Council for Research in Music Education

Studying Emotional Expression in Music Performance

Author(s): Alf Gabrielsson
Source: Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, No. 141, The 17th
International Society for Music Education: ISME Research Seminar (Summer, 1999), pp. 47-53
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Council for Research in Music Education
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BulletinoftheCouncilforResearchin MusicEducation Summer,1999,No. 141

StudyingEmotionalExpressionin Music
Performance

Alf Gabrielsson
Department of Psychology
Uppsala University
Uppsala, Sweden

Introduction
To attainexpressive performance shouldbe a goalforall performing notleast
artists,
inmusic.Musicians,whether instrumentalists
orsingers, differ
verymuchinthisrespect.
Those who are able to finda genuineand personalexpressionusuallyreceivemost
attentionandappreciation bytheaudience.Hightechnical skillis certainlyimportant but
notenough.Themusicianmusthavean adequaterepresentation ofthemusicinquestion,
an understanding ofwhatthemusicis about,itsstructure andmeaning, andknowhowto
makethisevidentintheperformance.
Although thisis probably generallyknownandaccepted,bothteachingandresearch
tendto be dominatedby questionsconcerningformaland technicalaspectsof the
performance ratherthanquestionsregarding expression(Scherer,1991). The everin-
creasingdemandson technicalskilland thehighlycompetitive musicbusinessmake
manyteachersemphasizetechnically impeccableperformance and conformity to "ac-
cepted"ways of performance (Persson,1994; Persson,Pratt,& Robson,1992). Repp
(1995) notesthat"Musiccriticsandotherobservers ... oftencomment on therelativeloss
of diversityin performance ... One component thatmaycontribute to thereducedorigi-
nalityof youngartistsis the competitive natureof the musicbusinesstoday... The
trainingoftoday'syoungpianists... is oriented towardmakingthemsuccessfulcompeti-
tors,not uniqueindividuals"(pp. 24-25). Commentsby manymusicstudentstell a
similarstory:interpretive originality comessecondrelativeto technicalperfection and
conformity to standard performance.
Withregardtoresearch, studieson representation ofmusicas wellas measurements
of musicperformance have mostlyfocusedon formal-structural aspects(Gabrielsson,
1999). Thismirrors theinfluence of cognitivepsychology duringthelastdecades.The
performer shouldhavea properstructural representation ofthemusic,andthisshouldbe
reflectedintheperformance so as tomakethelistener perceivethecorrect meter,
phrases,
harmonic progressions, relations betweendifferent partsof thepiece etc(Clarke,1988;
Sloboda, 1985). For instance,phrasesmay be separatedby inserting micro-pauses; a
hierarchicalstructure can be reflected byvarying theamountofritard towardstheendof
unitson different levels;asynchronization of tonesin chordsis usefulto emphasizethe
melodypart;variations in dynamics, timingand articulation are used to provideproper
accentsetc(Bengtsson& Gabrielsson, 1983; Palmer,1989, 1992; Shaffer, 1981, 1984;
Sloboda 1983;Todd,1989).
Recently, however, otheraspectshaveobtainedincreasedattention. Representations
of musicarediscussedin termsof spatio-motor patterns (Baily, 1985),imagery, narra-
tives and moods (Persson,Pratt,& Robson, 1992; Shaffer,1992, 1995), or verbal
representation (Clarke, 1993). The importance of emotionalexpressionin music is

Thanks to mycoworkersin these investigationsand to The Bank of Sweden Tercen-

tenaryFoundationforsupportingour research projectExpressive Performancein Music,
Dance, Speech and Body Language.

47

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48 inMusicPerformance
EmotionalExpression

(Gabrielsson,
emphasized 1989;Scherer,1991),andthisis thefocusofthe
1988;Shaffer,
present
report.

EmotionalExpression
Davidson(1993) and Kendall& Carterette (1990) usedexperimental manipulation
ofperformers' intentionsregarding musicalexpression byaskingthemtoperform a piece
of musiceitherwithappropriate expression,or with exaggerated expression, or with no
expression.Davidsonmade video recordings of theperformances and foundthatob-
serverscouldreliablydistinguish betweenthethreemodessolelybyviewingtherecord-
ings(thesoundwas removed).The performers in theKendall& Carterette studyused
variationsin tempo,timing,dynamicsand vibratoto achievethe different levels of
expression,buttherewas considerable amongdifferent
variability performances.
Althoughthesestudies"only"referto different levels of expression,it can be
reasonablyassumedthattheappropriate and exaggerated performances shouldreflect
certainemotionsrelatedto thepiece in question(forinstance,sadnessin "Thy Hand,
Belinda"fromPurcell'sDido and Aeneas,used by Kendalland Carterette). Senju and
Ohgushi(1987) hada violinist perform thebeginning ofMendelssohn'sViolinConcerto
withtendifferent (forinstance,
expressions powerful, sad,dreamy, beautiful) andfound
thatlistenerscouldrecognize,butalso misinterpret,theintended expressions.
In recentstudiesofourresearch groupinUppsala(Baars& Gabrielsson, 1997;Dry
& Gabrielsson, 1997;Gabrielsson, 1994,1995;Gabrielsson & Juslin,1996;Gabrielsson
& Lindstròm, 1995;Juslin,1997a,1997b,1998)andbyotherresearchers (e.g.,Baroni&
Finarelli,1994;Baroni,Caterina, Regazzi,& Zanarini,1997;Ohgushi& Hattori,1996)
theexpressionand communication of specificemotionsin musicperformance is being
subjectedto experimental analysis.The principleis thattheperformer is givenpiecesof
musicand askedto perform themso as to expressdifferent emotions.The pieces are
usuallyshortandmonophonic theanalysisoftheperformance.
to facilitate Theymaybe
well-known, playedfroma scoreorbyheart,or unknown. The prescribed emotionsare
theso-calledbasic emotions- suchas happiness,sadness,anger,fear - as well as some
others.Furthermore a performance without expressionis askedforas a kindof neutral
reference.The instruments hithertousedaretheviolin,flute,saxophone,electricguitar,
percussion, synthesizer,guitarrockband,and thesingingvoice. The performances are
storedincomputer memory andanalyzedinordertosee whichmeanstheperformers use
to bringabouttheprescribed emotionalexpression. Beforethatit is crucialto conduct
experiments in whichlisteners judge theperformances withregardto how well they
expresstheintendedemotions.Onlythe"approved"versionsare subjectedto further
analysis.

Results
The resultsgenerallyshowthatall performance - tempo,timing,
variables ampli-
tude/dynamics, intonation,
timbre,toneonsetsand offsets, vibrato,and so forth- are
affectedby the instructions
concerningdifferent There
expressions. are also considerable
variationsdepending on whichinstrument is usedandon whichmusicalgenrethepiece
and/or theperformer belongto.Furthermore, thereis obviousvariationamongdifferent
performers, eventhoughtheperformances present no technical
problems whatsoever.
In a recentexperiment professional performers playingviolin,saxophone,and
singingwereaskedto perform thetuneWhatShall WeDo WiththeDrunkenSailor in
ordertomakeitsoundhappy,sad,angry, fearful, solemn,tender,andwithout expression.
Listening testswereconducted tofindoutiftheintended wereperceived.
expressions For
example,each of thesevenversionsobtainedfroma femalesingerwereratedby nine
students inmusicpsychology on adjectivescalescorresponding totheintended emotions
(happy,sad,andso forth; theno expression versionwas ratedon a scale forexpressive-
ness). Each scale extendedfrom10 (maximum)to 0 (minimum). Analysesof variance

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Gabrielsson 49

supplemented bypost-hoccomparisons wereconductedto see ifthemeanratingon the

scalecorresponding totheintended expressiondiffered fromthemeanrating
significantly
of other(non-corresponding) versionson thesame scale- forinstance,if theratingof
happyfortheintended happyversiondiffered fromtheratingofhappyfortheintended
sad,angry, fearfuletcversions).
As seen in Table 1, theintendedexpressions wereusuallyperceivedby thelisten-
ers- lookat thevaluesin thediagonalcells- andthedifferences between"correct"and
"non-correct" versionstypically
werehighlysignificant. However,onthetenderscalethe
sad versionreceivedaboutthesamerating (5.2) as thetenderversion(4.8). Notealso that
theno expressionversionobtainedtheby farlowestvalue (0.7) on theexpressiveness
scale.Theseresultsaretypicalformostofourstudiesso far.

Table 1
ValuesforDifferent
Mean Ratingsand Significance Versionsof
WhatShall WeDo WiththeDrunkenSailor

Intended Perceivedexpression
expression Happy Sad Angry Tender Fearful Solemn Expressive
Happy 8.2 0.2**** 2.0*** 0.0**** 0.4**** 1.5**** 6.0****
Sad 0.2**** 8.6 0.0**** 5.2 ns 3.2* 0.2**** 7.7****
Angry 0.2**** 0.0**** 6.2 0.0**** 1.6*** 0.0**** 4.1*
Tender 0.0**** 5.8* 0.0**** 4.8 2.4** 1.2**** 5.4***
Fearful 0.0**** 2.8**** 0.2**** 0.6**** 7.0 0.0**** 6.1****
Solemn 2.8**** 0.4**** 2.0*** 0.2**** 0.2**** 9.0 6.0****
No expressionQ.Q**** 1.6**** 0.0**** 0.0**** 0.0**** 0.0**** 0.7
levels:*.05 **.01 ♦♦♦.001 ♦♦♦♦.0001ns
Probability = non significant

An exampleof theanalysisof different performances is seen in Figure1, which

showstheamplitude for
envelopes happy and tender versions performed on violin.The
happyversionwas playedmuchfaster(duration about7 seconds)thanthetender(about
23 seconds),furthermore withhighersoundlevel and moreairy(staccato)articulation
thanthetenderversion.Tone onsetsandoffsets wererapidin thehappyversion,slower
(morerounded) in thetenderversion.
The combinedresultsfromourinvestigations so farmaybe summarized as follows:
is
Happiness expressedby means of fasttempo, moderate to loud sound level,airy
articulation,rapidtoneonsetsanddecays,bright timbre, moderate variationsintiming, no
or littlefinalritardando.
Sadness: slowtempo,lowormoderate soundlevel(at timeslouder),legatoarticula-
tion,rather slowtoneonsetsanddeacys,rather dullthanbright timbre,morevariations in
timing, oftenprocouned use ofvibrato.
finalritardando,
Anger:veryrapidtempo,loud soundlevel,mostlynon-legatoarticulation, very
sharptoneonsetsand decays,harshtimbre(distorsión), moderatevariationsin timing
(butstructural reorganizations mayoccur),oftenincreasedcontrast betweenlong and
shortnotes,no finalritardando.
Fear: varyingtempo,sometimes fast,sometimes slow,oftenin combination with
largedeviations intiming andstructuralreorganization;low soundlevel,mostlystaccato
ornon-legato sometimes
articulation, vibratomaybe used.
finalacceleration,
Tenderness:slow tempo,mostlylow sound level, legatoarticulation, softtone
onsetsanddecays,softtimbre, diminished betweenlongand shortnotes(often
contrast

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50 EmotionalExpressioninMusicPerformance

Figure 1. Amplitudeenvelopes forhappyand tenderversionsof WhatShall We Do With

the DrunkenSailor performedon violin.Horizontalaxis: timein seconds. Verticalaxis: lin-
ear voltage scale.

implyinglargedeviationsintiming), finalritardando,
use ofvibrato.
Solemnity:slow or moderatetempo,moderateor loud soundlevel,mostlylegato
mostlyrapidtoneonsets,rather
articulation, brighttimbre, smalldeviationsin
relatively
timing,finalritardando.
No expression:generallylittlevariationin mostvariablesmentionedabove,"cold"

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Gabrielsson 51_

timbre,no vibrato.
Of course,theserelations facingresultsin further
maybe subjectto modifications
usingothertypesofmusic,otherinstruments,
investigations andso forth
performers, (for
moredetailssee Gabrielsson,1994, 1995; Gabrielsson& Juslin,1996; Gabrielsson&
Lindstrom, 1995; and Juslin,1997a, 1997b).Possibletheoretical
frameworks forthese
studieshave beendiscussedin relationto theoriesby Langerand Clynes(Gabrielsson,
1995) and morerecently emotionpsychologyand Brunswik'sprob-
to functionalistic
abilisticfunctionalism
(Juslin,1997a,1998).

Discussion
To be ableto expressandcommunicate differentemotionsis certainly a crucialpart
of musicianship and of musicality in general.In ourinvestigations we findthatcertain
musiciansaremuchmoreablethanotherstoexpresstheintended emotions insucha way
thatlistenersreallyperceivethem.The questionis: whatdo theseperformers do that
othersare not able to accomplish?Witha successivelyincreasingdatabaseon the
characteristicsof"successful" performances we maybe able to establishcertaincriteria
forexpression ofdifferentemotions inperformance. Thecriteriawilldiffer
depending on
instrument andmusicalgenrebutthereshouldbe a coreofcommoncharacteristics. Such
maybe usedinteaching
criteria anddiscussing varioustypesofperformances, andvisual
representations ofperformances likethatinFigure1 (and inotherformsnotshownhere)
can be veryinstructive forimproving performance. The musiciansin ourinvestigations
findtheseexperiments challenging andthought-provoking andtakegreatinterest in the
executionof the experiments and the results,whichtheythendiscuss further with
colleaguesandstudents.
An important partofmusicality is also tobe abletoapprehend differentemotionsin
music.Our listening experiments revealconsiderable individualdifferences in thisre-
spect.On thewholehappy,angryandfearful versionsareusuallyeasilyidentified, as well
as no expressionversions,whereassadnessand tenderness are oftenmixedup. The
perception(and performance) of solemnityvariesa lot among individuals.From a
functionalisticperspectiveitis reasonabletoassumethatbasicemotionsshouldbe easier
toexpressandtoperceivethanothermorecomplexor"mixed"emotions(Juslin,1997a,
1998). Listeningto and discussingemotionalexpressionin musicshouldalso be an
essentialcomponent inmusiceducation.
Ourstudiesrepresent buta beginning ofempirical research on emotional expression
in musicperformance. Theyhave to be continuedand expanded,incorporating more
realisticperformance situations, moreinstruments/ensembles, analysesof selectedper-
formances availableon phonograms andso forth. Videorecordings areusefulas supple-
ments(Davidson,1993; Ohgushi& Hattori,1996). The interaction betweentheemo-
tionalcharacterimplicitin the music itselfand the means used by the musicianin
performing themusicwithdifferent expressions is crucial,andresearchon thisquestion
is inprogress (Lindstrom, 1997).
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