Microbiology World Issue1

Microbiology World Sept – Oct, 2013
www.microbiologyworld.com www.facebook.com/MicrobiologyWorld
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COUNCIL
President
Mobeen Syed, M.D.
King Endward Medical University Lahore
MSc. from ASD, BSc. from Punjab University
D-Lab from MIT MA USA
Vice-President
Sudheer Kumar Aluru, Ph.D
Human Genetics, Sri Venkateswara University, India
HOD of Biology Department (Narayana Institutions)
Managing Director
Dr. D K Acharya, Ph, D
Asst Prof., Biotech Dept.
A. M. Collage of Science, Management and Computer Technology, India
Chief Editor
Mr. Sagar Aryal
Medical Microbiology (M.Sc), Nepal
Reviewers
Mr. Samir Aga
Department of Immunological Diseases
Medical Technologist, Iraq
Mr. Saumyadip Sarkar, Ph.D

ELSEVIER Student Ambassador South Asia, Reed Elsevier (UK)
M.Sc., Research Scholar (Human Genetics), India
Editors
Dr. Sao Bang
Hanoi Medical University
Dean of Microbiology Department (Provincial Hospital)
Microbiology Specialist, Vietnam
Mr. Tankeshwar Acharya

Lecturer: Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS)
Medical Microbiology, Nepal
Mr. Avishekh Gautam

Lecturer: St. Xavier’s College
Medical Microbiology, Nepal
Mr. Manish Thapaliya

Lecturer: St. Xavier’s College
Food Microbiology, Nepal
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Table of Content
What is Microbiology? 4-7
New Place for Microbial Research 8-10
Who is father of what? 11
Bacterial endocarditis:
Serious and Fatal Disease 12-15
Botox.. For beauty and pain relief 16-17
Forensic Science Career 18-20
Monoclonal Antibodies 21-22
Mechanism discovered by which body's

cells encourage tuberculosis infection 23-25
How Simple Can Life Get? It’s Complicated 26-28
Safe Clearance of Salmonella 29-30
Funny Microbiology Pictures 31
How many viruses on Earth? 32-33
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What is Microbiology?
The world around us is full of organisms that are too small to be seen with
naked eye-bacteria, virus, fungi, algae and protozoa. These microbes live in a
wide range of habitats from hot springs to the human body and depth of ocean.
They affect each and every aspects of life on earth.
We can all think of a few microbes

that make us ill – the viruses that
cause cold and flu, or food poisoning
bacteria. However, there are many
more microbes living harmlessly
alongside us playing a vital role in
the planet‘s nutrients cycles, from
fixing nitrogen and carbon dioxide at
the beginning of the food chain right
through to decomposing and
recycling essentials nutrients at the
end of it.
Microbes are also essential to the production

of many foods and medicines – imagine our
diet without cheese, bread, yoghurt or a
world where the slightest bacterial infection
or wound could prove fatal because there
were no antibiotics or vaccines.
Microbes have always affected our health,

food and environment and they will play an
important role in the big issues that face us
in the future: climate change, renewable
energy resources; healthier lifestyles and
controlling diseases.
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What do Microbiologist do?

Because microbes have such an effect on our lives, they are a major source of
interest and employment to thousands of people. Microbiologists study
microbes: where they occur, their survival strategies, how they can affect us and
how we can explain them.
All around our planet there are microbiologists making a difference to our lives
– maybe ensuring the safety of our food or treating and preventing diseases or
developing green technologies or tracking the role of microbes in climate
change.
Basic Reseach
Before Microbiologist can solve the problems caused by microbes, or exploits
their amazing powers, they have to find out about the detailed workings of
microbial cells. The basic knowledge of genetics, cell structure and function can
then be used in applied microbiology as well as in other areas of biology.
Healthcare
Microbiologists are essential in the fight against infectious diseases. Many work
as biomedical scientists in hospitals and Health
Protection Agency labs, investigating the samples of
body tissues and fluids to diagnose infections, monitor
treatments or track disease outbreaks. Some
microbiologist work as clinical scientists in hospital and
medical school laboratories where they carry out
research and give scientific advice to medical staff who
treat patients. Other microbiologists work on pathogens
that cause diseases, such as ‗flu‘ or TB, and the
information they find is used by their colleagues to develop vaccines and better
treatments.
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Environment
Some microbiologists study how microbes live
alongside other creatures in different habitats such as
the oceans, salt lakes and Antarctica. They develop
early warning sensors to detect pollution and use
microbes to treat industrial waste. Other contributes to
the worldwide research on climate change, investigating
the effect of microbial processes on the composition of
atmosphere and climate. Microbiologists also work with
technologists and engineers to develop greener sources of energy produced from
urban and industrial waste.
Agriculture
Without agriculture there would be no

food for us to eat. Microbiologists
investigate the vital role of microbes in
soil. Some concentrate on plant pests and
diseases, developing ways to control
them. Others research the pathogens that
cause diseases in farm animals.
Microbiologists also use microbes to control insects‘ pests and weeds,
especially in developing countries.
Business
Microbiologists work in many bioscience and food

companies. They carry out research and develop new
products or work in quality control to monitor
manufacturing processes and check the microbiological
safety of goods such as medicines, cosmetics, toiletries,
biochemical and food and drink.
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Where do they work?

In the lab
Universities, research
institutes and industrial
companies employ
microbiologists to do
basic, environmental,
healthcare and agricultural
research.
Medical Microbiologists also work in hospitals and Health Protection Agency

laboratories.
Industrial microbiologist work in a range of companies – from big

pharmaceutical, biochemical, biotechnology and food businesses through to
smaller firms that develop biopharmaceuticals or specialist products.
Outside the lab

If you still love microbiology but find that lab-based work is not for you, there
are still some great options where you can use the scientific knowledge and
transferable skill you‘ve acquired while studying.
Microbiologists can use their knowledge

and skills in a wide range of careers in
industry (marketing, technical support and
regulatory affairs) education (teaching,
museums and science centers), business
(patent attorney or accountant) and
communications (public relations,
journalism and publishing).
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New Place for Microbial Research

For the microbiologist, the next best thing to a trip to Mars might well be an
expedition to the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica. Here, in the Earth's
coldest and driest deserts, the conditions approach those on our neighboring
planet and are thought to also approach the cold-arid limit for life. Not all of the
Dry Valleys are equally dry. Some have perennially frozen, glacier-fed lakes
and ephemeral streams, and thus have some soil moisture. Here one finds more
of life, even three taxa of multicellular animals—tardigrades, rotifers, and, most
numerous, bacterial-feeding
nematodes.
Lacking such a source of water,

thus being one of the truly dry
Dry Valleys, is McKelvey
Valley. What little snow falls
here or blows in sublimates in
the cold, hyper-arid conditions.
How cold? The average air
temperature is around –20 °C.
Winter brings prolonged periods
of −55 °C cold;
Fig - Endolithic community layer in fractured sandstone
in summer, air temperature can rise to a balmy 0°C. Humidity is low (<10% RH
in winter). And then there are the ceaseless katabatic winds (from the Greek
word katabatikos meaning "going downhill"). Cold, dense air falls downhill off
the East Antarctic Ice Sheet and races through the valley at speeds commonly
exceeding 50 km/h, sometimes reaching 320 km/h (200 mph). These winds
evaporate all moisture and carry sand grains that scour the barren landscape. All
in all, these conditions bear some resemblance to those used to freeze-dry
biological samples.
The valley floor is an unstable, gravelly, desiccated mineral soil with high
salinity, little organic material, and the lowest nitrate concentrations known for
any terrestrial soil. Surface temperatures fluctuate wildly under the intense
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summer sun, seesawing between –15° and +27.5°C in a few hours. UV is

intense.
And, of course, the winds scour the

land and carry off any hint of moisture.
Nevertheless, life carries on. Some
intrepid researchers left the comforts
of Hong Kong or New Zealand or even
relatively balmy Minnesota to look for
organisms living under such extreme
conditions. As reported in their recent
paper, there are some bacteria living in
these dry surface soils, mostly
Fig - Chasmoliths: a lichenized microbial community
protruding from a granite rock fracture
Acidobacter and Actinobacteria. As you might expect, at the top of the list are
desiccation tolerant taxa such as Deinococcus and Rubrobacter. There are also
numerous nitrogen fixers. With neither photoautotrophs or chemoautotrophs
present, organic carbon is at a premium, and its lack is thought to preclude
further community development.
Both qualitatively and quantitatively, most of the life in this valley is associated
not with the soil, but with the rocks. Here and there the flat-lying sedimentary
bedrock is exposed. The rock surfaces, and even the shallow cracks, are likely
sterile due to temperature fluctuations and abrasion from windblown sand. But
any life that burrows in even just a few millimeters finds more stable
temperatures and shelter from the incessant wind, even in the intense cold.
Given the estimate that -6 ºC or -8 ºC is the lower limit for metabolic processes,
some activity would be possible in these rock niches for 1000 hours per year at
the most. However, that is enough to sustain microbial communities, both the
endoliths, organisms that live within the porous structure of the rock itself and
the chasmoliths that live within the cracks and crevices.
Due to their structure and mineralogy, sedimentary rocks such as the local
sandstone are particularly well-suited for housing endoliths a few millimeters
beneath their surface. Enough light penetrates for photosynthesis (at least during
the months when there is sun), while damaging UV is reduced. In contrast to the
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soil community, these rock dwellers are mostly photoautotrophs. Two distinct
communities of bacteria and eukaryotes are detectable, both visibly and
experimentally. The upper 2 mm, called the lichen zone, is dominated by a
lichenized fungus, Texosporium sancti-jacobi, associated with the green alga
Trebouxia jamesii. Below 2 mm, the photosynthetic cyanobacteria rule, mostly
Chroococcidiopsis, a genus noted for having radioresistance comparable to that
of Deinococcus radiodurans. Low
light levels not withstanding, light
may not be the factor limiting these
endolithic communities, but rather
lack of available CO2. The chasmolith
communities in the crevices are made
up primarily of various lichens and
cyanobacteria, combined with a
distinctive sprinkling
Fig - A typical quartz hypolith showing no external evidence

of the underlying microbial community
of other bacterial groups. There is yet a fourth cryptic community here, the
hypoliths that live underneath light-colored, translucent stones. These are almost
exclusively cyanobacteria, making do in an environment that receives less than
0.1% of the incident light. There are no fungi here, and only a very few algae.
There is a tendency to think that the more extreme the environment, the less the
biological diversity. The communities in the Dry Valleys don't conform to that
pattern. The endoliths and chasmoliths combined comprise more than 50
bacterial species (based on 98% identity of their 16S rDNA sequences).
Although eukaryotes represent only 5% of these communities, they include four
genera of fungi (both Ascomycota and Basidiomycota) as well as three groups
of algae. Add in the hypoliths, and these three lithic communities span 16 phyla
in two domains.
What about the missing archaea, those masters of extreme environments? Not a
one to be found so far, not even one lurking under a rock. Surely there are yet
even more surprises to be found by the cryophilic researchers.
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Who is father of what?
Subject Father
Biology Aristotle
Evolution Charles Darwin
Genetics Gregor Mendel
Microbiology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek and

Louis Pasteur
Molecular biology Linus Pauling
Neuroscience Santiago Ramón y Cajal
Protozoology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
Taxonomy Carolus Linnaeus
Toxicology Paracelsus
Virology Paracelsus
Medical genetics Victor McKusick
Physiology Claude Bernard
Molecular biophysics Gopalasamudram Narayana

Iyer Ramachandran
Bacteriology Robert Koch, Ferdinand Cohn,
Louis Pasteur, Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek
Immunology Edward Jenner
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Bacterial endocarditis: Serious and

Fatal Disease
An infection of either the heart valves or of the inner surface, called the
endocardium, of the heart is Bacterial endocarditis. Endocarditis, which forms
vegetation by organisms, is a potentially serious condition because the
inflammation (swelling) that occurs inside the heart can interrupt the normal
blood flow through the heart valves. So this can trigger a range of complications
such as: heart failure, stroke, multiple organ damage. It is relatively uncommon
compared with other heart diseases; it is associated with significant morbidity
and mortality.
Endocarditis is more common in older people, with half of all cases occurring in
people who are over 50. However, cases of endocarditis have been recorded in
children, particularly those who are born
with congenital heart disease. Twice as
many men are affected by endocarditis as
women. Endocarditis is regarded as a
medical emergency and usually requires
admission to an intensive care unit
(ICU). Intravenous antibiotics are usually
used to treat the underlying infection.
Just under half of all people with
endocarditis will require surgery to repair
the damage to their heart.
Bacteria in the mouth, intestinal tract or urinary tract travel to the heart via the
bloodstream but usually don't cause a problem in normal hearts. However,
hearts that have defects, often even if the defects have been repaired are
vulnerable to infection. As the Once infection occurs, the bacteria continue to
grow and may seriously damage the heart. Bacterial endocarditis is most likely
to occur in patients who have: Aortic Valve Lesions, Patent Ductus Arteriosus,
tetralogy of Fallot, ventricular septal defect, Mitral Valve Prolapse,
transposition of the great Arteries.
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It is unlikely to occur in patients who have a completely repaired pulmonary

valve stenosis, arterial septal defect, ventricular septal defect or patent ductus
arteriosus.
Gram positive cocci have always dominated the scene as major etiologic agents.
Gram negative bacilli (GNB) other than Hemophilus, Actinobacillus,
Cardiobacterium, Eikenella and Kingella (HACEK) are regarded as less
frequent cause of endocarditis. They are associated with certain percentage of
Endocarditis in Intravenous drug abuser (IVDU) and Prosthetic valve
endocarditis (PVE).
The usual signs of bacterial endocarditis are prolonged fever for two to three
days in a person with congenital heart disease that occurs after a procedure in
the mouth, intestinal tract or urinary tract. However, the infection may occur
without a previous procedure. Symptoms may include: Poor appetite, Fatigue,
Joint pain, Rash, Weight loss.
Bacterial endocarditis is classified as,
Sub-acute bacterial endocarditis (SBE) is often due to streptococci of low

virulence and mild to moderate illness which progresses slowly over weeks and
months and has low propensity to hematogenously seed extracardiac sites.
Acute bacterial endocarditis (ABE) is a fulminant illness over days to weeks,

and is more likely due to Staphylococcus aureus which has much greater
virulence, or disease-producing capacity and frequently causes metastatic
infection
Pathophysiology
It occurs when bacteria spread through the
bloodstream and land inside the heart and grow
there. Usually, if there are bacteria circulating in
the bloodstream, they don't stick to the inside of
the heart: the blood flows smoothly. If the heart is
abnormal due to certain types of surgery or other
defects, there may be rough surfaces causing
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turbulent blood flow (known as a murmur) to which bacteria can attach and
cause infection.
Although uncertain, it is believed that cardiac valves and other endocardial

surfaces become infected after exposure to micro emboli from bacteria
circulating in the bloodstream. Dextran-producing bacteria, such as
Streptococcus mutans, have a virulence factor that promotes adherence to
endovascular surfaces.
Coagulase-negative staphylococci may produce a biofilm on prosthetic surfaces,
which also promotes adherence. Beta-hemolytic streptococci and enteric gram-
negative bacteria lack recognized adherence factors, and appear less likely to
cause endocarditis. Endocardial surfaces previously damaged from valvular
heart disease, endocarditis, surgery, or pacemaker wires provide a favorable
environment for thrombus formation. Over time, microorganisms proliferate in
the thrombus, resulting in classic vegetation. Microorganisms are released into
the circulation, usually on a continuous basis, which often results in interesting
findings.
Lab diagnosis
Major criteria for probable endocarditis are persistant
bacteremia with a new regurgitant heart murmur or
valvular heart disease with vesculitis or negative or
intermittent bacteremia with fever. Modern blood
culture techniques includes three sets suffice for two
days, not necessarily beyond this point. CT scan
electrocardiogram, echocardiogram, can be done for
the diagnosis of disease. New diagnostic approaches
like culture of vegetations and infected cardiac valve
tissue has shown better result in blood culture negative endocarditis.
When causative microorganisms are cultured or seen histologically in
vegetations and valve tissues. In case of streptococcal infection Anti
streptolysin O titer can be determined. Latex particle coated with anti-CRP
antibodies were used for CRP test by mixing with 50μl of patients‘ serum
Haematuria and pyuria can be observed by microscopy from urine sample of
each patient on same day of blood examination when blood culture is seen
negative.
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Treatment
The penicillin, often in combination with
gentamicin, remains the cornerstones of
therapy for endocarditis caused by
penicillin-susceptible streptococci. For
penicillin-allergic patients, vancomycin
is substituted. For relatively penicillin-
insensitive streptococci (minimal
inhibitory concentration higher than 0.1
to 0.5 mg/mL), the penicillin dosage is
higher and duration of therapy is 2 weeks. Gentamicin is given for the first 2
weeks; treatment for endocarditis caused by enterococci is longer; both
penicillin and gentamicin are given for 6 weeks, For vancomycin-resistant
enterococci (VRE), streptogramin quinupristin-dalfopristin (Synercid) either
alone or in combination with doxycycline and rifampin is administered.
Prevention
Bacterial endocarditis is one of the most dreaded complications of structural
heart disease. Its mortality rate in the pre-antibiotic era was nearly 100% and
remains high even today; approaching 20-30 %. This is mainly due to
increasing organism resistance to antibiotics and emergence of fungal infections
in response to multiple antibiotic treatments. So the prevention is important.
Prophylaxis for Bacterial endocarditis is effective only if appropriate antibiotic
is given in a sufficient amount at the right time. Antibiotics should be
administered at time only when there is likelihood of bacteremia so as not to
give a bacterial resistance. Better the antibiotic administered at a perioperative
period. If a procedure involves affected tissue, it is necessary to provide
additional doses of antibiotic for treatment of an established infection. The
recommended prophylactic regimen for dental and oral procedures is a single
dose of oral amoxicillin. If the patient is unable to take oral medication,
parenteral administration of antibiotic is required. If parenteral amoxicillin is
not available, ampicillin is the alternative.
- Bharat Pangeni
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Botox.. For beauty and pain relief

The modern era of
microbiology also recognize
for its application in the
different field. The micro
organism is not always
harmful but it also contributes
in making different useful
products. One of the products
is Botox injections which
have highly demand in these
days.
The exotoxin produced by Clostridium botulinum is one of the most

powerful poisons known. These are spore formers anaerobic solid bacteria
mostly found naturally on many foods. They survive usually in cooking
materials and inadequate canning procedures. In this conditions toxin can be
produced and if ingested it causes botulism. A few milligrams of this
exotoxin are sufficient to kill the entire population of a large city. The
botulinum toxin blocks transmission of acetyl choline nerve signals to the
muscles, resulting in paralysis and often in death. The toxin from type A
organism of Clostridium botulinum is known as Botox has become useful in
treating various conditions.
Botox is a type of exotoxin produced by Clostridium botulinum, mostly by A

type. These are anaerobic soil bacteria and are spore formers found naturally
on many foods.
Nowadays it is used as injection for various purposes. Botox injections may

be one of the most significant medical advances of the past most useful
century. It was first introduced in 1970‘s. The most usual use of botox is
cosmetic treatment to remove facial lines, such as frown lines. Extremely
dilute botox is injected directly into the area, inactivating the muscles that
are causing the frown or other lines.
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Botox injections are also provided

for the treatment of various types of
headaches and chronic pain. There
were minimal side effects and in
fact it was felt that Botox has less
potential complication than many
oral medications commonly used to
treat headache pain.
It is also used for the treatment of

Fig: Clostridium botulinum spores
severe under arm sweating known as
primary axillary hyperhydrosis, which affects millions in their every day
social and public interactions.
Botox is also used to receive a number of very painful conditions involving

muscle contractions, such as dystonia (severe muscle cramping). For
example, cervical dystonia is a painful disease in which muscles in the neck
and shoulder contact involuntaries causing jerky movements, muscle pain
and tremors. Injections of Botox directly into the affected areas give relief
for 3 to 4 months, after which the treatment may be repeated. Another
example is Parkinson‘s disease, a condition in which certain nerve cells are
lost, resulting in tremor, impaired movement, and in some cases, dystonia.
Botox injected into the affected muscles can give dramatic, although
temporary relief. It has come a long way in proving to patients that its effects
are dramatic, especially in its ability to rejuvenate facial expressions and
recapture a youthful presentation.
So inspite of its powerful and dangerous properties, botulinum toxin when

used with great care can be a useful therapeutic agent.
- Sanjay Kumar Pathak
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Forensic Science Career

What is Forensic Science?
The word forensic comes from the Latin word forensis: public; to the forum or
public discussion; argumentative, rhetorical, belonging to debate or discussion.
From there it is a small step to the modern definition of forensic as belonging to,
used in or suitable to courts of judicature, or to public discussion or debate.
Forensic science is science used in public,

in a court, or in the justice system. Any
science used for the purposes of the law is
a forensic science. Forensic science can be
simply defined as the application of
science to the law. In criminal cases
forensic scientists are often involved in
the search for and examination of physical
traces which might be useful for
establishing or excluding an association
between someone suspected of committing a crime and the scene of the crime or
victim. Such traces commonly include blood and other body fluids, hairs, textile
fibers from clothing etc, materials used in buildings such as paint and glass,
footwear, tool and tyre marks, flammable substances used to start fires and so
on. Sometimes the scientist will visit the scene itself to advice about likely
sequence of events, any indicators as to who the perpetrator might be, and to
join in the initial search for evidence. Other forensic scientist‘s analyses
suspected drugs of abuse, specimens from people thought to have taken them or
to have been driving after drinking too much alcohol, or to have been poisoned.
Yet others specialize in firearms, explosives, or documents whose authenticity
is questioned.
Forensic scientists can appear for either side – prosecution or defense in

criminal matters, and plaintiff or defendant in civil ones. They tend to present
their findings and opinions in written form either as formal statements of
evidence or reports. Sometimes they are required to attend court to give their
evidence in person.
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Why Study Forensic Science?

Forensic science is a subject that fascinates most of us. What makes forensic
science so exciting to study is the nature of the problems to be solved, and this
provides its own intrinsic rewards. Great emphasis is placed not only on
developing the skills of forensic examination, but also on their application and
on the communication of findings to the lay-person. Forensic science is a
rigorous scientific discipline, and as such its graduates are highly employable
individuals possessing the knowledge and skills for both subject-related
employments, such as in a forensic laboratory, or non-subject-related
employment in a wider range of careers.
Where Will I Work?

Forensic scientists work in laboratories, at crime scenes, in offices, and in
morgues. They may work for federal, state and local government, forensic
laboratories, medical examiners offices, hospitals, universities, toxicology
laboratories, police departments, medical examiner/coroner offices, or as
independent forensic science consultants.
What Do Forensic Scientists Do?

The forensic sciences form a vital part of
the entire justice and ¬regulatory system.
Some of the different divisions, or
disciplines, of forensic science have
become identified primarily with law
enforcement — an image enhanced by
television and movies. This is misleading
because forensic scientists are involved in
all aspects of criminal cases, and the results of their work may serve either the
defense or the prosecution. The forensic scientist‘s goal is the evenhanded use
of all available information to determine the facts and, subsequently, the truth.
The forensic scientist‘s role in the civil justice arena is expanding. Issues range
from questions of the validity of a signature on a will, to a claim of product
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liability, to questions of whether a corporation is complying with environmental

laws, and the protection of ¬constitutionally guaranteed individual rights.
Forensic science is a rewarding career where the love of science can be applied
to the good of society, public health, and public safety.
How Do I Become a Forensic Scientist?

You will need:
• a bachelor‘s degree — get one in science; some forensic sciences require
advanced degrees; take chemistry, biology, math, and English composition
• good speaking skills — take public speaking, join the drama club,
toastmasters, the debate team
• good note-taking skills
• the ability to write an understandable scientific report
• intellectual curiosity
• personal integrity
How Much Money Will I Make?

Income in the forensic sciences varies
greatly depending upon your degree, your
actual job, where you work, and how many
hours you work. You may never ―get rich‖
but you will have a good income. You will
be satisfied with your job, knowing you are
contributing to justice — keeping the good
guys on the street and helping put the bad
guys in jail. Forensic scientists work
different hours, depending upon what they
do. Some work in forensic laboratories and
work 40 hours a week, Monday through
Friday. Others work out in the field on digs
and may work different hours. Still others are ―on call‖ and work after their
regular shift and receive overtime or compensatory time. Essentially every
branch or forensic science offers opportunity for personal growth, career
advancement, and increasing financial compensation.
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Monoclonal Antibody
An antibody is a Y-shaped protein produced by a type of white blood cell
known as a B cell. B cells are made in the bone marrow of the body and then
travel to such organs as the spleen and the lymph nodes. Mature B cells
respond to foreign substances called antigens. They then differentiate into
plasma cells, which secrete antibodies. Antibodies neutralize or mark antigens
for destruction with the help of other cells of the immune system- the system of
organs, tissues, cells, and cell products, including antibodies, responsible for
ridding the body of disease causing organisms or substances.
In 1975, Argentine born British

immunologist Cesar Milstein
and German immunologist
Georges Kohler discovered a
technique to generate a quantity
of white blood cells that
uniformly produce only one type
of antibody. These antibodies,
known as monoclonal
antibodies, target only one
specific antigen-for example,
one particular virus or toxin.
White blood cells naturally
produce many different types of antibodies, each designed to mark one specific
antigen. Creating monoclonal antibodies allowed scientist to tag one specific
substance. By the mid-1990s monoclonal antibodies were commonly used in
biomedical research and in diagnostic devices such as home pregnancy tests.
How monoclonal antibodies work

Scientists use MAbs to identify and measure minute quantities of hormones,
infectious substances, toxins, and other molecules in tissues and fluids. MAbs
can also be used to identify malignant cells (cells with abnormal growth) in
tissues. For example, to help diagnose cancers hidden in the body, radioactive
substances are attached to MAbs that recognize and target cancer cells. These
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MAbs are ten injected into a patient‘s body. The MAbs find cancer cells for
which they targeted and blind to them. A special machine that uses film
sensitivity to radioactivity is used to take an internal picture of the patient‘s
body. This image reveals any cells to which the MAbs attached, indicating the
presence of cancer.
Researchers use MAbs created to target a muscle protein called myosin to

assess the extent of damage to the heart after a heart attack. Myosin exists in
large quantities in healthy muscle tissue. When MAbs for myosin are injected
into the heart muscle of a heart-attack patient, the MAbs bind to any remaining
myosin, enabling researchers to determine how much of this protein was lost
during the heart attack, an indication of the extent of heart damage. MAbs
targeted for a blood protein called fibrin, which is produced when blood
coagulates, can locate the site of blood clots in a patient. MAbs can also be used
to determine whether the tissue of a potential organ donor is compatible with
the tissue of a recipient. After a patient receives an organ transplant, different
MAbs can then be used to help prevent the patient‘s immune system from
rejecting the new organ.
One well-known example of a MAb-based technology is the home pregnancy

kit. In one version of this test, a MAb specific for human chorionic
gonadotropin (HCG), a hormone elevated in urine only during pregnancy, is
purified and bound to plastic test tube. A urine sample is collected and added to
the tube, and if HCG is present, the MAb attaches to it. A second MAb also
specific for HCG, is then added. This second MAb has an additional molecule
linked to it, such as an enzyme that changes the color of the urine in the final
step of the test. In the absence of HCG in the urine, the second purified antibody
will not be bound and no change in urine color will occur.
MAbs can also be used to diagnose the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
that causes AIDS. A laboratory test determines whether an individual is
producing antibodies against HIV. In this test, a MAb is used to test the blood
of a patient for the presence of another type of antibody that binds to the virus.
Only patients who have been exposed to HIV will have the second type of
antibody in their blood.
- Bidur Aryal
~ 22 ~
Mechanism discovered by which

body's cells encourage tuberculosis
infection
Scientists have discovered a signaling pathway that tuberculosis bacteria use to
coerce disease-fighting cells to switch allegiance and work on their behalf.
Epithelial cells line the airways and other surfaces to protect and defend the
body. Tuberculosis bacteria co-opt these epithelial cells into helping create
tubercles: the small, rounded masses characteristic
of TB. The tubercles enable the bacteria to expand
their numbers and spread to other locations. By
inciting parts of the immune system to go into
overdrive, this same molecular signaling pathway
may play other roles in inflammatory conditions
such as arthritis and some forms of heart disease
and cancer.
"If we could keep this pathway from inciting the host immune system, we may
be well on the way to finding innovative new therapies against TB, as well as
other serious disorders," said the senior researcher on the study, Dr. Lalita
Ramakrishnan, University of Washington (UW) associate professor of
microbiology, medicine, and immunology. The results appear in the Dec. 10,
2009, express edition of Science.
Global health researchers are eager for new treatments for TB because many
strains worldwide have become resistant to standard antimicrobials. Blocking a
host pathway that the bacteria use would be an entirely different approach,
Ramakrishnan explained, because it would keep the body from allowing the
infection to take hold and be sustained, rather than a treatment aimed at killing
the bacteria themselves. A host pathway blocker, if one becomes available,
might also be quicker than current therapies, which take a long time to subdue
the TB infection.
~ 23 ~
"Most diseases, such as high blood pressure and depression, are already being
treated by blockers and inhibitors of host enzymes and pathways,"
Ramakrishnan noted, "Many of these turn down certain cell signals as part of
their therapeutic action. We and some other researchers are now exploring the
possibility of blocking or inhibiting molecular mechanisms in the body to
prevent or treat infectious diseases as well. "
Earlier studies in the zebrafish by the Ramakrishnan lab demonstrated that TB

tubercles were not, as previously thought, the way that the body walls off the
bacteria to protect itself. Instead, these nodules (also called granulomas) are
hubs for bacteria production and distribution. Uninfected macrophages -- the
body's frontline soldiers that can eat and destroy many bacteria -- are recruited
to the nodules, where they become TB-infected. However, the TB bacteria are
able to grow in the macrophages, rather than being killed, likely by dampening
the macrophages' defenses.
So by wooing more macrophages into the granuloma, the bacteria can use them
to expand further. Some germ-laded macrophages then move to a new location,
where they again attract more macrophages. New tubercles form and the scene
is repeated.
Ramakrishnan and her research team have identified a molecular mechanism by

which the mycobacteria that cause TB induce the body to form these production
and distribution nodules. Researchers have long known that TB virulence is
associated with a small protein the bacteria secrete, called ESAT-6.
Ramakrishan's group now has found that this secreted bacterial protein induces
epithelial cells -- the cells that make up membranous tissue covers inside the
body -- to produce an enzyme called MMP9. This enzyme has many functions
including breaking down gelatin -- a connective tissue protein -- into its
components. In people, the presence of MMP9 is associated with increased
susceptibility to infection and worse outcomes. The findings of this new study
explain why this might be the case. MMP9 is also implicated in the
development of several non-infectious inflammatory conditions, like arthritis, as
well as heart disease and cancer.
Epithelial cells were once thought to be bystanders as tuberculosis took hold,

according to the research group. However, their latest findings suggest that
~ 24 ~
secretion of MMP9 by epithelial cells is amplified in the vicinity of a single TB

infected macrophage. The activity of this enzyme draws in uninfected
macrophages to join the infected macrophage to form and expand the
granuloma.
"TB bacteria may have a two-prong strategy," said the first author of the Dec.
10 Science Express report, Dr. Hannah E. Volkman, who recently received her
Ph.D. from the UW Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, "whereby the
bacteria simultaneously suppress the macrophages inflammatory programs in
order to create a hospitable niche inside them, while prodding epithelial cells to
signal more macrophages to arrive and be unwitting participants in their home
expansion project."
The researchers genetically "knocked out" MMP9 production in zebrafish

embryos to see if that made them more resistant to TB. After TB infection, these
embryos indeed had greater survival rates, fewer bacteria, and fewer
granulomas than their normal, MMP9-producing siblings. This finding
suggested that intercepting the production of MMP9 in epithelial cells should be
further studied as a possible TB therapy.
"These novel findings," said Dr. William Parks, a UW professor of medicine

and director of the UW Center for Lung Biology who was not part of this study,
"point to new ways in which the body's resident cells can effect an
inflammatory response and may have relevance beyond TB infection. The
pathogen-to-epithelium-to-macrophage pathway they uncovered should provide
several new avenues that could be targeted for intervention."
Co-authors of the article, "Tuberculous Granuloma Induction via Interaction of

a Bacterial Secreted Protein with Host Epithelium," in addition to Volkman and
Ramakrishnan, are Tamara C. Pozos, a former UW infectious disease fellow
who is now on the faculty of Children's Hospital and Clinics of Minnesota; John
Zheng, a UW medical student; J. Muse Davis, an M.D./Ph.D. student at Emory
University; and John F. Rawls, assistant professor of cell and molecular
physiology, microbiology, and immunology, University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill.
Source: University of Washington
~ 25 ~
How Simple Can Life Get? It’s

Complicated
In the pageant of life, we are genetically bloated. The human genome contains
around 20,000 protein-coding genes. Many other species get by with a lot less.
The gut microbe Escherichia coli, for example, has just 4,100 genes.
Scientists have long wondered how much further life can be stripped down and
still remain alive. Is there a genetic essence of life? The answer seems to be that
the true essence of life is not some handful of genes, but coexistence.
(The microbe Escherichia coli has just 4,100 protein-coding genes.

Scientists have found, by systematically shutting those genes off one at a
time, that only 302 are absolutely essential to its survival)
E. coli has fewer genes than we do, in part because it has a lot fewer things to
do. It doesn‘t have to build a brain or a stomach, for example. But E. coli is a
versatile organism in its own right, with genes allowing it to feed on many
different kinds of sugar, as well as to withstand stresses like starvation and heat.
In recent years, scientists have systematically shut down each of E. coli‘s genes
to see which it can live without. Most of its genes turn out to be dispensable.
Only 302 have proved to be absolutely essential.
~ 26 ~
Those essential genes carry out the same fundamental tasks that take place in
our own cells, like copying DNA and building proteins from genes. And yet the
302 genes that are essential to E. coli turn out not to be life‘s minimal genome.
Scientists have come up with lists of essential genes in other microbes, and
while the lists overlap, they are not identical. Scientists can also look to nature
for species that are closer to the minimal genome. In 1969, they first recognized
that a group of disease-causing bacteria called Mycoplasma had remarkably tiny
genomes. One species, Mycoplasma genitalium, turned out to have a mere 475
genes — one-fiftieth the number in our own set.
For years, M. genitalium held the record for the smallest genome. (Scientists
don‘t allow viruses into this contest, since viruses can‘t grow and reproduce on
their own.) But in recent years, M. genitalium has lost its minimalist crown.
Today, the record-holder is a microbe called Tremblaya princeps, which
contains only 120 protein-coding genes.
Have we found the minimal genome at last? The answer, once again, is no. But
the reason for that reveals something else intriguing about life.
Tremblaya lives in one particular place: the body of a mealybug. And the
mealybug, in turn, depends on Tremblaya for its survival.
The insect‘s only source of food is the sap that it drinks from trees. On its own,
the mealybug couldn‘t survive on this meager diet. Tremblaya transforms the
sap into vitamins and amino acids, which the mealybug can then use to build
proteins. In exchange for this biological alchemy, mealybugs provide
Tremblaya with a steady source of food and shelter.
It‘s not precisely accurate to say that Tremblaya provides this service. It needs
help. Scientists have long known that Tremblaya contains mysterious blobs, but
it wasn‘t until 2001 that Carol D. von Dohlen of Utah State University and her
colleagues discovered that those blobs were a second species of bacteria, living
within Tremblaya.
The bacteria, named Moranella endobia, have a genome of their own. It‘s a tiny
genome, with just 406 genes, but it‘s more than twice as big as Tremblaya‘s.
Last month in the journal Cell, John McCutcheon of the University of Montana
and his colleagues dissected the genes of both Tremblaya and Moranella to get a
~ 27 ~
better sense of what each one does. The two species split up the work involved
in building amino acids and assembling them into proteins. Just as the mealybug
cannot live without its microbes, the microbes can‘t live without each other.
Dr. McCutcheon‘s research reveals a baroque history. At some point in the
distant past, the ancestors of Tremblaya infected the ancestors of mealybugs.
The microbes gave the insects new metabolic powers, allowing them to feed on
an abundant substance — sap — that most other insects couldn‘t touch. In its
comfortable environment, Tremblaya cast off most of its genes.
Only later did Moranella invade the mealybug, and then Tremblaya. It took over
some of Tremblaya‘s work, opening the way for Tremblaya to lose even more
of its DNA, until it was stripped down to a mere 120 genes.
Tremblaya and Moranella are the only bacteria found in a healthy mealybug.
But Dr. McCutcheon and his colleagues also found vestiges of vanished
microbes — in the mealybug‘s own DNA. Some of its genes are more closely
related to genes found in bacteria than genes found in any animal.
This strange resemblance means that mealybugs were once host to other species
of bacteria, and some of the genes from those mystery microbes accidentally
ended up incorporated into their own DNA.
Six separate species apparently donated genes to the insects. Dr. McCutcheon
and his colleagues suspect that the insect uses some of these genes to manage its
microbial residents — perhaps using bacteria proteins to extract amino acids
from them, for example.
Studies like Dr. McCutcheon‘s show that the concept of a minimal genome,
while provocative, is ultimately a dead end. Life does not exist in a laboratory
vacuum, where scientists can pare away genes to some Platonic purity. Life
exists in a tapestry, and the species with the smallest genomes in the world
survive only because they are nestled in life‘s net.
Note: (An earlier version of this article misstated the academic affiliation of
Carol D. von Dohlen. Dr. von Dohlen, a biologist, is with Utah State University,
not the University of Utah)
- Samir Aga
~ 28 ~
Safe Clearance of Salmonella

Individuals with an intact complex gut flora are more likely to clear Salmonella after
an infection than individuals with an altered, less complex gut flora. This is suggested
by results from a mouse model for Salmonella diarrhea asking why certain people
become chronic carriers after a salmonella infection.
Salmonella is troublesome – and can

become even more so: even long
after an infection has been
overcome, certain people can
become chronic carriers. They feel
healthy, no longer notice any signs
of the infection and don‘t have
diarrhoea. However, they still
excrete a large number of the
pathogens in their faeces even
weeks after recovery and,
unintentionally, can thus pass on the
intestinal disease.
Wolf-Dietrich Hardt, a professor of microbiology at ETH Zurich, and his team have
now discovered the circumstances under which an individual can become a chronic
carrier of salmonella in a mouse model.
Immune response not enough by itself

In the case of a first infection with a pathogenic salmonella strain, the mouse (and
person) affected develops so-called secretory antibodies to fight the germ. In the case
of a second infection with the same bacteria strain, these antibodies help rendering the
intruders innocuous in the gut lumen.
This standard immune response, however, doesn‘t explain why single individuals
become chronic carriers. For instance, the experiments showed that genetically
modified mice without the corresponding antibodies cleared the pathogen once and for
all.
~ 29 ~
Intestinal bacteria dispose of the competition

The microbiologists only discovered the clearance mechanism at second glance. Like
in the human gut, tens of billions of various types of bacteria also live in mouse
intestines – commensal bacteria that grow densely in the gut.
The experiments have now revealed the advantage of mice that are well-equipped with
gut flora: if it‘s diverse and complex, salmonella has little chance of settling
permanently in the gut, becoming dislodged and disposed of in the faeces.
Hardt and his team have created a mouse whose gut flora is extremely simple and
species-poor. In these mice, the pathogen can implant itself, regardless of the
remaining immune response. Whilst the carrier no longer feels any effects of the
infection, traces of the pathogens remain in the faeces even weeks after the infection.
One percent of patients affected

Humans, Hardt suspects, should have a similar mechanism to mice. However, chronic
carriers are rare in humans: only one percent of patients have salmonella in their
faeces long after overcoming the disease. ―In Germany, only 500 in every 50,000
patients would be affected‖, says the ETH-Zurich professor.
For people who work in the food industry, especially meat processing, this is serious;
they can‘t work until all traces of salmonella have disappeared. Treatment methods
can be quite crude. Patients are sent into quarantine and given antibiotics. If that
doesn‘t contain the disease, the gall bladder might be removed. ―That‘s where the
salmonella seems to settle more long-term if it can‘t be eliminated altogether‖, says
Hardt.
If a way could be found to supplement and stabilise the patients‘ gut flora permanently
with a greater variety of bacteria, persistent Salmonella infections might subside
without drastic intervention. However, that is still a long way off. For the time being,
we still know far too little about how the commensal bacteria work to manipulate or
use them specifically for therapeutic purposes.
Reference:
Endt K, Stecher B, Chaffron S, Slack E, Tchitchek N, et al. 2010 The Microbiota
Mediates Pathogen Clearance from the Gut Lumen after Non-Typhoidal Salmonella
Diarrhea.
~ 30 ~
Funny Microbiology Pictures
~ 31 ~
How many viruses on Earth?

How many different viruses are there on planet Earth? Twenty years ago
Stephen Morse suggested that there were about one million viruses of
vertebrates (he arrived at this calculation by assuming ~20 different viruses in
each of the 50,000 vertebrates on the planet). The results of a new study suggest
that at least 320,000 different viruses infect mammals.
To estimate unknown viral diversity in

mammals, 1,897 samples (urine, throat swabs,
feces, roost urine) were collected from the
Indian flying fox,Pteropus giganteus, and
analyzed for viral sequences by consensus
polymerase chain reaction. This bat species
was selected for the study because it is known
to harbor zoonotic pathogens such as Nipah
virus. PCR assays were designed to detect
viruses from nine viral families. A total of 985
viral sequences from members of 7 viral
families were obtained. These included 11
paramyxoviruses (including Nipah virus and 10 new viruses), 14 adenoviruses
(13 novel), 8 novel astroviruses, 4 distinct coronaviruses, 3 novel
polyomaviruses, 2 bocaviruses, and many new herpesviruses.
Statistical methods were then used to estimate that P. giganteus likely harbor 58
different viruses, of which 55 were identified in this study. If the 5,486 known
mammalian species each harbor 58 viruses, there would be ~320,000 unknown
viruses that infect mammals. This is likely to be un under-estimate as only 9
viral families were targeted by the study. In addition, the PCR approach only
detects viruses similar to those that we already know. Unbiased approaches,
such as deep DNA sequencing, would likely detect more.
Let‘s extend this analysis to additional species, even though it might not be
correct to do so. If we assume that the 62,305 known vertebrate species each
harbor 58 viruses, the number of unknown viruses rises to 3,613,690 – over
three times more than Dr. Morse‘s estimate. The number rises to 100,939,140
~ 32 ~
viruses if we include the 1,740,330 known species of vertebrates, invertebrates,

plants, lichens, mushrooms, and brown algae.
This number does not include viruses of bacteria, archaea, and other single-
celled organisms. Considering that there are 1031 virus particles in the oceans –
mostly bacteriophages – the number is likely to be substantially higher.
Based on the cost to study viruses

in P. giganteus ($1.2 million), it
would require $6.4 billion to
discover all mammalian viruses, or
$1.4 billion to discover 85% of
them. I believe this would be
money well spent, as the
information would allow
unprecedented study on the
diversity and origins of viruses and
their evolution. The authors justify
this expenditure solely in terms of
human health; they note that the cost ―would represent a small fraction of the
cost of many pandemic zoonoses‖. However it is not at all clear that knowing
all the viruses that could potentially infect humans would have an impact on our
ability to prevent disease. Even the authors note that ―these programs will not
themselves prevent the emergence of new zoonotic viruses‖. We have known
for some time that P. giganteusharbors Nipah virus, yet outbreaks of infection
continue to occur each year. While it is not inconceivable that such information
could be useful in responding to zoonotic outbreaks, the knowledge of all the
viruses on Earth would likely impact human health in ways that cannot be
currently imagined.
Update 1: I neglected to point out an assumption made in this study that

detection of a PCR product in a bat indicates that the virus is replicating in that
animal. As discussed for MERS-CoV, conclusive evidence that a virus is present
in a given host requires isolation of infectious virus, or if that is not possible,
isolation of full length viral genomes from multiple hosts, together with
detection of anti-viral antibodies. Obviously these measures cannot be taken for
a study such as the one described above whose aim is to estimate the number of
unknown viruses.
~ 33 ~
You can also send your articles to
info@microbiologyworld.com
or
broneps1@gmail.com
Selected ones will be published in

our next issue of Nov-Dec.
Thanks,
Microbiology World Team
~ 34 ~

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Microbiology World Sept – Oct, 2013

Mr. Saumyadip Sarkar, Ph.D

Mr. Tankeshwar Acharya

Mr. Avishekh Gautam

Mr. Manish Thapaliya

New Place for Microbial Research 8-10

Who is father of what? 11

Botox.. For beauty and pain relief 16-17

Forensic Science Career 18-20

Monoclonal Antibodies 21-22

Mechanism discovered by which body's

How Simple Can Life Get? It’s Complicated 26-28

Safe Clearance of Salmonella 29-30

Funny Microbiology Pictures 31

How many viruses on Earth? 32-33

We can all think of a few microbes

Microbes are also essential to the production

Microbes have always affected our health,

What do Microbiologist do?

Without agriculture there would be no

Microbiologists work in many bioscience and food

Where do they work?

Medical Microbiologists also work in hospitals and Health Protection Agency

Industrial microbiologist work in a range of companies – from big

Outside the lab

Microbiologists can use their knowledge

New Place for Microbial Research

Lacking such a source of water,

summer sun, seesawing between –15° and +27.5°C in a few hours. UV is

And, of course, the winds scour the

Fig - A typical quartz hypolith showing no external evidence

Who is father of what?

Evolution Charles Darwin

Genetics Gregor Mendel

Microbiology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek and

Neuroscience Santiago Ramón y Cajal

Protozoology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

Taxonomy Carolus Linnaeus

Medical genetics Victor McKusick

Physiology Claude Bernard

Molecular biophysics Gopalasamudram Narayana

Bacterial endocarditis: Serious and

It is unlikely to occur in patients who have a completely repaired pulmonary

Bacterial endocarditis is classified as,

Sub-acute bacterial endocarditis (SBE) is often due to streptococci of low

Acute bacterial endocarditis (ABE) is a fulminant illness over days to weeks,

Although uncertain, it is believed that cardiac valves and other endocardial

Botox.. For beauty and pain relief

The exotoxin produced by Clostridium botulinum is one of the most

Botox is a type of exotoxin produced by Clostridium botulinum, mostly by A

Nowadays it is used as injection for various purposes. Botox injections may

Botox injections are also provided

It is also used for the treatment of

Botox is also used to receive a number of very painful conditions involving

So inspite of its powerful and dangerous properties, botulinum toxin when

- Sanjay Kumar Pathak

Forensic Science Career

Forensic science is science used in public,

Forensic scientists can appear for either side – prosecution or defense in

Why Study Forensic Science?

Where Will I Work?

What Do Forensic Scientists Do?

liability, to questions of whether a corporation is complying with environmental