Bryophytes:

Bryophytes are small non-vascular embryophytes that reproduce via spores rather than
flowers or seeds.
They are the most simple and primitive group of Embryophyta. They are said to be the first
land plants. Presence of swimming antherozoids (male sperms) is an evidence of their aquatic
ancestry. Bryology is the study of bryophytes.

Habitat:
Bryophytes grow densely in moist and shady places and form thick carpets or mats on moist
soils, rocks, bark of trees, especially during the rainy season.

Morphology:

● Plant body is gametophytic, independent, dominant, autotrophic, either thalloid (i.e.,

thallus like, not differentiated into root, stem and leaves) or folise, containing a
rootless leafy shoot.
● Plant body is very small and ranges from a few mm. to many cm. Zoopsis (liverworts)
is the smallest bryophyte (5 mm.) while the tallest bryophyte is Dawsonia (moss) (50-
70 cms.).
● Leaves and stems found in vascular plants are absent. Functions of stem and leaves
are performed by ‘axis’ and ‘phylloid’ respectively.
● They contain chlorophyll and can synthesize food through the process of
photosynthesis.
● Roots are absent. Functions of the roots are performed by rhizoids. Cells are also
capable to absorb moisture directly from the ground or atmosphere. Therefore,
Bryophytes can also survive on the moist soils.
● Rhizoids may be unicellular, un-branched (e.g., Marchantia, Anthoceros) or
multicellular and branched (e.g., Funaria).
 ● In some members (e.g., Riccia, Marchantia) scales are present. These are violet
coloured, multicellular and single cell thick. They protect the growing point and help
to retain the moisture.
● Vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) is completely absent. Water and food material is
transferred from cell to cell. However, in some Bryophytes (e.g., mosses) a few cells
in groups of 2-3 are present for conduction of water and food. These cells are known
as hydroid and leptoids respectively. Cuticle and stomata are absent.
● They are terrestrial but require external water to complete their life cycle. Hence, they
are called “Amphibians of plant kingdom”.

Classification:
Bryophytes are classified under three classes: Hepaticae (Liverworts), Anthocerotae
(Hornworts) and Musci (Mosses).

Liverworts
Liverworts are extremely small plants characterized by flattened stems and undifferentiated
leaves, as well as single-celled rhizoids. Liverworts can be distinguished from other
bryophyte species by the presence of membrane-bound oil bodies within their cells,
compared to other species which do not contain enclosed lipid bodies. e.g

Mosses
Mosses are green, clumpy plants often found in moist environments out of direct sunlight.
Mosses are characterized by leaves that are only one cell wide attached to a stem that is used
for water and nutrient transportation. Mosses are able to absorb a considerable amount of
water and have historically been used for insulation, water absorption, and a source of peat.

Hornworts
Hornworts are named after the characteristic long horn-like sporophyte that develops. In
contrast, the gametophyte form is a flat, green-bodied plant. Most hornworts are found in
moist environments.

Summary of the morphological characteristics of the gametophytes of the three groups

of bryophytes:

Liverworts Mosses Hornworts

Structure Thalloid or foliose Foliose Thalloid

Dorsiventral or radia
Symmetry Radial Dorsiventral
l
 multicellula
Rhizoids Unicellular Unicellular
r

Chloroplasts/cell Many Many One

Gametangia
(antheridia Superficial Superficial Immersed
and archegonia)

Summary of the morphological characteristics of the sporophytes of the three groups of

bryophytes:

Liverworts Mosses Hornworts

Stomata Absent Present Present

Small, without Large, with Large, with

Structure
chlorophyll chlorophyll chlorophyll

Growth Defined Defined Continuous

Seta Present Present Absent

Capsule form Simple Differentiated Elongated

Maturation of
Simultaneous Simultaneous Graduate
spores

Dispersion of
Elaters Peristome teeth Pseudo-elaters
spores

Columella Absent Present Present

Reproduction in Bryophytes:
The bryophytes reproduce by vegetative, sexual and asexual modes of reproduction. The
gametophyte reproduces sexually by formation of gametes whereas the sporophyte
reproduces asexually by the formation of spores.
In simple words, Asexual reproduction occurs when a sporophyte releases spores,
and sexual reproduction happens when gametes fuse and form a zygote. 

Vegetative Reproduction:
Bryophytes possess a characteristic feature and that is their tendency towards extensive
vegetative reproduction. The vegetative reproduction takes place in favorable season for
vegetative growth. Majority of the Bryophytes propagate vegetatively and it is brought about
in many ways.

1. By death and decay of the older portion of the thallus or fragmentation.

2. By tubers.
3. By gemmae.
4. By adventitious branches
5. By primary protonema.
6. By secondary protonema.
7. By bulbils.
8. By Persistant apices

Sexual Reproduction in Bryophytes:

1. Sexual reproduction is highly oogamous. The male gametes are small and motile, while the
female gametes are large and non motile.
2. Male and female sex organs are known as antheridia and archegonia.
3. Sex organs are multicellular and each sex organ is protected by an outer sterile jacket.
4. Antheridium is stalked, pear shaped or club shaped and has an outer one cell thick jacket
which encloses a mass of fertile cells called androcytes. Each androcyte metamorphoses into
biflagellate antherozoid.
5. Archegonium is stalked, flask shaped structure. It has a basal swollen portion called venter
and an elongated neck. The neck is filled with many neck canal cells whereas venter has a
large egg cell and a small venter canal cell.
6. Antherozoids are attracted towards the neck of the archegonium chemotactically by certain
substances (like sugars, malic acid, proteins, inorganic salts of potassium etc.) present in the
mucilaginous substance formed by the degeneration of neck canal cells and venter canal cell.
7. Water is essential for fertilization.
8. The fertilized egg or zygote is the beginning of the sporophytic phase. It is retained within
the venter of the archegonium.

Sporophyte:
1. Without resting period, the zygote undergoes repeated divisions to form a multicellular
structure called the embryo.
2. Embryo develops into a sporophyte or sporogonium.
3. The sporophyte is usually differentiated into foot, seta and capsule.
4. Sporophyte is attached to parent gametophytic plant body throughout its life. It partially or
completely depends on it for nutrition.
5. Foot is basal, bulbous structure. It is embedded in the tissue of parent gametophyte. Its
main function is to absorb the food material from the parent gametophyte.
6. Seta is present between the foot and capsule. It elongates and pushes the capsule through
protective layers. It also conducts the food to the capsule absorbed by foot.
7. Capsule is the terminal part of the sporophyte and its function is to produce spores
8. All Bryophytes are homosporous i.e., all spores are similar in shape, size and structure
9. Capsule produces sporogenous tissue which develops into spore mother cells and elater
mother cells.
10. Spore mother cells divide to produce asexually four haploid spores.
11. Elater mother cells develop into elaters (e.g., Marchantia) or pseudo elaters (e.g.,
Anthoceros which are hygroscopic in nature. Elaters are present in liverworts and absent in
mosses.
12. Venter wall enlarges with the developing sporogonium (sporophyte of bryophyte) and
forms a protective multicellular layer called calyptra (gametophytic tissue enclosing the
sporophyte).

Young Gametophyte:
1. The meiospore (spore formed after meiosis) is the first cell of the gametophytic phase.
2. Each spore is unicellular, haploid and germinates into young gametophytic plant (e.g.,
Riccia or Marchantia) or first germinates into a filamentous protonema on which buds are
produced to give rise to a young gametophytic plant, (e.g., Funaria).
Alternation of generations
Alternation of generations is a life cycle involving two phases. The first is the gametophytic
phase. This is where the gametes which are produced contain half the number of
chromosomes. This is the dominant form for a bryophyte. Once the egg and sperm fuse to
produce a zygote, these then germinate to produce a sporophyte that has the complete number
of chromosomes.
The second phase, the sporophytic phase is the spore producing plant. The sporophyte is
composed of a capsule, a stalk, and a foot that attaches the sporophyte body to the
gametophyte and cannot exist independently. Each spore germinates to produce a
gametophyte, thus completing the cycle.
Funaria
Occurrence
Funaria is terrestrial moss. It grows in the form of bright green velvety patches in shady and
damp places. Genus Funaria is composed of 117 species. Funaria hygrometrica is most
common and worldwide species.

Vegetative structure
Funaria plant is a gametophyte. Its plant body is composed of protonema and gametophore.
a) Protonema: Protonema is a prostrate, green, branched filamentous structure. It gives
rise to erect leafy shoots called gametophores. Protonema is short-lived.
b) Gametophore: The adult plant consists of gametophores only. Each gametophores is
differentiated into stem and leaves. They bear sex organs at their apices. Rhizoids arise
from the base of each gametophores. Rhizoids anchor it into the soil. They absorb moisture
and nutrients. The leaves are small, ovate and sessile. Leaves may be colourless or green.
Colourless leaves are scale-like. They are found on prostrate branches and on lower portion
of erect branches.
Green leaves are larger in size. They are found on the upper portion of an erect branch.
These are called foliage leaves. They are spirally arranged.
Reproduction
Funaria reproduces by vegetative and sexual methods.

Vegetative reproduction
Vegetative reproduction takes place by the following methods.

1. Fragmentation of primary protonema,

2. Formation of secondary protonema from any part of the gametophyte

3. Formation of gemmae on terminal cells of the protonema.

4. Development of Bulbils on the rhizoids.

Sexual reproduction
Funaria is monoecious the male and female reproductive sex organs are borne on different
branches of the same .
Antheridium
Male sex organ is antheridium and it is formed in groups on the antheridial branch.They are
enclosed by special leaves called perigonial leaves. A large number of long multicellular
hairs called paraphysis are also present with the antheridia.They contain chloroplast and
are involved in photosynthesis. They protect antheridial head from by reducing transpiration,
hold water between them and secrete mucilage which helps in the release of antherozoids.
Each antheridium is protected by single layer of jacket. It encloses a large mass of
androcytes. The androcytes transform in to biflagellate antherozoids.
Archegonium
The female sex organ are the archegonia and are borne in groups on the archegonial
branch. They are surrounded by perichaetial leaves. Paraphyses are also present. Each
archegonium is flask shaped and is distinguished into a large venter and long neck region.
The venter contains venter canal cell and egg. The neck contain neck canal cells. Water is
essential for fertilization. The antherozoids are attracted to the archegonium 78through
chemotaxis. A large number of antherozoids enter the neck of the archegonium but only one
fuses with the egg to form a diploid zygote. The diploid zygote represents the first cell of
sporophytic generation and divides to form a sporophyte.

Structure of Sporophyte or capsule

The structure of mature sporophyte of Funaria is complex. The sporophyte is differentiated
into foot, seta and capsule. The foot is small, conical and is embedded in the gametophyte.
The seta is long, slender and conducts water and nutrients to the capsule .
The capsule consists of apophysis, spore sac and operculum. The apophysis is the
lowermost sterile region and connects the capsule with seta. The cells of the apophysis are
photosynthetic, hence the sporophyte of Funaria partially depends on the gametophyte. The
spore sac contains spore mother cells which undergo meiotic division to produce haploid
spores. The apical region consists of the operculum and peristome. The operculum is the lid
of the capsule. The peristome has one or two rows of thickened, tooth like projections found
on the top of the capsule. They are hygroscopic and help in the dispersal of the spores.
During favorable conditions the spores germinate to produce thread like green branched
structure called protonema. It produces rhizoids and number of lateral buds which develop
into new plants. In the life cycle of Funaria the haploid gametophytic phase (n)alternates with
diploid sporophytic phase (2n) and shows alternation of generation.

Economic importance of Bryophytes:

1. Protection from soil erosion:

Bryophytes, especially mosses, form dense mats over the soil and prevent soil erosion by
running water.
2. Soil formation:
Mosses are an important link in plant succession on rocky areas. They take part in binding
soil in rock crevices formed by lichens. Growth of Sphagnum ultimately fills ponds and lakes
with soil.
3. Water retention:
Sphagnum can retain 18-26 times more water than its weight. Hence, used by gardeners to
protect desiccation of the seedling during transportation and used as nursery beds.
4. Peat:
It is a dark spongy fossilized matter of Sphagnum. Peat is dried and cut as cakes for use as
fuel. Peat used as good manure. It increases its water retention as well as aeration. On
distillation and fermentation yield many chemicals.
5. As food:
Mosses are good source of animal food in rocky and snow-clad areas.
6. Medicinal uses:
Decoction of Polytrichum is used to remove kidney and gall bladder stones. Decoction
prepared by boiling Sphagnum in water for treatment of eye diseases. Marchantia has been
used to cure pulmonary tuberculosis.
7. Other uses:
Bryophytes arc used as packing material for fragile goods, glass wares etc. Some bryophytes
act as indicator plants.