

12
❖ Solution:
❖ The above formula for X’’can be modified as below:
 base kVgiven  base kVA new
2

X ( p.u)new = X ( p.u)old  
'' ''
 
 base kVnew  base kVA given
❖ By putting the values in above equation we get:

  10 18  1
2 6 2
181000 100
X ( p.u)new = 0.25 
''
  = 0.25   
 20 1000  500 10 6
20  5

324 1
X ''( p.u)new = 0.25  = 0.25 0.81 0.2
400 5

X ''( p.u) new = 0.0405 p.u

Answer
13
❖ Example:
❖A single phase 20 kVA, 480/120V, 60 Hz single phase transformer has a primary and
secondary impedance of Zprimary = 0.84 < 78.13 degrees ohms and Zsecondary =
0.0525<78.13 degrees ohms.
❖Determine the per unit transformer impedance referred to the LV winding and the HV
winding.
❖ Solution:
According to our convention, the base values for this system are:

Sbase = 20 kVA, Vbase1 = Vbase Primary = 480V, Vbase2 = Vbase Secondary = 120V
The Formula for per unit impedance is given by:
Z Actual_ primary
Z p.u _ prim ary = (1)
Z base_ primary
It can be observed from eq. 1 and
Z Actual_ secondary 2, that base impedance for primary
Z p.u _ secondary = (2) and secondary are unknown.
Z base_secondary
14
❖ Solution:
Now, the resulting base impedance for primary and secondary are:

Zbase_ primary =
V 2base_ primary = 4802
= 230400 = 2304
S base 201000 20000 200
Z base_ primary = 11.52 

Z base_ sec ondary =

V 2 base_ secondary 1202 14400 144
Sbase
= = =
201000 20000 200

Zbase_secondary = 0.72 

15
❖ Solution:
❖Now, the resulting per unit impedance at primary and secondary side
of the transformer are:
ZActual_ primary 0.8478.13
Z p.u _ primary = = = 0.072978.13 p.u
Z base_ primary 11.52

Z Actual_ secondary 0.052578.13

Z p.u _ secondary = = = 0.072978.13 p.u
Z base_ secondary 0.72

❖Hence, it can be observed that the per unit impedance are equal for both sides of the
transformer. However, their actual values are different.

16
 This example is taken from the book Electrical
❖ Example: Power System by D.Das, chapter 5, Example 5.4

❖A 100 MVA, 33 kV, three phase generator has a reactance of 15%. The generator is
connected to the motors through a transmission line and transformers as shown in
Figure. Motors have rated inputs of 40 MVA, 30 MVA, and 20 MVAat 30 kV with 20%
reactance each. Draw the per unit circuit diagram. Assume 100 MVA and 33 kV as
common base values.

❖ Solution: ❖ We know that the formula for new per unit impedance is given by:

 base kVgiven  base kVA new

2

Z ( p.u) new = Z ( p.u)old    

 base kVnew  base kVA given
17
❖ Solution:
❖ New Per unit Reactance of Generator G:
 3310 3  100 10 6
2

X G( p.u)new = j0.15  3
 = j0.1511 = j0.15 p.u
 3310  100 10 6

❖ New Per unit Reactance of Transformer T1:

 32103  100106 32  10
2 2

X = j0.08  3
 = j0.08   
T ( p.u)new
1  3310  11010
6 33  11
XT ( p.u)new = j0.08 0.96962  0.90909 = j0.08 0.94012  0.90909 = j0.0683 p.u
1

❖ New Per unit Reactance of Transmission Line:

❖It can be observed that for transmission line the base voltage is changed. The new
base voltage is determined by:
110 kV
New BaseVoltage = 33 kV  = 33 kV  3.4375 = 113.4375 kV
32 kV
❖Now, it can be noticed that the reactance of transmission line is given in ohms instead
of per unit values. Hence, the new per unit reactance of transmission line is given by:
18
❖ Solution:
100 106 100 j6000
X Line ( p.u) = j60  = ( j60) = = j0.466 p.u
(113.4375103 )2 12868.066 12868.066
❖ New Per unit Reactance of Transformer T2:

2
 110  10
2
 11010 3
10010 6
X = j0.08  3
 6 = j0.08  
T ( p.u)new
2 113.437510  11010 
113.4375  11
XT ( p.u)new = j0.08 0.96962  0.90909 = j0.08 0.94012  0.90909 = j0.0683 p.u
2

❖ New Per unit Reactance of Motor M1:

❖ It can be observed that for motor, the base voltage is changed again. The new base
voltage is calculated as below:

32 kV
New BaseVoltage = 113.4375 kV  = 113.4375 kV  0.2909 = 33 kV
110 kV
❖The per unit reactance of motor 1 is now calculated as below:
19
❖ Solution:
 30103  100106 30  10
2 2
XM = j0.2  3
 = j0.2    
33 
6
1 ( p.u)new  3310  4010 4
XM = j0.2  0.909092  2.5 = j0.2  0.8263 2.5 = j0.413 p.u
1 ( p.u) new
❖ New Per unit Reactance of Motor M2:
 3010  100 10 6
2
  10
3 2
30
XM = j0.2  3
 6 = j0.2    
2 ( p.u)new  3310  3010  33  3
XM = j0.2  0.90909 2  3.333 = j0.2 0.8263  3.333 = j0.551 p.u
2 ( p.u)new
❖ New Per unit Reactance of Motor M3:
30  10
2
 30103  100106
2

XM = j0.2  3
 = j0.2    
33 
6
( p.u)new  3310  2010 2
= j0.2 0.909092  5 = j0.2 0.8263  5 = j0.826 p.u
3

XM
( p.u)
3 new 20
❖ Solution:
The per unit circuit is now given as below:

21
 This example is taken from the book Electrical Power
❖ Example for Practice: System by C. L. Wadhwa, chapter 1, Example 1.1
❖A 100 MVA, 33 kV, three phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 15%. The
generator is connected to the motors through a transmission line and transformers as
shown in Figure.
❖Motors have rated inputs of 30 MVA, 20 MVA, and 50 MVAat 30 kV with 20% sub
transient reactance each. Selecting the generator rating as the base quantities in the
generator circuit.
❖ Draw the per unit circuit diagram.

22
❖ Solution:
Solving by the similar way, the new per unit diagram is as below:

Answer
23
 This example is taken from the book Power System
❖ Example: Analysis by Hadi Sadat, chapter 3, Example 3.7.

❖The one line diagram of a three phase power system is shown in Figure. Select a
common base of 100 MVA and 22 kV on the generator side. Drawn an impedance
diagram with all impedances including the load impedance marked in per unit. The
three phase load at bus 4 absorbs 57 MVA, 0.6 power factor lagging at 10.45 kV. Line 1
and 2 have reactance of 48.4 ohms and 65.3 ohms respectively. The manufacturer’s data
for each device is given as follow:
Name S V Xp.u Name S V Xp.u
G 90MVA 22kV X=18% T1 50MVA 22/220kV X=10%
T2 40MVA 220/11kV X=6.0% T3 40MVA 22/110kV X=6.4%
T4 40MVA 110/11kV X=8.0% M 66.5MVA 10.45kV X=18.5%

24
❖ Solution: ❖ The reactance is given in percent. Its per unit is obtained
by dividing it by 100. such as 18% = 18/100 = 0.18p.u
❖ We know that the formula for new per unit impedance is given by:
 base kVgiven  base kVA new
2

Z ( p.u) new = Z ( p.u)old    

 base kVnew  base kVA given

❖ New Per unit Reactance of Generator G:

 22 10 3  100 10 6
2

 10 j1.8 = j0.2 p.u

X G( p.u) new = j0.18  3 6 = j0.181
=
 22 10  90 10 9 9
❖ New Per unit Reactance of Transformer T1:
 22 10 3  100 10 6 = j0.11 10
2
j1.0
= j0.1   = = j0.2 p.u
3
X
 22 10  50 10
T ( p.u)new 6
5 5
1
❖ New Per unit Reactance of Transmission Line 1:
❖It can be observed that for transmission line the base voltage is changed. Hence, first
new base voltage is required to determined, then its per unit reactance can be calculated.
The formula for finding new base voltage is given by: 25
❖ Solution:
E2
New BaseVoltage = Old BaseVoltage
E1
220 kV
New BaseVoltage = 22 kV  = 220 kV
22 kV
❖Now, it can be noticed that the reactance of transmission line is given in ohms instead
of per unit values. Hence, the formula to find per unit reactance of transmission line is
given by:
 SB Base kVA
Z p.u = Z ohm s 2
= Z ohm s 
V B (Base kV ) 2
100 106 100 j4840 = j0.1 p.u
XLine1 ( p.u ) = ( j48.4)  = ( j48.4) =
(220 103 )2 48400 48400
❖ New Per unit Reactance of Transformer T2:

 220103  100106
2
10
XT ( p.u)new = j0.06  3   6 = j0.06 1 =
j0.6
= j0.15 p.u
2  22010  4010 4 4

26
❖ Solution:
❖ New Per unit Reactance of Transformer T3:

 22103  100 106

2
= 1 10 = j0.64
X = j0.064  3
 j0.064 = j0.16 p.u
T ( p.u)new 6
3  2210  4010 4 4

❖ New Per unit Reactance of Transmission Line 2:

❖ It can be observed that for transmission line 2, the base voltage is changed again. The
new base voltage is calculated as below:
110 kV
New BaseVoltage = 22 kV  = 110 kV
22 kV
❖Now, it can be noticed that the reactance of transmission line is given in ohms instead
of per unit values. Hence, the per unit reactance of transmission line is calculated as
below:
100 106 100 j6530
X Line 2 ( p.u ) = ( j65.3) = ( j65.3) = = j0.54 p.u
(110 10 )
3 2 12100 12100

27
❖ Solution:
❖ New Per unit Reactance of Transformer T4:
110103  100106 = j0.081 10
2
j0.8
X = j0.08  3
 = = j0.2 p.u
T ( p.u)new 6
4
4 11010  4010 4
❖ New Per unit Reactance of Motor M:
❖It can be observed that for motor, the base voltage is changed again from two points.
One from transformer T2 and other from transformer T4. but, the new base voltage from
both must have the same value. The new base voltage as calculated from Transformer T2
is given as below:
11 kV
New BaseVoltage = 220 kV  = 11 kV
220 kV
The new base voltage as calculated from Transformer T4 is given as below:
11 kV
New Base Voltage = 110 kV  = 11 kV
110 kV
It can be noticed that both has the same voltage. The per unit reactance of motor is now
calculated as below:
28
❖ Solution:
10.45103  100 106
2

X M ( p.u)new = j0.185  3   6
= j0.185  (0.95) 2
1.5037
 1110  66.510
X M ( p.u)new = j0.185  0.9025 1.5037 = j0.25 p.u

❖ New Per unit Impedance of Load:

The load apparent power at 0.6 power factor lagging is 57 MVA. The angle for 0.6
power factor will be:
cos( ) = 0.6;  = cos−1 (0.6) = 53.13
Hence, the load is 57<53.13 degree MVA. To calculate the per unit impedance of the
load, we need to first calculate actual impedance and base impedance of the load. The
actual impedance of the load is calculated as below:
(VL−L )2 (10.4510 3 ) 2 109.2025
Z = = = = 1.9158353.13
L(Actual) S *
L(3 )
57 10  − 53.13 57 − 53.13
6

Z L( Actual) = 1.91583 (cos53.13 + j sin 53.13) = 1.91583(0.6 + j0.8)

29
❖ Solution:
Z L( Actual) = (1.1495 + j1.53267) 
The base impedance of the load is calculated as below:
(VBase )2 (1110 3 ) 2 121
ZL(Base) = = = = 1.21 
SBase 100 10 6
100
Now, the per unit impedance is calculated as below:
Z L(Actual)
Z L( p.u) =
Z
L(Base)

1.1495 + j1.53267
Z =
L( p.u) 1.21
Z L( p.u) = (0.95 + j1.2667) p.u

30
❖ Solution:
The per unit circuit is now given as below:

Answer 31
❖ In mathematics, the complex conjugate of a complex number is the number with an
equal real part and an imaginary part equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.
❖Table shows the complex conjugate of some
complex numbers.
❖ Note:
❖If the complex number is represented in polar
form, then its complex conjugate is obtained by
changing the sign in its angle.
❖If the complex number is represented in
rectangular form, then its complex conjugate is
obtained by changing the sign of imaginary part.

32
❖ Question: What is Complex Power ? S = P+ j Q
❖ Answer:
❖The AC power comprises of total power in terms of real and reactive power
(imaginary) is known as complex power.
❖However, if complex power is expressed in voltage and current form then a conjugate
is taken at the angle of current.
Question: What is difference between apparent power and complex power?
❖ Answer:
❖The apparent power is the absolute value of complex power S (magnitude of real and
reactive power) whereas complex power is the phaser sum of real and reactive power.
The apparent power is the magnitude of complex power.
Question: Why Conjugate of current is taken in complex power? S = P2 + Q2
❖ Answer:
❖The majority of the load in power system consists of inductive load. In inductive
load, voltage leads the current and current lags the voltage. Hence, conjugate is taken at
the current side to show the inductive nature of the load. However, if the load is
capacitive, then there is no need to take the conjugate. Because, in capacitive load,
current leads the voltage. 13
❖ Question: If the conjugate of current is not taken in the calculation then what will
happen?
❖ Answer: The conjugate of current is taken in the calculation of complex power to get
the correct active and reactive power values otherwise, these values will be wrong.
❖ It can be better understood with the help of an example.
❖Let S = Complex power, P = Real power, Q = Reactive power, V = Voltage phasor
and I = Current phasor.
❖ Let V = 100 with angle 45 degrees, and I = 10 with angle 15 degrees.
❖ It can be seen that the angular difference b/w V and I is (45-15 =30 degrees). So
❖ P = 100 x 10 x cos (30) = 866 and
❖ Q = 100 x 10 x sin(30) = 500.
❖ Now, if the conjugate is not taken at current angle then the total angle will be (45+15
= 60 degrees.)
❖ Now, the total complex by multiplying V and I with total angle of 60 degrees will be
❖ P = 1000 x cos(60)= 500 and imaginary part,
❖ Q = 1000 x sin(60) = 866, which is wrong.
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❖ Why, it is wrong ?
❖ It is because if power factor is calculated from these values such as
❖Cosθ = Active power/apparent power = 500/1000 = 0.5 which is not correct because
the common power factor at the industry is at least 0.8.
❖ If previous values are taken:
❖ Cosθ = Active power/apparent power = 866/1000 = 0.866. This is correct value.
❖ Hence, it is necessary to take the conjugate in order to obtain the correct answer.
❖ Question: If it is necessary then why not conjugate is taken with voltage?
❖ Answer:
❖Although it is possible to take the conjugate at the voltage. In that case answer will be
same. However, it might create confusion in terms of voltage leading and lagging.
❖ In normal operation of power system, the current lags behind the voltage. Hence, it is
more suitable to put conjugate at the current rather than at the voltage.
❖ Again take the same example. If conjugate of V is taken then the angle is
❖ - 45 + 15 = - 30 degrees.
❖Now the value of P will be 866, the value of Q will be -500. This shows that the
reactive power is not inductive but capacitive. Hence, in order to avoid this confusion,
the conjugate is taken at the current. 3
5
 This example is taken from the book Electrical
❖ Example for Practice: Power System D. Das, chapter 5, Example 5.8.
❖The one line diagram of a three phase power system is shown in Figure. Select a
common base of 100 MVA and 13.8 kV on the generator side. Drawn an impedance
diagram with all impedances including the load impedance marked in per unit. The
three phase load at bus 4 absorbs 57 MVA, 0.8 power factor lagging at 10.45 kV. Line 1
and 2 have reactance of 50 ohms and 70 ohms respectively. The manufacturer’s data for
each device is given as follow:
Name S V Xp.u Name S V Xp.u
G 90MVA 13.8kV X=18% T1 50MVA 13.8/220kV X=10%
T2 50MVA 220/11kV X=10.0% T3 50MVA 13.8/132kV X=10.0%
T4 50MVA 132/11kV X=10.0% M 80MVA 10.45kV X=20%

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