This document discusses intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation comes from internal satisfaction in an activity itself, such as enjoyment or challenge. It promotes persistence, creativity, learning, and well-being. Extrinsic motivation comes from external incentives like rewards or consequences separate from the activity. Reinforcers are incentives that increase a behavior by satisfying psychological needs. While rewards can motivate, not all rewards effectively reinforce behaviors. Intrinsic motivation has more long-term benefits than extrinsic motivation driven by rewards alone.
This document discusses intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation comes from internal satisfaction in an activity itself, such as enjoyment or challenge. It promotes persistence, creativity, learning, and well-being. Extrinsic motivation comes from external incentives like rewards or consequences separate from the activity. Reinforcers are incentives that increase a behavior by satisfying psychological needs. While rewards can motivate, not all rewards effectively reinforce behaviors. Intrinsic motivation has more long-term benefits than extrinsic motivation driven by rewards alone.
This document discusses intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation comes from internal satisfaction in an activity itself, such as enjoyment or challenge. It promotes persistence, creativity, learning, and well-being. Extrinsic motivation comes from external incentives like rewards or consequences separate from the activity. Reinforcers are incentives that increase a behavior by satisfying psychological needs. While rewards can motivate, not all rewards effectively reinforce behaviors. Intrinsic motivation has more long-term benefits than extrinsic motivation driven by rewards alone.
This document discusses intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation comes from internal satisfaction in an activity itself, such as enjoyment or challenge. It promotes persistence, creativity, learning, and well-being. Extrinsic motivation comes from external incentives like rewards or consequences separate from the activity. Reinforcers are incentives that increase a behavior by satisfying psychological needs. While rewards can motivate, not all rewards effectively reinforce behaviors. Intrinsic motivation has more long-term benefits than extrinsic motivation driven by rewards alone.
Extrinsic motivation arises from environmental MOTIVATION incentives and consequences. . Instead of engaging in
an activity to experience the inherent satisfactions it can INTRINSIC MOTIVATION bring (as with intrinsic motivation), extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation is the inherent propensity to engage arises from some consequence that is separate from the one’s interests and to exercise one’s capacities and, in activity itself. In other words, it’s an environmentally doing so, to seek out and master optimal challenges. created reason to initiate and persist in an action. ● emerges spontaneously from psychological
needs and innate strivings for growth With intrinsically motivated behavior, the motivation ● Acting out of interest “for the fun of it” and for emanates from spontaneous psychological need the sense of challenge satisfaction the activity provides; with extrinsically Psychological needs, when they are nurtured and motivated behavior, the motivation emanates from supported by the environment and by one’s incentives and consequences made contingent on relationships, spontaneously give rise to the experience enacting the observed behavior. of psychological need satisfaction people feel while
engaging in interesting activities.
● Feeling free (autonomy)
● Feeling effective (competence) EXTERNAL REGULATION OF MOTIVATION: ● Feeling emotionally close (relatedness) INCENTIVES, CONSEQUENCES, AND REWARDS
The study of the extrinsic regulation of motivation What is so great about Intrinsic Motivation? revolves around the language and perspective of Intrinsic motivation emerges out of people’s operant conditioning -- learning to engage in behaviors psychological needs. It is worth nurturing and promoting that produce attractive consequences and not engage in because it leads to so many important benefits to the behaviors that produce aversive consequences: person, including persistence, creativity, conceptual
1. Persistence. Intrinsically motivated persistence can Incentive be seen in many acts of persistence, such as adherence An incentive is an environmental event that attracts or to an exercise program and greater continuing repels a person toward or away from initiating a motivation to attend and stay in school. particular course of action. 2. Creativity. “People will be most creative when they ● Always precedes behavior; creates in the person feel motivated primarily by the interest, enjoyment, an expectation that attractive or unattractive satisfaction, and challenge of the work itself—rather consequences are forthcoming than by external pressures.” ● The incentive value of an environmental event is 3. Conceptual Understanding/High-quality Learning. learned through experience. It is this learning Intrinsic motivation enhances conceptual understanding process (this “conditioning”) that shapes our of what one is trying to learn as it promotes flexibility in later goal-directed behavior, as positive one’s way of thinking, active information processing, incentives cue approach behavior while negative and tendency to learn in a way that is conceptual rather incentives cue avoidance behavior. than rote. ● NOTE: Incentives precede behavior (S : R) and 4. Optimal Functioning and Well-being excite or inhibit the initiation of behavior. Pursuing intrinsic goals (e.g., competence, relatedness, Consequences follow behavior (R → C) and autonomy in life) leads to better functioning and higher increase or decrease the persistence of psychological well-being than does pursuing extrinsic behavior. goals (e.g., financial success, social recognition, physical
image). Furthermore, pursuing intrinsic life goals is What is a reinforcer? associated with greater self-actualization, greater A reinforcer is any extrinsic event that increases subjective vitality, less anxiety and depression, greater behavior. Why do reinforcers work to increase behavior? self-esteem, higher-quality interpersonal relationships, 1. It increases drive. fewer hours watching television, and a lesser use of 2. It decreases arousal. drugs such as alcohol and cigarettes. 3. It increases arousal. ● The distinction is that all positive reinforcers are 4. It is attractive to the person. rewards, while only some rewards function as 5. It produces pleasurable brain stimulation. positive reinforcers (because not all rewards 6. It provides an opportunity to do a increase behavior). high-frequency behavior. ● Rewards are best seen as p otential motivators.
Managing Behavior by Offering Reinforcers Do Rewards Work - Do They Facilitate Desirable 1. Reinforcers vary in equality: some reinforcers Behavior? work better than others because they are People are inherently sensitive to signals of gain and deemed a higher quality. pleasure. The physiological mechanism that makes us all 2. The immediacy at which a reinforcer is delivered inherently sensitive to reward (to gain, to pleasure) is partly determines its effectiveness. the release of brain dopamine and the subsequent activation of the behavioral activation system. Consequences ● Increased neural activity in the BAS is Positive Reinforcers responsible for generating inherently positive ● A positive reinforcer is any environmental feelings, such as hope and interest. stimulus that, when presented, increases the ● It further facilitates behavior, as BAS activation future probability of the desired behavior. literally and physically encourages students to ● That is, the person who receives the positive move toward environmental signals of personal reinforcer becomes more likely to repeat the gain. behavior than the person who receives no such ● Thus, an extrinsic reward enlivens positive attractive consequence for the same behavior. emotion and facilitates behavior because it Negative Reinforcers signals the opportunity for a personal gain. ● A negative reinforcer is any environmental stimulus that, when removed, increases the Do Punishers Work - Do They Suppress Undesirable future probability of the desired behavior. Behavior? ● Escape removes a person from the aversive Research shows that punishment is an ineffective stimulus; avoidance prevents the aversive motivational strategy. Worst, punishment reliably stimulus from occurring in the first place. generates a number of worrisome and unintentional ○ Escape behaviors are reactive against “side effects,” including negative emotionality (crying, aversive stimuli; avoidance behaviors screaming, feeling afraid), impaired relationship are proactive in preventing our between punisher and punishee, and negative modeling encountering them again. of how to cope with undesirable behavior in others. ● Children who are spanked are more likely to Punishers show aggression, antisocial behavior, poor ● A punisher is any environmental stimulus that, mental health, poor moral internalization, an when presented, decreases the future impairment of the parent–child relationship, and, probability of the undesired behavior. as adults, aggression, poor mental health, adult ● Punishers decrease (undesirable) behavior; abuse, and criminal behavior. negative reinforcers increase (escape and avoidance) behavior. ● Aversive punishers and Response costs HIDDEN COSTS OF REWARD (positive and negative punishment) Rather, the imposition of an extrinsic reward to engage ○ Response costs suppress behavior by in an intrinsically interesting activity typically imposing the cost of losing some undermines (has a negative effect on) future intrinsic attractive resource if one engages in the motivation. undesirable behavior. Using a Reward to Engage Someone in an Activity: → Intended Primary Effect: Promotes compliance Rewards (Behavioral Engagement in Activity) ● An extrinsic reward is any offering from one → Unintended Side Effects: Undermines intrinsic person given to another person in exchange for motivation; interferes with the quality and process of his or her service or achievement. learning; interferes with the capacity for autonomous ○ Relatively passive information self-regulation processors ● Interfere with learning process: In school-based ● Rewards interfere with the quality of learning by studies, the offering of extrinsic rewards has narrowing the would-be learner’s attention been shown to distract students’ attention away toward only memorizing factual information at from the material they are trying to understand the expense of gaining a conceptual and toward getting the reward. understanding of the material ● Interferes with development of autonomous ● Expected, tangible rewards also undermine self-regulation: Reward-dependent behavior creativity, as people are more creative when occurs because the presence versus absence of they draw and write out of interest than when rewards, rather than one’s intrinsic motivation they draw and write for rewards. and autonomous self-regulation, come to ● When rewards are involved, learners typically regulate one’s behavior. quit as soon as some reward criterion is ○ A person’s perceived locus of causality attained. When rewards are not involved, gradually becomes less and less internal learners generally persist until curiosity is and more and more external. satisfied, interest is exhausted, or mastery is attained. Which types of rewards decrease intrinsic motivation? ● When the social environment tells people what Expected and Tangible Rewards to do and also provides expected and tangible ● People often engage in behaviors in order to rewards for doing it, people have little difficulty receive a reward. In doing so, people expect to regulating their behavior in rewarding ways. receive a reward if they engage in a particular behavior. Benefits of Incentives, Consequences, and Rewards ● The telltale sign that a person expects a reward Research shows that the negative impact of extrinsic for task participation is an if–then or in-order-to rewards on intrinsic motivation is limited to interesting orientation, such as, “If I read this book, then I activities, as extrinsic rewards have no effect—not an can watch TV.” Expected rewards undermine undermining effect, not a facilitating effect—on a intrinsic motivation, while unexpected rewards person’s intrinsic motivation for uninteresting tasks. do not. Incentives, consequences, and rewards have their ● A second factor in understanding which benefits. Rewards can make an otherwise uninteresting rewards undermine intrinsic motivation and task seem suddenly worth pursuing. So long as the which do not is the distinction between tangible reward is attractive enough, rewarded individuals will and verbal rewards. Tangible rewards, such as engage in almost any task. money, awards, and food, tend to decrease In each of these examples, an argument can be made intrinsic motivation, whereas verbal (i.e., that the society’s concerns for promoting desirable intangible) rewards, such as praise, do not. behavior from its citizens outweighs the concerns for Implications preserving or protecting the individual’s autonomy, ● The good news is that extrinsic rewards can be intrinsic motivation, quality of learning, and autonomous used in a way that does not put intrinsic self-regulation. motivation at risk. The bad news is that our HOWEVER: society so often relies on expected and tangible 1. Extrinsic motivators still undermine the quality rewards to motivate others. of performance and interfere with the process of ● Extrinsic reinforcers not only decrease intrinsic learning. motivation, they also interfere with both the 2. Using rewards distracts attention away from process and quality of learning. asking the hard question of why another person ○ Rewards shift the learner’s goals away is being asked to do an uninteresting task in the from attaining mastery in favor of first place. attaining extrinsic gain. 3. There are better ways to encourage ○ Extrinsically motivated learners are also participation than extrinsic bribery (e.g., more prone to a negative emotional consider autonomy-supportive environments) tone and less prone to positive emotion 4. Extrinsic motivators still undermine the with a functional significance. The informational individual’s long-term capacity for autonomous aspect facilitates an internal PLOC and self-regulation. perceived competence, thus enhancing intrinsic When all is said and done, many people believe that motivation. The controlling aspect facilitates an extrinsic motivators simply carry too high a external PLOC, thus undermining intrinsic psychological cost in terms of intrinsic motivation, the motivation and promoting extrinsic motivation. process of learning, the quality of learning, and The amotivating aspect facilitates perceived autonomous self-regulation. incompetence, thus undermining intrinsic motivation and promoting amotivation. The relative salience of these three aspects to a COGNITIVE EVALUATION THEORY person determines the functional significance of Incentives, consequences, and rewards also provide the external event. feedback that informs the person about her competence at the task. Rewards such as money, awards, good Two Examples of Controlling and Informational Events grades, academic scholarships, and verbal praises not Praise only function to increase behavior (i.e., control behavior) ● Tagging phrases such as “you should,” and “you but also to communicate a message of a job well done ought to” onto the praise gives the feedback a (i.e., inform competence). tone of pressure. ● In contrast, providing clear, specific, and Cognitive evaluation theory asserts that all external competence-diagnosing feedback typically gives events have both a controlling aspect and an praise a highly informative function. informational aspect. Competition ● The theory presumes that people have ● When the social context puts a good deal of psychological needs for autonomy and pressure on winning (with its evaluative competence audience, coaches, peers, newspaper reporters, ● Furthermore, it is the controlling aspect of an championship trophies, career implications), external event that affects the person’s need for competitors usually compete with a sense of autonomy, whereas it is the informational contingency, pressure, and doing others’ work. aspect of an external event that affects the When experienced in such a controlling way, person’s need for competence. competition decreases intrinsic motivation Propositions: because competitors care relatively little about 1. External events (e.g., choice) that promote an the task itself and relatively much about the internal perceived locus of causality (PLOC) reward of winning. promote intrinsic motivation because these ● However, when the social context places little events involve or satisfy the need for autonomy. emphasis on winning (recreational competition, External events (e.g., reward) that promote an no audience present, no trophy or scholarship external PLOC promote extrinsic motivation for winning, an autonomy-supportive coach), because these events neglect the need for then competition’s informational aspects (e.g., autonomy and instead establish an if–then winning, improving, making progress) often contingency between a behavior and a become its relatively more salient aspect. forthcoming consequence. Winning and making progress promote 2. External events that increase perceived perceived competence and hence increase competence (e.g, praise) promote intrinsic intrinsic motivation, while losing and the lack of motivation, whereas events that decrease progress undermine perceived competence and perceived competence (e.g., criticism) hence decrease intrinsic motivation. undermine this motivation. Hence, the more an external event communicates positive TYPES OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION effectance information, the more likely it is to ● Amotivation: means “without motivation,” a satisfy the need for competence and increase state in which the person is neither intrinsically intrinsic motivation. nor extrinsically motivated (e.g., a dropout 3. Events relevant to the initiation and regulation student, disillusioned athlete, or apathetic of behavior have three potential aspects, each marriage partner) ● Extrinsic motivation: four types of extrinsic ● Identified regulation represents mostly motivation, which can be distinguished from one internalized and autonomous (or another on the basis of their degree of self-determined) extrinsic motivation. With autonomy: external regulation (not at all identified regulation, the person voluntarily autonomous), introjected regulation (somewhat accepts the merits and utility of a belief or autonomous), identified regulation (mostly behavior because that way of thinking or autonomous), and integrated regulation (fully behaving is seen as personally important or autonomous). useful. ● Intrinsic motivation: reflects the individual’s full ● Because these ways of thinking and behaving endorsement of autonomy and reflects those are valued and deemed as personally important, occasions in which an activity generates people internalize/identify with them and, by spontaneous satisfactions from nurturing the internalizing them, these ways of thinking and person’s psychological needs. behaving become self-determined. Integrated Regulation The more autonomous one’s motivation is, the more ● Integrated regulation constitutes the most effort the person puts forth and the more they autonomously endorsed type of extrinsic achieve. motivation. While internalization is the process External Regulation of taking in a value or a way of behaving, ● External regulation is the prototype of integration is the process through which non-self-determined extrinsic motivation. individuals fully transform their identified values Externally regulated behaviors are performed to and behaviors into the self. obtain a reward or to satisfy some external ● It is as much a developmental process as it is a demand. type of motivation, because it involves the ● For the person who is externally regulated, the self-examination necessary to bring new ways presence versus absence of extrinsic motivators of thinking, feeling, and behaving into an (e.g., rewards, threats) regulates the rise and fall unconflicted congruence with the self’s of motivation. A person who is externally preexisting ways of thinking, feeling, and regulated typically has a difficult time beginning behaving. a task unless there is some external prompt to ● Because it is the most self-determined type of do so. extrinsic motivation, integrated regulation is Introjected Regulation associated with the most positive outcomes, ● Introjected regulation involves taking in, but not such as prosocial development and truly accepting or self-endorsing, other people’s psychological well-being. demands to think, feel, or behave in a particular manner. MOTIVATING OTHERS TO DO UNINTERESTING ● Introjected regulation is essentially being ACTIVITIES motivated out of guilt and the “tyranny of the ● The first solution to such a motivational problem shoulds” is, typically, to use an incentive to prompt the ● In essence, the person, acting as a proxy for the other person into doing whatever it is you want external environment, emotionally rewards him- them to do. or herself for performing other-defined good ● That is, the added external contingency creates behavior (feel proud) and emotionally punishes a motivation to engage in the activity that the him- or herself for performing other-defined bad activity itself cannot generate. behavior (feel shamed or guilty). Promoting autonomous types of extrinsic motivation ● Introjected regulation does include the changing 1. Offering a rationale - a verbal explanation of of internal structures because the behavior is why putting forth effort during the otherwise regulated not by explicit external contingencies uninteresting activity might actually be a useful but rather by internalized representations of and important thing to do. those contingencies (i.e., a parent’s voice, a. can spark some degree of valuing, cultural expectations). internalization, and identified regulation. Identified Regulation b. giving a person an important reason to try—an explanatory rationale—helps that other “take on” (internalize) the externally provided rationale as his or her own autonomously endorsed reason to try. 2. Interest-enhancing strategies such as setting a goal, embedding the activity within a fantasy context, or adding an extra source of stimulation to the task a. the acts of pursing a goal, placing the task within a meaningful context, and working with stimulating friends generated the sense of interest (that the task itself was unable to generate).
BUILDING INTEREST ● Interest is a topic-specific motivational state that arises out of attraction to a particular domain of activity. ○ It enhances the attention, effort, and learning one directs toward that activity. ● Interest appears in two forms: ○ Situational interest: triggered by appealing external events and exists a a short-term attraction to an activity ■ With situationally aroused interest, something from the environment sparks your interest, and this short-lived interest sparks spontaneous engagement in the interesting activity. ○ Individual interest: more stable and content specific and develops over time as an enduring personal disposition ■ the person’s unique developmental history creates a clear preference to direct his or her attention and effort toward a particular activity, situation, or subject matter