Revision Notes - Germany, 1918-45

The establishment of the Weimar Republic and its early problems, 1919-23 (Lacey, p.10-25; Walsh, p.137-145)
 The German Revolution of 1918 – abdication of the Kaiser, 9 Nov 1918. Armistice, 11 Nov 1918. The role of the socialist
parties (e.g. SPD). New government under Ebert was set up to oversee the political changes and the introduction of the new
constitution. (Ebert was declared the first President of the Weimar Republic in 1920.) How had Germany emerged from the First
World War? (economic, political and social weaknesses)
 The strengths and weaknesses of the new Constitution. The Weimar Constitution, Jan 1919. Democratic aspects – universal
suffrage (voting), role of President, role of Chancellor, role of Reichstag, Proportional Representation. In what ways was the
Constitution positive for Germany; in what ways was it prone to weakness? How was it viewed by German people?
 Reactions to the Treaty of Versailles in Germany. Hatred of treaty, especially the imposed nature (‘diktat’) and the blame for the
war (‘War Guilt Clause’ – Article 231). Loss of territory, reduction of military forces, payment of reparations. The treaty gave
political fuel to the forces of nationalism in Germany. Versailles blamed for Germany’s problems after 1919.
 The Spartacist and Kapp Putsches; political instability. Nature of the Spartacist Rising, Jan 1919. Attempted Communist
takeover in Berlin, used armed communist units to seize key buildings. Why did it not succeed? Freikorps units invited by the
government to suppress the rising; ruthless action, communist leaders shot. Government shown to be vulnerable and exposed –
need to rely on ‘outside’ force (Freikorps).
Kapp Putsch, March 1920, attempted nationalist rising, led by Wolfgang Kapp, using the Freikorps units (which the government
was trying to disband). Attempted to seize control of Berlin (government fled to Dresden), but did not have enough strength.
Failed when socialist groups (e.g. trade unions) organised a general strike against the putsch. Again, the government was shown
to be weak.
Assassination of Walter Rathenau (Foreign Minister), 1922.
 French occupation of the Ruhr and its effects, 1923. Why did the Germans fall behind with reparations payments? Non-payment
in 1922. French and Belgian troops entered Ruhr, Jan 1923. Seizure of goods by France to pay for reparations. German
response of ‘passive resistance’. French occupation and policing of Ruhr. Violent clashes between French troops and German
workers – some killed on both sides. Government organised printing a money to pay the workers. Complete stoppage of
industrial production in the Ruhr – further worsened the already weak German economy.
 Causes and effects of hyperinflation, 1923. Inflation had been a problem in Germany during and after the war. But in 1923 the
situation became desperate. Complete and rapid collapse of the currency (Price of a loaf of bread, 1923 – Jan 250 marks; July
1.5 million marks; Nov 200 billion marks). Why did it happen? - already weak currency from the war, economic weakness
following French occupation of the Ruhr, printing of banknotes without any financial backing. Effects – value of savings and
pensions simply disappeared (particularly affected the middle-class), further deterioration of the economy, development of a
barter economy for some, benefits for those who were rich and could take advantage of the imbalanced economy. Once more the
government was blamed by many for the problems. 1923 saw a rise in political instability (e.g. right-wing political challenges in
Bavaria, communist challenges in Saxony and Thuringia)
 Munich Putsch, November 1923. Attempted nationalist takeover by the Nazi Party. Hitler believed he could march on Munich
(and then Berlin) backed a wave of nationalist feeling. Prompted by the promise by the government to re-start reparations
payments to the Allies. Hitler tried to use his party supporters and other right-wing support (e.g. Ludendorff, Kahr [Bavarian
leader], police and army) to take control of Munich. 9th Nov 1923 march on Munich, but shot down by police which had
remained loyal to the state government. Hitler arrested and tried, sentenced to 5 years imprisonment, served 9 months.
 Government response to problems of 1923. ‘Passive resistance’ to the occupation of the Ruhr was the only political option if
some sort of resistance was to be shown, but it did not help solve the problems Germany faced. Chancellor Stresemann (Aug-
Nov 1923) promised to re-start reparations, he removed the old, worthless currency and introduced a new, temporary one – the
‘Rentenmark’ – to restore confidence. Stresemann agreed to talks about reparations and the outcome was the Dawes Plan
(signed 1924). Germany’s reparations would be altered to spread out the payments over more years, thus making it easier to pay;
payment was also assisted by American loans; the USA also promised to encourage investment in the German economy to
rebuild strength. Thus, reparations were re-started, as a consequence the French withdrew from the Ruhr in 1924. Stresemann
also used ‘Article 48’ to declare a state of emergency and to use this to depose the communist political threats, which showed he
was prepared to take action. In turn the police and army were more prepared to remain loyal to the Weimar government when
faced with the Munich Putsch.
The Recovery of Germany, 1924-29 (Lacey, p.26-30; Walsh, p.146-7, 240-2)
 The work of Stresemann (as Chancellor, 1923; Foreign Minister 1924-29). Stresemann has been seen by many as a key figure in
Germany’s recovery after 1918. Responsible in 1923 for restoring financial stability, dealing with political challenges and
helping negotiate the Dawes Plan (for all these see above). He was Foreign Minister from 1924-29 and seen as a key figure in
helping revive Germany’s international position.

 Rentenmark, Dawes Plan and Young Plan, recovery of the German economy. After 1923 Germany’s economy did revive
somewhat (assisted by the Dawes Plan), there was sustained economic growth between 1924-29. For Rentenmark and Dawes
Plan – see above. Further success for Germany over the issue of reparations was achieved in 1929 when Stresemann successfully
negotiated the Young Plan which reduced the total payment of reparations and spread them out even further. As part of this
agreement the French withdrew their military presence from the Rhineland.

 Successes in foreign policy – Locarno Treaties, League of Nations, Kellogg-Briand Pact. Stresemann is most well-known for
his work to improve Germany’s international position; he helped transform Germany from an outcast, defeated power into a
more respected state. Locarno Treaties (1925) showed Germany as an important state in Europe; Locarno also strengthened
Germany’s position and guaranteed its western frontiers. This paved the way for entry into the League of Nations (1926) as a
permanent member of the Council. Stresemann was also part of the negotiations for the Kellogg-Briand Pact which was a further
move towards international co-operation.
 Germany also saw development in its cultural scene. New aspects of art, music, nightlife, etc; were seen. These can be seen as a
reflection of a changing Germany after the war and also, after 1923, as an effect of the improved economy. But there were also
those who saw the new culture as decadent and un-German, they wanted a return to ‘traditional’ values.
 How far was there improvement in Germany’s situation in the period 1924-29? The positive pattern was not always present.
There were critics of Stresemann’s foreign policy who saw him as selling out to the Allies. The economy, although improved,
was not completely restored – unemployment still remained high. The economy was always vulnerable to become weak again,
especially if the American loans were stopped (see impact of the Depression on Germany). Although there was not the violence
of the period 1919-23 political instability was still present, coalition governments were still fragile. Nationalism was very much
present – see Hindenburg’s election as President in 1925.

The Rise of Hitler and the Nazis (Lacey, p.32-61; Walsh, p.148-157)
 Hitler and the origins of the German Workers’ Party. Small, Bavarian party with radical nationalist and ‘socialist’ policies, one of
many small political parties in the chaotic political scene after 1918. Hitler joined in 1919, appointed head of propaganda. Hitler
was a very effective public speaker. Main themes of speeches were – Germany’s weak government and the ineffectiveness of the
Weimar political system; hatred of the Allies and Versailles; opposition to communists and socialists; opposition to Jewish
influence in society and politics.
 Changes and developments in the party, 1920-22. ‘Twenty-Five Point Programme’, 1920 – a broad range of policies. Hitler
became leader in 1920. Party re-named ‘National Socialist German Workers’ Party’ – Nazis. Increasingly attracted a following
in Bavaria, even among the respectable classes. Stormtroopers (SA) – used to protect Nazi meetings, disrupt those of opponents,
march in processions. Key Nazis – Rohm (1919), Goebbels (1922), Goering (1922), Himmler (1923). By 1923 the party had
3,000 members. Very vocal party.
 Causes, events and consequences of the Munich Putsch, 1923. Hitler was determined to make a bid for power (inspired by
Mussolini’s 1922 ‘March on Rome’). Hitler judged that the Nazis could tap into strong anti-Weimar feeling (esp. after
Stresemann’s plans to re-start reparations payments), he felt that he would have the support from right-wing forces in the police
and army. He enlisted the support of war-hero Ludendorff. Confident that he had the support of the right-wing head of the
Bavarian government, Kahr (on 8 Nov Hitler had hi-jacked a political meeting in a Munich Beer Hall, and there declared the start
of the revolution), the Nazis marched into Munich on 9 Nov. But the police and army did not support the rising and the march
was shot down by the Bavarian police (16 Nazis killed). Hitler arrested, put on trial and imprisoned. Key consequences –
Hitler’s trial allowed a public forum for speeches; Hitler’s imprisonment weakened the party; in the following years the party lost
support as it was seen as too radical and violent (in the two elections of 1924 the Nazi members in the Reichstag decreased from
32 seats to 14); Hitler wrote ‘Mein Kampf’ while in prison; Hitler changed the political path for the Nazis, who would now work
to gain power through democratic means rather than revolution – “we must hold our noses and enter the Reichstag”.
 Reorganisation of the Nazi Party, 1924-28. The aftermath of the putsch attempt caused short-term chaos and weakness in the
party, especially with Hitler imprisoned. On his release Hitler worked to broaden the appeal of the party. The core messages
were the same but there was particular focus on winning more recruits. The Youth and Student wing of the party was
established, evening classes were set up and branches of the party established in different areas of Germany – the party became a
more national organisation. Membership of the party rose to over 100,000 by 1928. In 1928 the Nazis only won 12 Reichstag
seats – 2.6% of the vote; this was a low point. From 1928 the party began to work to gain the support of the middle class, small
business owners, shopkeepers and small farmers. Goebbels’ propaganda. Establishment of the SS, 1925 – Hitler’s personal
body guard.
 Impact of the Depression on Germany (economic and political); reasons for increase in support for the Nazi Party, 1930-32.
Loans from USA called back in. The economy floundered, unemployment rose swiftly (1928 – 1 million; 1931 – 3 million;
1932 – 6 million). 1931 - five major banks collapsed. Political chaos – failure of government policies (taxes raised, government
spending cut, many state employees made redundant); government looked ineffective – many blamed the weaknesses of the
constitution for ineffective government, the reparations were seen as making the situation worse. The economic problems led to
a rise in political extremism (more people looked to the radical parties, both ‘Left’ and ‘Right’ as possible solutions to the
problems. Governments unable to control the Reichstag (Presidential ‘Emergency Powers’ (Article 48) were increasingly used
from 1931). In 1931 the Reichstag was suspended for a while as it became unworkable.
 Gaining support - Nazi messages, methods and actions, 1929-32. The reorganization of the Nazi Party in the years 1925-28 now
produced results. The key change was the economic and political climate had altered which made more people willing to accept
possible radical solutions to Germany’s problems. The Nazi Party seemed fresh and dynamic. It was able to gain increasing
support between 1930-32 because……. – (see Lacey, p50; Walsh, p.153-155). Electoral successes – Reichstag elections – 1930
– 107 seats (18.3%); July 1932 – 230 seats (37.3%) (see Lacey, p.50); Presidential election, April 1932 – Hitler polled 13
 million votes, coming second to Hindenburg (19 million) – this showed the personal popularity of Hitler. By mid-1932 the Nazis
were the single largest political force in Germany, although they did not win a Reichstag majority.
 Events of 1932 to January 1933 (Elections, political turmoil and other political developments from Bruning to von Papen and
von Schleicher). Political chaos worsened; Article 48 used extensively. Presidential Election, April 1932 – Hindenburg re-
elected. Following July 1932 Reichstag Election Hitler demanded to be made Chancellor in a Nazi-led government; Hindenburg
would not allow him this. Von Papen tried to form a right-wing coalition but was unable to do so without the support of the
Nazis. Nazis turned the Reichstag into an unworkable body which could not function. Fresh elections called for November –
Nazi vote decreased – 196 seats (33.1%) – for a short while it looked as though the Nazis might have missed their chance for
power. Von Schleicher government proved ineffective; in response von Papen struck a deal with Hitler to help form a right-wing
government with Hitler as Chancellor and 2 other Nazis in the Cabinet. Von Papen hoped to use Hitler as a puppet through
which he could govern. Hindenburg was persuaded – Hitler became Chancellor on 30 Jan 1933.

Nazi consolidation of power, 1933-34 (Lacey, p.62-74; Walsh, p.158-9)

 Formation of government under Chancellor Hitler, 30 January 1933. Torch-light parades by SA. Belief among right-wing
politicians that Hitler lacked political ability and could be controlled; the Nazi numbers in the Reichstag could then be used to
govern more effectively. But Hitler was not prepared to do this and worked to establish a Nazi dictatorship. New Reichstag
elections called for 5 March (Hitler hoped to win a majority)
 Reichstag Fire, Emergency Powers, March 1933 Election, Enabling Law. Emergency powers used to control political
meetings. SA used as auxiliary police by the Nazis to disrupt opponents political rallies. Reichstag Fire – 27 Feb 1933 –
Communists blamed (van der Lubbe); 4,000 Communists arrested. Widespread Emergency Powers granted by Hindenburg to
Hitler to search, arrest, prevent political meetings, etc; The Nazis now had control of the government resources to assist in their
election campaign (e.g. control of radio, police), now also used direct intimidation during the election process. Reichstag
election, March 1933 – 288 seats (43.9%) - not a majority. Communists banned. Enabling Act, March 1933 – passed by 444
votes to 94; SPD opposed it. (How was it passed?) Enabling Act was the legal basis of dictatorial power for the Nazis.
 The ‘Nazi Revolution’ – establishment of Nazi influence in all branches of governemnt. Civil Service, Courts and state schools
had Jews and other opponents sacked. Restrictions on Trade Unions. Trade Unions banned, May 1933. Establishment of the
One-Party State, July 1933 (Nazi Party the only legal political party in Germany). Jan 1934 - all state government structures
brought under direct Nazi control.
 Night of the Long Knives, June 1934. Arrest and execution of the more radical influences in the Nazi party, largely those under
the influence of Ernst Rohm (leader of the SA). Why? – to secure Hitler’s unchallenged position as head of the Nazi Party; to
remove the ‘thuggish’ element of the SA now Hitler needed to present a more respectable front once in power; to prevent
pressure building from some Nazis to introduce more radical policies; to appeal to the Army commanders; to appeal to ‘big
business’.
 Death of President Hindenburg, August 1934 - Hitler now declared as ‘Der Fuhrer’. Confirmed in a public vote (plebiscite). The
Army and Judges now had to swear an oath of loyalty direct to Hitler as the Head of State (both President and Chancellor
combined).

Nazi rule, methods of control, and impact on German people, 1933-45 (Lacey, p.76-139; Walsh, p.160-175, 179-80)
 Use of the Police State. Regular police brought under the control of the Nazis. But key aspects of the police state were
developed under the SS, which was greatly expanded once the Nazis came to power. SS, Gestapo (secret police), concentration
camps, control of judicial system (courts), use of informers.
 Use of Propaganda as a means of control. Josef Goebbels ‘Minister of Propaganda and Enlightenment’. April 1933 public
burning of books of ‘undesirable’ views. Nazi control of all forms of media (newspapers, printers, radios, films) – non-Nazi
publications closed down, Nazi editors put in place, Nazi controlled film bureau, cheap radios (the ‘People’s Receiver’) allowed
the Nazi message to enter the vast majority of homes. Rallies and celebrations all preached the same message of Nazi supremacy
and German greatness – Nuremberg rallies. Nazis controlled all cultural aspects – art , music, literature, theatres, etc; - through
the ‘Reich Chamber of Culture’. Berlin Olympics, 1936 – event used by the Nazis to showpiece what had been achieved in
Germany.
 Dealing with opposition. All political parties, except the Nazis, were banned. Trade Unions were banned (instead all workers
had to join the Nazi-led ‘German Labour Front’ – a ‘union’ which oversaw workers in the interests of the government). All clubs
and societies were brought under Nazi control. 1933-34 saw considerable moves to eliminate opposition groups – e.g. arrest of
communists and socialists, use of concentration camps for critics and opponents. No freedom of the press; no freedom of
expression; no public meetings (unless approved by the Nazis). Army commanders brought under Hitler’s control – dismissal of
two top commanders in 1937. Any form of criticism could attract the attention of the Gestapo and perhaps even a spell in a
concentration camp. (Also see material on opposition during the war years.)
 Policies towards women. A woman’s place was to bear, raise and nurture ‘good’ German children, who were to be brought up to
follow Nazi ideas. Women’s organisations were to develop child-care techniques, home crafts, etc; Marriage Loan, 1933.
German ‘Mother’s Cross’ was awarded to women who produced many children. Married women were sacked from government
employment (civil service, teaching, etc;). Birth rates did increase from 15 per thousand in 1933 to 20 in 1939. (Youth
organisations for girls focused on fitness for motherhood and related skills.) But the Nazis also wanted an increases workforce in
industry in the later part of the 1930s and into the war years – women were therefore encouraged (even compelled in some cases
by 1943) to work. Was such a policy incompatible with the policy of increasing the birth-rate?
 Policies towards young people – Youth Groups. All youth groups were brought under the control of the Hitler Youth
organisation. The focus was on raising German children fit for the Nazi era and for the next generation of people in this
‘Thousand Year Reich’. For girls (Young Girls’ League, 10-13; League of German Maidens, 14-18) the focus was on
preparation for motherhood – e.g. domestic skills. For boys (‘Pimfen’ Cubs, 6-10; Young German Boys, 10-13; Hitler Youth,
14-18) the focus was on preparation for military service – outdoor exercises, camping, physical strength, war games, crafts and
skills. By 1939 membership of the Hitler Youth was compulsory for all children aged 14-18. Political education focused on the
needs of the German people and the ‘Volksgemeinschaft’ – Peoples’ Unity).
  Policies towards young people - Schools and Education policies. The school curriculum was very heavily modified to fit to Nazi
ideology; there was great emphasis on increasing physical fitness (PE was given much greater time), promoting understanding in
German culture and history, the military elements of science. Jewish teachers were sacked. Jews were segregated in schools
after 1933 and then banned from state-funded schools after 1935. Specialist ‘Adolf Hitler’ schools were formed to educate the
strongest boys in matters of leadership and Nazism.
 Policies towards Jews and other persecuted groups. The trend was an escalation (increase in intensity) of action against
‘undesirable’ groups. April 1933 – national boycott of Jewish shops organised by the Nazis. Jews sacked from civil service and
schools. 1935 Nuremberg Laws – denied Jews rights of citizenship (denied the vote, denied state schooling, etc;), banned
marriages between Jews and non-Jews. 1938 Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) – destruction of Jewish shops, homes and
synagogues; arrests of 20,000 Jews, seizure of Jewish businesses and assets – such actions prompted a wave of Jewish
emigration. (See below for persecution policies during the Second World War.)
 Policies towards the Churches. Ultimate Nazi goal was to replace all existing religious organisations and religions with a Nazi
controlled ‘German Faith Movement’ based on pagan-style beliefs. But this could not be achieved swiftly, religious beliefs and
organisations were too deep-rooted in much of society. 1933 Concordat with the Roman Catholic Church – the Nazis would not
interfere in the organisation of the Church as long as the Church kept out of politics. All Protestant Churches were supposed to
unite under one ‘Reich Church’ led by Bishop Muller. As time passed various policies were introduced to increase Nazi control
over the Churches – 1935 Department for Church Affairs established; 1935-36 arrest of Protestant ministers and Catholic priests
and monks critical of the Nazis; Church groups and Church schools undermined, Church schools abolished in 1939. But the
Nazis could never really control religious groups and some individuals became critics of the regime (see Cardinal Galen, Martin
Niemoller, Dietrich Boenhoffer - Lacey, p.96-97; Walsh, p.163)
 The Economy and policies to reduce unemployment. Unemployment did reduce from nearly 6 million in late-1932, 1million in
1937, to ‘virtually zero’ in 1939. Methods used included military expansion (with conscription introduced in 1935); work
creation schemes (building programmes, autobahns), compulsory ‘National Labour Service’ for all young people and
unemployed; (it must also be remembered that those in camps were not counted in unemployment statistics). In 1936 the ‘Four
Year Plan’ was introduced by Goering to oversee conversion to a ‘war economy’ through the method of ‘self-sufficiency’
(‘Autarky’); imports were carefully controlled and raw materials were organised. Wages remained relatively low, partly because
of government intervention.

The impact of the Second World War on Germany, 1939-45 (Lacey, p.140-159 ; Walsh, p.176-182)
 The German Home Front. Not much impact on standards of living in the first two years of war, although rationing on many
items was introduced from 1939. However, impact of allied bombing intensified from 1942 – cities such as Hamburg, Berlin, the
Ruhr, Dresden were affected badly by bombing . From 1943 a policy of ‘Total War’ was developed – whole economy and
society geared to the war effort, mobilisation of the workforce. Shortages of food and other necessities affected civilians as the
war progressed, particularly from 1944 onwards.
 Escalation of policies against Jews (arrests, deportations, ghettos, death squads, the Final Solution and death camps). Invasions
to the East led to establishment of ghettoes; 1941 SS ‘Special Action Sqauds’ (Einsatzgruppen) used in occupied territories to
elimate Jews; 1942 Wannsee Conference – introduced the ‘Final Solution’ (the systematic methods and infrastructure of the
Holocaust in Death Camps, e.g. Auschwitz). Germany’s Jews were rounded up and deported (nearly all were murdered).
 Growth of opposition to the Nazis (and examples). Increased opposition to the Nazis from 1942 as the war began to go badly.
Groups of senior figures in society (some church leaders, aristocrats, army officers) formed the ‘Kreisau Circle’, a group
determined to remove Nazi rule and negotiate a peace with the Allies. This led to the ‘July Bomb Plot’ of 1944 (Stauffenberg
Plot). Youth resistance – White Rose, Edelweiss Pirates, etc. The Nazi regime took harsh counter-measures against any form of
resistance. As the war progressed the Nazi regime became more repressive, increasing arrests, more extreme propaganda.
 Allied invasion and downfall of Nazi rule. From 1944 Germany was under great pressure in the war. Germany faced a war on
two-fronts after June 1944. Germany’s situation was perilous, especially once the Soviet armies were on the march from the
East. Huge fear at the possibility of a Soviet occupation led to a large scale refugee crisis by 1945. Battle for Berlin, April 1945.
Hitler’s death – suicide in the Chancellery bunker, 30 April 1945. 8 May 1945 ceasefire signed – end of the war. Nazi regime
collapsed.