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Protecting Our Drinking Water: Federal Legislation
Protecting Our Drinking Water: Federal Legislation
One way or another, many different substances get added to fresh water. Is this water
safe to drink? The answer depends on what is present in the water, how much of it is present,
and how much of it you drink in a day. In this section, we address issues relating to water
quality. The need to keep public water supplies safe to drink has long been recognized. In
1974, the U.S. Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) in response to public
concern about harmful substances in the water supply. The aim of this act, as amended in
1996, was to ensure potable water to those who depend on community water supplies. As
required by the SDWA, contaminants that may be health risks are regulated by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The EPA sets legal limits for contaminants
according to their toxicities (Table 5.11). These limits also take into account the practical
realities that water utilities face in trying to remove the contaminants with available
technology.
Before regulatory action can be taken against a water utility, the concentration of an
impurity must exceed the maximum contaminant level (MCL), the legal limit for the
concentration of a contaminant expressed in parts per million or parts per billion. The EPA
sets legal limits for each impurity as close to the MCLG as possible, keeping in mind any
practical realities that may make it difficult to achieve the goals. Except for contaminants
regulated as carcinogens (for which the MCLG is set at zero), most legal limits and health
goals are the same. Even when less strict than the MCLGs, the MCLs still provide substantial
public health protection.
Water legislation continually needs to be updated. In part, this need arises because
water chemists keep improving their ability to detect what is in the water. But the need also
arises because our knowledge base is growing. MCL limits should be raised or lowered as we
learn more about toxicity. Currently, more than 80 contaminants are regulated:
■ metal ions such as Cd21, Cr31, CrO422, Hg21, Cu21, and Pb21
■ nonmetal ions such as NO32, F2, and various arsenic-containing ions
■ miscellaneous compounds, including pesticides, industrial solvents, and
compounds associated with plastics manufacturing
■ radioisotopes, including radon and uranium
■ biological agents, including Cryptosporidium and intestinal viruses
Depending on the particular contaminant, MCLs range from about 10 ppm to less than
1 ppb. Some contaminants interfere with liver or kidney function. Others can affect the
nervous system if ingested over a long period at levels consistently above the legal limit
(MCL). For example, unlike many contaminants, lead is a cumulative poison. Lead pipes and
solder were once commonly used in water distribution systems. When ingested by humans
and animals, lead accumulates in bones and the brain, causing severe and permanent
neurological problems. Severe exposure in adults causes symptoms such as irritability,
sleeplessness, and irrational behavior. Lead is a particular problem for children because Pb2+
can be incorporated rapidly into bone along with Ca2+. Since children have less bone mass
than adults, some Pb2+ may remain in the blood where it can damage cells, especially in the
brain. Children may suffer mental retardation and hyperactivity as a result of lead exposure,
even at relatively low concentrations.
Fortunately, very little lead is present in most public water supplies. Amounts
exceeding allowable limits are estimated to be present in less than 1% of public water supply
systems, and these serve less than 3% of the U.S. population. Most of this lead comes from
corrosion of plumbing systems, not from the source water itself. When lead is reported,
consumers are advised to take simple steps to minimize exposure, such as letting water run
before using and using only cold water for cooking. Both actions minimize the chances of
ingesting dissolved Pb2+. Until recently, the MCL for Pb2+ in drinking water was 15 ppb. In
1992, the EPA converted this to an “action level,” meaning that the EPA will take legal
action if 10% of tap water samples exceed 15 ppb. The hazard from lead is so great that the
EPA has established an MCLG of 0, even though lead is not a carcinogen.
Whereas contaminants such as lead cause chronic long-term health problems, other
substances in drinking water present more immediate and acute effects. For example, in
infants, nitrate ion (NO3-) may be converted into nitrite ion (NO2-), a substance that limits
blood’s ability to carry oxygen. Infants who drink formula made from water containing high
levels of nitrate ion may experience diffculty breathing and possibly permanent brain damage
from lack of oxygen. Although a maximum contaminant level (MCL) is set for nitrate ion in
drinking water, this level may be exceeded for a variety of reasons, including fertilizer or
manure runoff that gets into well water. Figure 5.27 shows water quality data for nitrate ion
in California. As you can see, some water sources exceeded the MCL of 10 ppm. Because
nitrate is toxic to infants, monitoring nitrate levels and informing communities of any
violations are important.
Water can also be contaminated by biological agents such as bacteria, viruses, and
protozoa. Examples include Cryptosporidium and Giardia. News media warnings
announcing a “boil-water emergency” are typically the result of a “total coliform” violation.
Coliforms are a broad class of bacteria that live in the digestive tracts of humans and other
animals. Most are harmless. The presence of a high coliform concentration in water usually
indicates that the water-treatment or distribution system is allowing fecal contamination to
enter the drinking water supply. Diarrhea, cramps, nausea, and vomiting—the symptoms of
microbial-related illness—are generally not serious for a healthy adult but can be life-
threatening for the very young, the elderly, or those with weakened immune systems.
In addition to the Safe Drinking Water Act, other federal legislation controls pollution
of lakes, rivers, and coastal areas. The Clean Water Act (CWA), passed in 1974 by Congress
and amended several times, provided the foundation for reducing surface water pollution. The
CWA established limits on the amounts of pollutants that industry can discharge, removing
over a billion pounds of toxic pollutants from U.S. waters every year. In keeping with the
new trend toward green chemistry, industries are fnding ways both to convert waste materials
into useful products and to design processes that neither use toxic substances nor harm water
quality. Improvements in surface water quality have at least two major benefcial effects.
First, they reduce the amount of cleanup needed for public drinking water supplies. And
second, they result in a more healthful natural environment for aquatic organisms. In turn,
more healthy aquatic ecosystems have many indirect benefts for humans.
ARTI
Untuk setiap kontaminan yang larut dalam air, EPA menetapkan tujuan level
kontaminan maksimum (MCLG), level maksimum kontaminan dalam air minum di mana
tidak ada efek buruk yang diketahui atau diantisipasi akan terjadi pada kesehatan manusia.
Dinyatakan dalam bagian per juta atau bagian per miliar, tingkat ini tidak memiliki efek
buruk bagi orang dengan berat 70 kilogram (154 pon) yang mengonsumsi 2 liter air setiap
hari selama 70 tahun. Setiap MCLG memungkinkan ketidakpastian dalam pengumpulan data
dan bagaimana orang yang berbeda mungkin bereaksi terhadap setiap kontaminan. MCLG
bukanlah batas hukum yang harus dipatuhi oleh sistem air; melainkan, itu adalah tujuan yang
didasarkan pada pertimbangan kesehatan manusia. Untuk karsinogen yang diketahui, EPA
telah menetapkan tujuan kesehatan pada nol dengan asumsi bahwa setiap paparan
menimbulkan risiko kanker.
Bergantung pada kontaminan tertentu, MCL berkisar dari sekitar 10 ppm hingga
kurang dari 1 ppb. Beberapa kontaminan mengganggu fungsi hati atau ginjal. Orang lain
dapat memengaruhi sistem saraf jika tertelan dalam waktu lama pada tingkat yang secara
konsisten di atas batas legal (MCL). Misalnya, tidak seperti banyak kontaminan, timbal
adalah racun kumulatif. Pipa timbal dan solder dulu biasa digunakan dalam sistem distribusi
air. Saat tertelan oleh manusia dan hewan, timbal menumpuk di tulang dan otak,
menyebabkan masalah neurologis yang parah dan permanen. Paparan yang parah pada orang
dewasa menyebabkan gejala seperti mudah tersinggung, sulit tidur, dan perilaku irasional.
Timbal merupakan masalah khusus pada anak-anak karena Pb2 + dapat dengan cepat
dimasukkan ke dalam tulang bersama dengan Ca2 +. Karena anak-anak memiliki massa
tulang yang lebih sedikit daripada orang dewasa, beberapa Pb2 + mungkin tertinggal di dalam
darah dan dapat merusak sel, terutama di otak. Anak-anak mungkin menderita
keterbelakangan mental dan hiperaktif akibat paparan timbal, bahkan pada konsentrasi yang
relatif rendah.
Untungnya, sangat sedikit timbal yang ada di sebagian besar pasokan air publik.
Jumlah yang melebihi batas yang diizinkan diperkirakan terjadi di kurang dari 1% dari sistem
pasokan air publik, dan ini melayani kurang dari 3% populasi A.S. Sebagian besar timbal ini
berasal dari korosi sistem perpipaan, bukan dari sumber air itu sendiri. Ketika timbal
dilaporkan, konsumen disarankan untuk mengambil langkah sederhana untuk meminimalkan
paparan, seperti membiarkan air mengalir sebelum digunakan dan hanya menggunakan air
dingin untuk memasak. Kedua tindakan tersebut meminimalkan kemungkinan menelan Pb2+
terlarut. Sampai saat ini, MCL untuk Pb2+ pada air minum adalah 15 ppb. Pada tahun 1992,
EPA mengubahnya menjadi “tingkat tindakan,” yang berarti bahwa EPA akan mengambil
tindakan hukum jika 10% sampel air keran melebihi 15 ppb. Bahaya timbal begitu besar
sehingga EPA telah menetapkan MCLG 0, meskipun timbal bukan karsinogen.
Air juga dapat terkontaminasi oleh agen biologi seperti bakteri, virus, dan protozoa.
Contohnya termasuk Cryptosporidium dan Giardia. Peringatan media berita yang
mengumumkan "darurat air mendidih" biasanya merupakan hasil dari pelanggaran "total
coliform". Coliforms adalah kelas bakteri yang luas yang hidup di saluran pencernaan
manusia dan hewan lainnya. Kebanyakan tidak berbahaya. Adanya konsentrasi coliform yang
tinggi di dalam air biasanya menunjukkan bahwa sistem pengolahan atau distribusi air
memungkinkan kontaminasi tinja masuk ke pasokan air minum. Diare, kram, mual, dan
muntah — gejala penyakit yang berhubungan dengan mikroba — umumnya tidak serius
untuk orang dewasa yang sehat tetapi dapat mengancam nyawa orang yang sangat muda,
orang tua, atau orang dengan sistem kekebalan yang lemah.