Construction and Building Materials 144 (2017) 686–701

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

Recent research on cold-formed steel beams and columns subjected to

elevated temperature: A review
Muhammad Faisal Javed a,⇑, Nor Hafizah a,⇑, Shazim Ali Memon b,⇑, Mohammad Jameel c,
Muhammad Aslam a
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Nazarbayev University, Kazakhstan
c
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology, Hyderabad, India

h i g h l i g h t s

Review on studies performed on CFS members at elevated temperatures is presented.

Buckling modes, ultimate capacity and critical temperature of members are discussed.

Research gaps and needs, as well as new directions for researchers, are highlighted.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: CFS members are more vulnerable to fire due to high section factor (fire-exposed area to the heated vol-
Received 28 September 2016 ume). Hence, an extensive review of experimental and numerical studies performed on CFS beams and
Received in revised form 22 December 2016 columns at elevated temperatures is presented. Various types of buckling under different loading condi-
Accepted 29 March 2017
tions and influence of different factors affecting the ultimate capacity and critical temperature of mem-
Available online 6 April 2017
bers are discussed. A comparison between different test methods and fire curves used around the world is
presented. The research gaps as well as recommendations are also proposed. Conclusively, this review
Keywords:
will provide basic data for the development of design codes.
Cold-formed steel
Elevated temperature
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Beams
Columns
Buckling
Fire curves

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
2. Test methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
2.1. Steady state test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
2.2. Transient state test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
3. Standard fire time-temperature curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
4. Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
4.1. Un-restrained members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
4.2. Restrained members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
4.3. Research gap for beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
5. Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
5.1. Un-restrained members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
5.2. Restrained members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
5.3. Research gap for columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697

⇑ Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: arbabf1@gmail.com (M.F. Javed), hafizah_ramli@um.edu.my (N. Hafizah), shazimalimemon@gmail.com (S.A. Memon).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.03.226
0950-0618/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 M.F. Javed et al. / Construction and Building Materials 144 (2017) 686–701 687

6. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699

1. Introduction ture. According to Eurocode [18], hot-rolled steel members are

Cold-formed steel (CFS) structures have been used for multiple
construction applications [1–4]. American Iron and steel Institute
(AISI) and American Institute for Steel Construction (AISC) design
specifications defines the CFS members as: ‘‘Shapes manufactured
by press-braking blanks sheared from sheets, cut lengths of coils or
plates, or by roll forming cold- or hot-rolled coils or sheets; both
forming operations being performed at ambient room tempera-
ture, that is, without manifest addition of heat such as would be
required from hot forming” [5,6]. CFS members are made from cold
bent steel sheets of 0.5–3.0 mm thickness [7,8]. According to Steel
Framing Alliance report, the use of CFS framing in the recent years
has increased expressively in residential, commercial and indus-
trial construction. Statistics shows that CFS framing occupies 39%
of commercial applications, with 81% of all non-load bearing cases
and 23% of structural applications [9]. Some of the reasons for CFS
getting popular are high strength-to-weight ratio and stiffness,
economy in handling and transposition, ease of fabrication and
installation and flexibility of sectional profiles and shapes [10–
12]. Furthermore, the development of various design standards
and guides by different countries have also helped in increasing
the scope of CFS members [13,14]. Although, in literature, many
researchers considered CFS framing as ‘‘new” construction mate-
rial, yet its use started in North America more than 100 years ago
[15]. For example, in England and United States, the use of CFS
members on experimental basis started in the 1850s while in con-
struction building industry its use can be traced back to 1920s [16].
The behavior of CFS members is completely different from hot-
rolled steel members both at ambient [17] and elevated tempera-
mostly in class 1 or 2 cross-sections while CFS belongs to class 3
or 4. Most of the research carried out in past on CFS was at ambient
temperature, which helped in the preparation of design code EN
1993-1-3:2005 [19] at elevated temperature. As a result, the vari-
ous design guidelines for CFS members at high temperatures are
not precise and accurate enough to be practiced by designers and
engineers. Nowadays, the methods for hot-rolled steel members
presented in EN 1993-1-2:2005 [18] are also used for CFS members
with class 4 cross-sections, using the same strength reduction fac-
tors and critical temperatures. However, recent studies show that
the reduction of mechanical properties with change in temperature
is different from EN 1993-1-1:2005 [20]. Certain properties of CFS,
like high strength steels and very thin cross-sections, make it more
vulnerable to elevated temperatures [21,22]. Apart from above,
most of the CFS sections are open and shear-center does not over-
lap with the center of gravity. The CFS cross-sections are either
asymmetric or monosymmetric which, cause the buckling of CFS
members at a low level of stress then yield point. Furthermore,
the strength, modulus of elasticity and stiffness reduction factors
for cold-formed steel is significantly lower as compared to hot-
rolled steel [23]. The comparison between reduction factors used
for modulus of elasticity found by different researchers for CFS
[18,24–27] and hot-rolled steel [28,29] is shown in Fig. 1. Hence,
in comparison to hot-rolled steel members, CFS members are more
vulnerable to instabilities like local, global and distortional buck-
ling. The different shapes of CFS members used for structural fram-
ing are shown in Fig. 2.
The main objective of this review paper is to provide an updated
and critical review of cold-formed steel research published in lead-

1.2

0.8
E(T) / E(Tambient)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Temperature
Cooke (Hot-rolled) Chen, Young (Hot-Rolled)
Chen, Young (Hot-rolled, High Strength) Kankanamge and Mahendran (CFS)
Craveiro, Rodrigues (Cold-rolled) Eurocode 2005 (Class 4)
Landesmann, Silva (Cold-rolled)

Fig. 1. CFS Vs hot-rolled retention factors for elastic modulus.

688 M.F. Javed et al. / Construction and Building Materials 144 (2017) 686–701
Fig. 2. Cold-formed steel sections used for structural framing [13].
ing journals from 2010 onwards. In Section 2, a brief introduction
about different test methods currently used in laboratories around
the world for evaluating the response of structural elements at ele-
vated temperature is given. Comparison of different types of stan-
dard fire time-temperature curves currently used for the
evaluation of beams and columns is presented in Section 3. An
extensive review of experimental and numerical studies performed
on cold-formed steel beams and columns at elevated temperatures
is covered in Sections 4 and 5. The emphasis is on the ultimate
capacity and critical temperature of individual structural framing
members. Various types of buckling (local, global and distortional)
under different loading conditions (axial, flexural) and effects of
different factors (load ratio, yield strength, thickness and cross-
sectional shape of CFS members, fire exposure time, temperature)
affecting the ultimate capacity and critical temperature of mem-
bers are discussed. The research gaps and needs as well as, new
directions for researchers are also highlighted in these Sections.
Finally, conclusions are covered in Section 6.
Before presenting a review of available information on the
behavior of CFS members at elevated temperature, it is worthwhile
to review previously published literature focusing on similar issues
during recent years. A comprehensive research report entitled
‘‘Review: development of performance-based fire design for cold-
formed steel” was published recently by Batista Abreu (2014) in
fire science reviews journal [8]. The central purpose of the report
was to highlight the need for performance-based fire design
method for cold-formed steel. The paper provides a comprehensive
review of the mechanical and thermal properties of cold steel as
well as gives short summaries of prior research on CFS walls, con-
nections, and floors at elevated temperature. The description of
standard fire testing methods was also provided. It was concluded
that in near future more emphasis should be put on the develop-
ment of performance-based fire design for CFS structures. Further-
more, the need for the detailed study of three-dimensional
building models and simulated fires was highlighted. In compar-
ison, our review paper mainly focuses on the behavior of structural
elements i.e. CFS beams and columns, subjected to elevated tem-
perature. Furthermore, the comparison between different types
of standard testing methods and fire curves used around the globe
is presented. Finally, the research need and future directions for
the research are also suggested.
2. Test methods
The response of structural elements to elevated temperatures is
usually studied by conducting either steady-state test or transient-
state test.
2.1. Steady state test
In steady state tests, the sample is heated up to a specific tem-
perature and when the temperature becomes stable, the sample is
loaded gradually till failure. The heating rate in steady state test is
normally in 10–50 °C/min range; however, the temperature is kept
constant during the application of load till failure. The stress-strain
relationship at a particular temperature is obtained directly while
other mechanical properties are obtained from stress-strain curves.
2.2. Transient state test
In this type of test, the sample is loaded to some stress level by
applying load statically. Thereafter, the temperature is increased
gradually by using different standard fire time-temperature curves
recommended by different testing methods, until failure. The heat-
ing rate usually varies from 5 °C/min to 50 °C/min. As a result, a
temperature-strain curve is obtained directly from the test. The
stress-strain curves are then obtained at different elevated temper-
atures by the methods described in [30,31]. The other mechanical
properties (yield strength and modulus of elasticity) are obtained
from the stress-strain curves. Although, steady state test is more
common as it is easier to perform but, the temperature would
always rise in an actual fire scenario. Hence, the transient state test
is more accurate in predicting the response of a specimen to fire
[32]. Kay et al. [33] compared results from transient state test
and steady state tests and concluded that strength of steel
obtained by steady state test was higher than the transient state
test.
3. Standard fire time-temperature curve
All building codes use standard fire time-temperature curves
for rating the performance of building materials, designing fire pro-
tection as well as selecting the size of structural members through
fire resistance ratings (in mins/hours). The standard fire time-
temperature curves given in different codes are shown in Fig. 3.
Of all the standard time-temperature curves, iSO-834 [34] is
mostly used across the globe.
The standard fire tests are considered different from real fire in
terms of rise/fall in temperature with time, structural behavior and
of fire loading (uniform vs. non-uniform). In terms of rise/fall in
temperature with time, in real fire, the temperature increases up
to certain level and then becomes constant followed by the
decrease in temperature also known as growth, full development
and decay phases; while in most of the patterns given by different
standard testing procedures, the temperature keeps on increasing
 M.F. Javed et al. / Construction and Building Materials 144 (2017) 686–701 689

Fire Time-tempearture curves

1400

1200

1000
Temperature in °C

800

600

400

200

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time
EuroCode Curve ASTM
External Fire Curve By EC HydroCarbon Fire by EC
ISO Real Fire
Parametric Fire Curve Given by Eurocode

Fig. 3. Time-temperature curves given by different codes vs real fire.

Fig. 4. CFS profiles working as flexural elements (girders and purlins) [44].

until the failure of the member. With respect to structural behav-
ior, the standard fire tests cannot estimate the full scale complex
structural behavior of the building including the thermal expan-
sion, large deflections, connection behavior and development of
another path load and loss of stability. Finally, in terms of fire load-
ing, in case of real fires the members may be subjected to fire from
all four sides like the case of most of the columns (uniform fire
loading), or less than four sides like columns embedded in walls
(non-uniform fire loading). However, furnace tests usually involve
short-span samples, which may be difficult for extrapolation to full
scale. It must be noted that non-uniform distribution of tempera-
ture can lead to a non-uniform distribution of mechanical proper-
ties and affects the pre-buckling stresses in axially loaded
members [35–37]. It is worth mentioning here that from the test-
ing methods used for establishing fire rating, only ASTM E119 puts
specific emphasis on restrained and unrestrained end condition for
beams, floors and roof assemblies. As most of the research on CFS
members in fire is conducted on uniformly distributed tempera-
ture, hence, in this paper, only uniform fire studies are considered.
Moreover, the emphasis is put on the latest research mainly from
2010 and onwards. Experimental and numerical studies regarding
the performance of CFS beams and columns at elevated tempera-
ture are discussed extensively in the subsequent sections.
4. Beams
CFS beams are progressively being utilized as load bearing com-
ponents because of obvious advantages such as high strength-to-
weight ratios and adaptability of profiles (Fig. 4). As most of the
690 M.F. Javed et al. / Construction and Building Materials 144 (2017) 686–701
Fig. 5. Three buckling types subjected to compression and bending [45].
CFS cross-sections are open and thin, and because of their low tor-
sional stiffness and slenderness, CFS beams are substantially more
vulnerable to instability failures (Local, distortional and lateral-
torsional buckling as shown in Fig. 5) even at ambient tempera-
tures [38–41]. The thin-walled structural steel members subjected
to bending may possibly fail by both local and global buckling
modes. The local buckling mode occurs due to compression of thin
plates in the cross section while the lateral–torsional buckling,
which is global buckling mode for members subjected to bending
is characterized by rigid body movements of the whole member
i.e. individual cross-sections rotate and translate but do not distort
in shape [42,43]. Distortional buckling, also known as ‘‘stiffener
buckling” or ‘‘local-torsional buckling”, is a mode characterized
by rotation of the flange at the flange/web junction in members
with edge stiffened elements. Compared to local buckling,
lateral-torsional buckling and distortional buckling is a relatively
new concept, have a very short history and occur only in cold-
formed steel sections. In this paper, only lateral-torsional and dis-
tortional buckling of beams is studied as they are more common in
cold-formed steel beams subjected to elevated temperatures.
Moreover, based on restrained conditions, we have divided the lit-
erature on CFS beams at elevated temperature into two categories.
The beams that are tested individually without taking into account
the effect of surrounding structure are discussed under the unre-
strained category while the studies on beams in which the effect
of surrounding structures are taken into account are discussed
under the restrained category. It must be noted that most of the
research has been done by performing testing on unrestrained
member whereas very few studies have been performed on
restrained members.
4.1. Un-restrained members
Lateral–torsional buckling behavior of both hot-rolled and cold-
formed steel beams is complicated at ambient and elevated tem-
peratures. Both experimental [46–48] and numerical [49–55]
investigations were carried out on lateral-torsional buckling
behavior of stainless steel beams [56–58] and hot-rolled steel
members in fire. In case of cold-formed steel, few experimental
and numerical investigations are reported on this topic at ambient
temperature [59–61]. For example, the lateral-torsional buckling
behavior of CFS beams at ambient temperature were studied both
numerically and experimentally by Kankanamge and Mahendran
[62]. As far as the performance of cold-formed steel at elevated
temperature is concerned, the researchers numerically investi-
gated the lateral-torsional buckling performance at elevated tem-
peratures [25,63–66].
The FE analysis for lateral-torsional buckling of CFS lipped C-
section beam exposed to uniform elevated temperature and the
suitability of current design guidelines were investigated by Kan-
kanamge and Mahendran [64]. A CFS channel cross-section having
thickness of 1.9 mm, yield stress of 508 MPa (grade G450) and
elasticity modulus of 206 GPa was used. The reduction factors used
for the mechanical properties were taken from previous research
reported in [25]. Initial imperfections and flexural residual stresses
were considered while the membrane residual stresses were not
considered, as they are negligible in cold-formed steel. It was con-
cluded that no design codes could predict the moment capacities of
CFS beams subjected to lateral-torsional buckling accurately. For
members with higher slenderness (My/M0)0.5 > 1.5, Eurocode gave
accurate values for buckling moment capacity but unsafe values for
flexural capacities of the beams. However, a lot of variations
occurred in the intermediate slenderness region.
Later on, the same team extended the above study to analyze
the effect of various parameters such as thickness of steel (1.90
and 1.95 mm), grade of steel (G250 and G450) and span of the
beam (1500, 2000, 2500 and 2900 mm) on the structural behavior
of CFS beams at elevated temperatures (varying from 20 to 700 °C)
under steady-state method [63]. For this purpose, a CFS lipped
channel beam (LCB) under uniform bending moment was consid-
ered with idealized simply supported boundary conditions at sup-
ports, allowing warping displacements as well as both major and
minor rotations whereas preventing in-plane and out-of-plane
twisting and translations. For ambient temperature, eight tests
were also conducted. Moreover, all the beams were loaded at
two-quarter points of the beam. By comparing the results of the
above-mentioned finite element studies with the design codes like
EN1993-1-2 [18] and with AS/NZS4600 [67], it was observed that
 M.F. Javed et al. / Construction and Building Materials 144 (2017) 686–701 691

G450-1.9-115-40-15 By analyzing the studies conducted by Kankanamge research

1.4
team and reported in [25,62–65], the variations seen in the inter-
1.2
20°C
mediate slenderness region are likely to be due to the higher
1 non-linearity in stress-strain curves at different elevated tempera-
200°C
Multimatr/Myield

tures as well as the varying ratios of yield strength to elastic mod-

0.8 300°C
ulus used. Furthermore, as seen in Fig. 6, the results are plotted as a
0.6 400°C set of buckling curves for each temperature. In case of G450 steels,
0.4 500 700 °C provide the lower bound while in case of G250 steels;
600°C 300 °C provide the lower bound. This shows that the ultimate
0.2
700°C member moment capacity results are not purely dependent on
0
0 1 2 3 4 the temperature and the reasons for this kind of behavior need
Elastic Buckling
(Myield/Melastic)0.5 to be investigated.
As most of the CFS members are exposed to distortional failure,
G250-1.95-150-60-17 the present design specifications included special provisions like
1.4 strength curves for the design of CFS beams and columns against
1.2 distortional buckling failures. However, all such strength curves
20°C
for CFS members were developed and used by researchers at ambi-
1 200°C
ent temperature [60,70–73] and very limited research has been
Multimate/Myield

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 subjected to elevated temperatures ranging from 20 to 800 °C. In
0 1 2 3
(Myield/Melastic)0.5
Fig. 6. Comparison of results obtained for G450 and G250 CFS beams [64].
the design method recommended in EN1993 was accurate for very
slender members, however, it was over conservative for most of
the non-slender members. Due to the effect of residual stresses
and initial imperfections, the ultimate moment capacities of beams
with intermediate slenderness decreased considerably relative to
the elastic buckling moment capacities. However, as the beam
slenderness increased, the beam capacity approached elastic buck-
ling moment capacity.
The FE analysis of a beam model with four-point loading was
used by the same research team to study the section moment
capacity of cold-formed lipped channel beams at elevated temper-
atures [65]. The beam model used in the parametric study were
similar to those presented in [63,64] in terms of the element type,
element size, load application, boundary conditions, magnitude,
type and the direction of the initial imperfection, etc. The yield
strength and elastic modulus of steel were calculated by using
the equations presented in [25]. Beam spans selected for the para-
metric study varied from 1000 to 5000 mm, which represented the
range of beam lengths failing by lateral-torsional buckling. More-
over, beams undergoing local, distortional or lateral-distortional
buckling were carefully avoided by checking the failure mode at
the ultimate capacity. In total, 1060 elastic buckling and nonlinear
analyses were performed. It was found that the moment capacity
data for intermediate slenderness were very scattered and hence
separate buckling curves should be used for different high temper-
atures so as to get accurate design predictions. Furthermore, in
EN1993-1-2, the recommended temperature limit (350 °C) for
CFS beams in fire was found to be over conservative. For similar
beams and boundary conditions, the authors in [20,31,68,69] sug-
gested temperature limit of 700 °C.
Table 1
End support conditions for the simply supported beams analysed.
Support conditions F PF
Warping Free Prevented
Minor-axis flexural rotations Free Free
300°C carried out to investigate that either such curves (with or without
400°C slight modifications) can be used at elevated temperatures or not.
500°C Landesmann and Camotim [22] presented finite element analyses
600°C of the distortional post-buckling behavior, ultimate strength and
DSM design of cold-formed steel single-span lipped channel beams
700°C
4 Elastic Buckling
total 1050, simply supported single span CFS beam with lipped
channel cross-section having five different geometries and three
end support conditions (having different wrapping restraint) were
studied. The details of the support conditions are given in Table 1.
A uniform increasing bending moment across the major axis of the
beam was applied at a constant uniform temperature until the fail-
ure of the beam occurred while the stress-strain model of the CFS
presented in EC3-1.2 was used. The ultimate strength of the beams
was calculated by using a steady-state method. It was concluded
that both cross-sectional dimensions and end conditions signifi-
cantly affected the failure moment and distortional post-buckling
response of CFS lipped channel beams. In addition, the current
DSM did not predict adequately the failure moments of CFS beams,
especially for low-to-moderate slenderness range. The reason for
this behavior was due to the pronounced stress-strain curve non-
linearity at temperatures higher than 300 °C as prescribed by
EC3-1.2 model. This research provides an extensive beam failure
moment data bank and can be used to establish the preliminary
guidelines for the development of direct strength method. How-
ever, the above research focused on simply-supported lipped chan-
nel beams with three types of end conditions only. Hence, it is
recommended that more research should be carried out with dif-
ferent boundary conditions and cross-sectional dimensions.
4.2. Restrained members
One of the important shortcomings of standard fire tests is that
they are carried on individual structural members instead of com-
plete structural assemblies. Also, for a member analysis, Part 1.2 of
Eurocode 3 [18] states that ‘‘the internal forces and moments at
supports and ends of members applicable at time t = 0 may be
assumed to remain unchanged throughout the fire exposure”. As
a result, the structural interactions are difficult to evaluate. More-
over, the Cardington fire tests [74], Broadgate fire [75] and some
theoretical analysis of these tests [76–78] have shown that there
exists strong interactions between beams, columns and slabs.
Hence, it can be deduced that in comparison to the unrestrained
members, individual restrained steel members tested in fire is an
effective and appropriate way.
P
Various studies were conducted on compression members
Prevented
(restrained) made up of hot-rolled steel members [79–81]. How-
Prevented
ever, members restrainment is more relevant to horizontal mem-
692 M.F. Javed et al. / Construction and Building Materials 144 (2017) 686–701
Fig. 7. Scheme of the cross-sections of the tested beams by Luis [83,88].
bers like slabs and beams, i.e., the members which are not designed
for compressive forces at room temperature. Some researchers
reported that axial restraint is not so severe phenomena [80,81]
however, others found axial restraint is more important [79,82].
A parametric study was conducted by Laim et al. [83] to evalu-
ate the effect of initial load on the beam (30, 50, and 70%), length of
the beam (2, 3, 4, and 5 m), section geometry (C, I, R and 2R (Fig. 7))
and magnitude of initial geometric imperfections (L/5000, L/1000,
and L/200) on the structural behavior of CFS beams at elevated
temperature. The steel grade S280GD+Z having yield strength of
295 MPa and elasticity modulus of 208 GPa was used. Von Mises
criteria and isotropic strain hardening were used to model the
material non-linearity. According to numerical simulation results,
the fire performance of hollow sections (R and 2R beams) showed
an increase in fire performance of up to 50% when compared to
open sections (C and Lipped I-beams). Furthermore, it was
observed that open cross-sections failed due to lateral-torsional
buckling while closed profiles fail due to distortional-buckling.
An experimental study was conducted to investigate the effects
of four different profiles, axial restraint to thermal elongation and
rotational stiffness of beam supports on the failure modes, temper-
atures and times [84]. The type of cross-sections, grade of steel and
length of the beams considered for this study were same as
reported in [83]. In total, 36 tests with 3 different boundary condi-
tions were conducted. According to results, hollow beams showed
up to 50% increase in fire resistance time as compared to open CFS
beams. The critical temperature of all CFS beams was up to 700 °C,
which was much higher than recommended by EN1993-1-2
(2005). Therefore, a demand of an accurate design guideline was
raised to extend the use of CFS. Furthermore, for all the members
the critical time was less than 30 min.
Laim et al. research group [85], experimentally investigated
simply supported CFS beams having one or two sigma-shaped
cross sections (Fig. 7) at room temperature and in fire conditions.
The thickness, inside bend radius, yield strength of steel, properties
of screws and total span of the beam was same as reported in [84].
24 beams were tested, out of which 18 were tested in fire condi-
tions while the remaining 6 were tested at room temperature.
From 18 tests conducted in the fire, 6 were tested with no
restraints, 6 with partially axial restraint to thermal elongation
while the remaining 6 with rotational restraints. It was observed
that beams without axial restraints and web stiffeners showed
the best response when subjected to fire. Furthermore, web stiffen-
ers were more beneficial when used in open sigma beams. For
sigma beam, it was observed that design values predicted by Euro-
code were over-conservative up to 27%. The critical time for sigma
and 2-sigma beams was less than 15 min showing their vulnerabil-
ity to fire. The geometric imperfections reduced up to 20% of the
critical temperature of CFS beams.
The same research team, carried out experimental investigation
to evaluate the structural behavior of thermally, axially and rota-
tionally restrained CFS beams both at ambient [86,87] and at ele-
vated temperature [88]. In total, 54 fire tests were performed on
six different sections of CFS beams including Sigma and 2-Sigma,
C-, Lipped I-, R- and 2R- as shown in Fig. 7. Out of 54 samples,
18 were just simply supported beams, other 18 were the same
beams but with restrained thermal elongation while the remaining
18 were beams with axial and rotational restraint. One of the rea-
sons for this great number of tests was that three repetitions were
considered for each type of beam and for each series of fire tests.
The overall length of the beam was kept as 3600 mm (span length
3000 mm) while transient-state method was used during heating
of beam. Moreover, during the heating stage, the load was kept
constant until the failure of the beam occurs. It was concluded that
the value of correction factor for shadow effect suggested as 1.0 by
Eurocode was only valid for 2R beams, whereas for other sections it
varied in between 0.7 to 0.9. The Eurocode gave unsafe results for
axially restrained beams whereas over conservative results for
beams with no axial and rotational restraints. Furthermore, the
rate of rise in temperature in open sections was high as compared
to closed sections. The reasons for this may be due to confined air
present in closed sections, which has low thermal conductivity and
a lesser amount of steel exposure to fire. It was shown that the crit-
ical temperature is greatly affected by the stiffness of the sur-
rounding structures i.e. beams and the relation between their
stiffnesses. Amongst all sections used in the experimental work,
R and 2R sections showed the best structural response at elevated
temperature. Hence, in order to increase the use and efficiency of
CFS beams, accurate design guidelines are the need of time.
Based on the experimental results presented in [88], FE analysis
was performed by Laim and Rodrigues [89], to study the effect ini-
tial applied load level (30%, 50%, and 70%), length of the beam (2 m,
3 m, 4 m and 5 m), level of axial restraint (0, 0.45, 1, 7.5, 15, 30,
1 KN/mm) and rotational restraints (0, 15, 150, 300, 1200 and
1 KN m/rad) and section geometry (C, I, R shape and 2R) on the
fire performance of open and close CFS sections. The rest of the
properties of CFS beams were kept same as described in [83]. It
was concluded that the critical temperature of axially restrained
beams may reduce to 50% when compared with non-restrained
beams. However, beyond a certain value of restrainment (1200
or higher in this study), there was no effect of restrainment on crit-
ical temperature of the CFS beam.
By analyzing the studies conducted by Laim and his team, it can
be concluded that these studies were more accurate when com-
pared with the studies of other research teams reported in
[22,25,63–65], as Laim and his team performed these tests using
transient state method, which is closer to real life scenarios. Fur-
thermore, the study accurately portrayed the real-life scenarios
 M.F. Javed et al. / Construction and Building Materials 144 (2017) 686–701 693

Table 2
Experimental work on CFS beams at elevated temperature.

S. No. of Type of Mode of Test Yield Thickness, Length, Temperature Cross- Mode of failure Reference
No samples/ Tests strength, mm mm sectional
Models/ MPa Shape
studies
1 Not Steady FEA 508 1.9 1000– 20–700 °C Lipped C Lateral torsional Buckling [64]
mentioned state 6000
2 9 Steady FEA G250 and 1.9 and 1500– 20–700 °C Lipped C Lateral torsional Buckling [63]
state G 450 1.95 2900
3 1060 Steady FEA G250 and 1.9 and 1000– 20–700 °C Lipped C Lateral torsional Buckling [65]
state G 450 1.95 5000
4 1050 Steady FEA Not 2.2–3 32–46 20–800 °C Lipped C Distortional Buckling [22]
state mentioned
5 Not Transient FEA 295 2.5 3000 iSO-834 C, I, R and lateral-torsional buckling and [83]
mentioned state + Experimental 2R Distortional Buckling
6 36 Transient FEA 295 2.5 3000 iSO-834 C, I, R and lateral-torsional buckling and [84]
state + Experimental 2R Distortional Buckling
7 24 Transient Experimental 295 2.5 3000 iSO-834 Sigma Combination of local, lateral- [85]
state torsional buckling and
distortional-buckling
8 54 Transient Experimental 295 2.5 3000 iSO-834 C, I, R and Local buckling, lateral torsional [88]
state 2R buckling, and distortional
buckling
9 Not Transient Experimental 295 2.5 2000– iSO-834 C, I, R and Local buckling, lateral-torsional [89]
mentioned state 5000 2R buckling and distortional
buckling

by applying axial and rotational restrainment to the specimens.
However, the behavior of R, 2R, sigma and 2-sigma shaped beams
need further investigations as the available test data is scarce. The
authors reported higher axial compression force generation in
sigma beams as compared to 2-sigma beams, which contradicts
the expected behavior and hence need further investigations.
Finally, the authors reported improvement in fire behavior of all
beams when rotational restraints are applied except for 2R beams,
the reason being unknown. Hence, further studies are required to
investigate the negative effect of rotational restraint on 2R beams.
The experimental and numerical works carried on CFS beams at
an elevated temperature since 2008 are presented in Table 2. We
would like to mention here that no research has been carried out
so far on the post-fire behavior of CFS beams.
4.3. Research gap for beams
Beams are one of the basic elements of structures and hence the
behavior of beams in a fire has a direct influence on the behavior of
structures during and after fire. It is important to understand the
behavior of structure during fire so as to provide guidelines and
take necessary steps for the safe evacuation of residents as well
as carry out rescue operations [90]. Moreover, post-fire studies
are important for the evaluation and carrying out repair work for
the structures subjected to fire [91]. It is known that in real life,
most of the beams are restrained from sides i.e., thermally, axially
or rotationally and are exposed to non-uniform fires i.e., fire from
three sides (top side is covered by slab) or from two sides (in case
of corner beams). As stated above, very little experimental and
numerical research was done on the performance of CFS beams
at elevated temperatures. Hence, some of the research gaps to
understand the behavior of CFS beams at elevated temperature
are as follows.
1. Since CFS beams are prone to lateral-torsional buckling both at
ambient and elevated temperatures and as per author’s knowl-
edge, no experimental data is available in the literature on the
subject of lateral torsional buckling at elevated temperature.
Moreover, for elevated temperature, the only FE analysis using
steady-state method was done by Kankanamge and Mahendran
[63], which is less accurate as compared to transient state
method. Hence, both experimental and numerical investiga-
tions are required on this subject by using a more accurate
method like transient-state method.
2. The distortional buckling failure is one of the common types of
buckling failure that occurs in CFS beams at elevated tempera-
ture. To date and as per author’s knowledge, the literature lacks
in experimental investigations on distortional buckling failures
of CFS beams at elevated temperatures. Moreover, the only
numerical study on CFS beams at elevated temperature was
done by Landesmann and Camotim [22] by considering differ-
ent elevated temperatures in the range of 100–800 °C. Hence,
it is suggested that more research work should be carried out
in this area so as to minimize this research gap.
3. Most of the experimental work done on CFS beams at elevated
temperatures was done on the individual/independent mem-
bers i.e. by neglecting the stiffness of the surrounding mem-
bers/structure. To date, few experimental studies [84,85,88]
were conducted to evaluate the effects of boundary conditions
on the behavior of CFS beams at elevated temperature. How-
ever, these experimental investigations lack in completely
understanding the effect of stiffness of the surrounding mem-
bers on the response of CFS beams at elevated temperature,
and hence further in-depth studies are required.
4. As mentioned earlier, one of the greatest advantages of CFS
beams is that it can be molded into a variety of shapes
(Fig. 2). Hence, both experimental and numerical studies are
required in this area so as to find the optimal cross-sectional
shape for beams at elevated temperature.
5. The structural behavior of CFS beams after fire is necessary for
the evaluation of structure after an event of fire and often very
conservative decisions are made by engineers and designers.
Hence, more research in terms of experimental and numerical
investigations on the post-fire behavior of CFS beams should
be carried out.
5. Columns
Compared to beams, CFS columns (Fig. 8) under elevated tem-
perature have been studied relatively more. Structural behaviors
of columns like modal interactions, altered buckling modes, mate-
rial yielding and time-temperature dependence are similar to that
694 M.F. Javed et al. / Construction and Building Materials 144 (2017) 686–701
Fig. 8. CFS members used as pallet storage racks [96].
Fig. 9. Electric Furnace and loading setup [97].
of beams. Existing research shows that fire resistance for columns
and beams is less than 30 min [92,93]. CFS columns are susceptible
to three main buckling modes, a) local, b) Euler (flexural or
flexural-torsional) and c) distortional buckling [94,95]. Short col-
umns mostly fail in local and distortional buckling while long col-
umns commonly fail in flexure and flexural-torsional buckling.
5.1. Un-restrained members
The flexural-torsional buckling of CFS compression members
both at ambient and elevated temperature was experimentally
investigated by Heva [97]. The author performed 39 tests consist-
ing of different lengths (2800 mm and 1800 mm), thicknesses
(0.95 mm, 1.90 mm, 1.95 mm) and grades of steel (G550, G250,
G450) for both lipped and un-lipped channel respectively. The fur-
nace and loading setup used in these experiments is shown in
Fig. 9. The support conditions for all the columns were taken as
fixed, as it was difficult to provide perfectly pin-end support in
these types of test. By using steady state method, the ultimate load
bearing capacity of the short columns were found at different tem-
peratures (20, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600 and 700 °C) and the
results were then compared with different codes. Moreover,
numerical simulations were performed for flexural-torsional buck-
ling of CFS columns at elevated temperature. The author found that
the present design rules for both ambient and elevated tempera-
tures were conservative, especially over conservative for elevated
temperatures. Hence, Heva and Mahendran [98] suggested impor-
tant guidelines for CFS column designs at an elevated temperature
so as to overcome existing overdesign. We would like to mention
that the author used fixed ended supports, which reflects the most
accurate behavior of on-site columns. However, higher non-
linearity in the stress-strain curve gave unsafe results and hence
further research is needed to study the effect of non-linearity in
the stress-strain curve.
Gunalan et al. [99] investigated the effect of boundary condi-
tions on the flexural-torsional buckling of CFS columns at elevated
temperature. The authors concluded that at elevated temperature,
the fixed ended columns performed better then pin-ended col-
umns due to the effect of wrapping. However, none of the design
codes has considered the effect of wrapping and hence need to
be considered. Furthermore, Eurocode was found to be over-
conservative for fixed ended columns. Thus, it was recommended
to use suitable buckling curves for fixed ended columns.
The same team extended the above-mentioned study and car-
ried out detailed parametric studies for columns having lengths
varying from 1500 to 4000 mm with different boundary conditions
(pin supports, fix supports), variety of thicknesses (0.95–1.95 mm),
grade of steel (G450, G250, G450) and temperature (100–700 °C)
[100]. By comparing the results of FEA with Euro Code 1.3, it was
found that the current design rules are more precise for pin ended
columns while less accurate for fixed ended columns. It is worth
mentioning here that further research is required to include the
effects of non-linear characteristics of stress-strain curves within
the guidelines of AISI S100 and AS/NZ 4600.
 M.F. Javed et al. / Construction and Building Materials 144 (2017) 686–701 695

the flexural-torsional behavior at elevated temperature may be dif-

ferent for closed cross-sections.
The local buckling behavior of CFS columns at ambient and ele-
vated temperature was evaluated in [97]. In total 91 tests were
performed out of which, 27 tests were performed at ambient tem-
perature whereas, 64 were performed at elevated temperature. The
main experimental parameters were different grades of steel
(G250, G450, and G550), thickness of the members (0.95, 1.90,
and 1.95), 7 different temperatures (100–700 °C at 100 °C interval),
five different lengths (150,190,260,280, and 320 mm) and two dif-
ferent channel cross-sections (Lipped and un-lipped channel sec-
tion). The test samples before and after the experiments are
shown in Fig. 10. The results were then compared with the avail-
able design standards including American, Australian, British and
European steel standards and DSM [101–104]. The comparison
showed that current ambient temperature rules can be used confi-
dently at elevated temperature with suggested reduced mechani-
cal properties. The DSM predictions were closest to test results
but un-conservative for some sections. Furthermore, the author
suggested that the current design rules can further be improved
by including the non-linear stress-strain characteristics at high
temperatures. The current study was based on constant uniform
temperature whereas in reality, the columns are exposed to vary-
ing non-uniform fire conditions.
Feng et al. [105] carried out an experimental study to evaluate
the local and distortional buckling of short CFS columns with initial
imperfections at ambient and elevated temperatures (20, 250, 400,
550 and 770 °C). In total, 52 short columns were tested, including
41 lipped channels and 11 un-lipped channels. Out of 41 lipped
channels, 12 were with service holes while the rest were without
service holes. All the specimens were made of S350 steel having
yield strength of 350 MPa. For lipped channel, three different thick-
ness (1.2 mm, 1.5 mm, 2.0 mm) were selected. All the tests were
performed using steady state method and without thermal
restraints. Test results showed that at ambient temperature, the
columns with service holes failed due to local buckling while at
elevated temperatures, they failed due to distortional buckling.
Similarly, at ambient temperature, the columns without service
holes failed due to distortional buckling while at elevated temper-
atures, they failed due to flexural buckling. The buckling of lipped

Fig. 10. Flexural–torsional buckling of test specimens. (a) Failure modes of shorter
columns. (b) Failure modes of longer columns (c) sample before testing [102].

From the studies conducted by Gunalan et al. [99,100] on the

flexural-torsional buckling of CFS columns, it was found that fur-
ther research is required to include the effects of non-linear char-
acteristics of stress-strain curves within the guidelines of AISI S100
and AS/NZ 4600. Furthermore, the author studied only one open
cross-section of CFS columns and hence the research should be Fig. 11. a) Lipped channel 100  56  15  2 without hole b) Lipped channel
extended to a variety of open and close cross-sectional shapes, as 100  56  15  2 with hole [106].
696 M.F. Javed et al. / Construction and Building Materials 144 (2017) 686–701
Fig. 12. Type A C-Section without additional lips, Type B C-Section with additional
lips [107].
channel with and without service holes at ambient temperature is
shown in Fig. 11. Depending on the initial imperfections, the failure
modes of nominally identical columns can be different both at
ambient and elevated temperatures. Moreover, regardless of the
difference in the failure modes, the ultimate buckling loads of
nominally identical columns were almost same.
Numerical investigation was carried out by Feng et al. [106] to
investigate the effect of geometric imperfections on the structural
behavior of CFS columns at ambient and elevated temperature.
Both material and geometric nonlinearities were taken into
account. As it was found from the experimental results that iden-
tical columns may have different buckling modes because of initial
imperfections, therefore load-axial deformation was used for veri-
fication instead of a load-strain relationship. Moreover, stress-
strain relationship provided by EN 1993-1.2(2005) for ambient
temperature was used with some modification for elevated tem-
perature. The authors concluded that the service holes in lipped
channels significantly affected the load carrying capacity. How-
ever, the overall axial stiffness was not affected by the presence
of service holes. Furthermore, the effect of service holes on the
buckling mode was more significant at elevated temperature as
compared to ambient temperature.
The studies conducted by Feng et al. [105,106] investigated
short columns provided with service holes for plumbing and elec-
trical conduits, which are used in real life structures. However, in
Fig. 13. Comparison of other distortional failure modes from experiments and FEA. (a) Both flanges moving inward. (b) One flange moving outward while other one moving
inward [108].
real situations, we may experience slender columns with service
holes and hence its performance at elevated temperature should
be investigated. Furthermore, the author used steady state method,
which is less accurate as compared to transient state method.
Ranawaka and Mahendran [107] performed 150 axial compres-
sion tests on short CFS columns to study the distortional buckling
of CFS columns at ambient and elevated temperature. The main
parameters were low and high strength steel (G250 and G550),
thickness (0.60, 0.80 and 0.95 mm) and two different types of
lipped C-sections (With and without additional lips as shown in
Fig. 12). The length of the specimens was in the range of 180–
280 mm. It was found that at elevated temperatures, the strength
loss of high strength steel was rapid as compared to low strength
steel. However, the ductility of high strength steel was observed
to be higher than low strength steel. The authors found that similar
compression members can have different mode of failure due to
the presence of initial imperfections. In addition, post-buckling
capacity at elevated temperature was negligible. It was concluded
that the design methods in current design codes including DSM
were accurate at room temperature, however, further research
was recommended for the elevated temperatures.
Later on, Ranawaka and Mahendran [108] performed numerical
study was to investigate the effect of geometrical imperfections,
residual stresses and mechanical properties on the structural
behavior of CFS columns subjected to distortional buckling at ele-
vated temperature. For this purpose, the geometric properties
(length, thickness, cross-sectional dimensions) were taken from
experimental investigation reported in [107]. The comparison of
FEA and experimental failure modes is shown in Fig. 13. The
authors concluded the shape of geometric imperfection governs
the mode of failure and hence the first elastic buckling mode
may not be always critical. Furthermore, the effect of residual
stress on the ultimate capacity was found to be negligible. The
importance of using accurate mechanical properties at elevated
temperatures for fire safety design of cold-formed steel compres-
sion members was highlighted.
By analyzing the studies conducted by Ranawaka and his team,
it was observed that the studies were conducted only on very thin
cross-sections (less than 1 mm), so further investigations should be
made on thick sections to study the behavior of CFS columns sub-
jected to distortional buckling at elevated temperature. In addition,
the compression members that fail by flexure or distortional buck-
ling at ambient temperature may not always fail in the same buck-
 M.F. Javed et al. / Construction and Building Materials 144 (2017) 686–701
ling mode at elevated temperature, due to the reduction in
mechanical properties. Hence, the influence of different tempera-
tures on the buckling needs further investigations.
5.2. Restrained members
Most of the experimental studies on CFS short columns at ele-
vated temperatures were performed for evaluating their buckling
behavior [97,105,107,109,110]. Also, for this purpose, different
numerical methods [106,111,112] were used. However, in case of
built-up cross sections, which are most commonly used in building
construction, limited research was done at ambient and elevated
temperatures [113,114]. Moreover, in most studies, the effect of
surrounding structures on the buckling behavior of columns was
not considered [97,105,107,109,110].
Almeida et al. [115] carried out an experimental study to inves-
tigate the effects of thermal restraints on the structural behavior of
compressed CFS members at elevated temperature. Three types of
cross-sections (C, I and 2R) and two types of end supports (pin
ended and semi-rigid) were considered while the length of all col-
umns was kept as 3.0 m. 18 tests were conducted by using iSO-834
fire curve and load level of 30%. All specimens were made of S280
steel having yield strength of 280 MPa. It was observed that the
temperature difference between inside and outside thermocouples
was significant for 2R cross-sections only. Furthermore, for I and
2R cross-sections, the failure temperature was noted to be greater
than buckling temperature. Moreover, the results showed that C
cross-sections are mostly affected by thermal elongation restraints
as compared to 2R and I section and it was recommended that crit-
ical temperature should be measured at mid height.
Experimental investigation was performed by Craveiro et al.
[116] on four different cross-sections of CFS columns subjected
to elevated temperature. The four types of cross-sections selected
were single sections, C (open build-up cross-sections), I (closed
build-up cross-sections) R and 2R. The length and other properties
of the specimens were kept same as used in [115]. Axial restraint of
3 KN/mm was applied to all the members while two different types
of load level were selected i.e. 30 and 50%. It was observed that the
rate of temperature rise in the member is higher for open cross-
sections as compared to close cross-sections due to the presence
of confined air in close cross-sections. Furthermore, identical col-
umns showed identical mode of failure for different load levels.
Fig. 14. Global view of the experimental set-up used by Craveiro et al. [1].
697
An experimental investigation was recently carried out at Coim-
bra University, Portugal by Craveiro et al. [1] to study the influence
of the thermal restraints or effect of surrounding structure on the
structural behavior of single lipped channel and built-up cross-
section (double lipped channel) compression members both at
ambient and elevated temperatures by implementing transient-
state method. 48 experiments were performed by using standard
fire curve iSO-834 [34] by keeping the load levels, stiffness of the
surrounding structure, type of cross-section and thermal restraints
as variables. The experimental setup consisted of 3D restraining
steel frame adaptable for various level of stiffness and a 2D reac-
tion steel frame as shown in Fig. 14. The thickness of the specimens
was kept as 2.5 mm while the rest of the dimensions and other
properties of the specimens used were same as reported in [115].
According to the test results [115–117], for higher initial load
levels and stiffness, the effect of the level of axial and rotational
restraints on critical temperatures were found to be higher. The
distortional buckling was more clearly visible in the semi-rigid
end support condition. Moreover, the limiting temperature pre-
dicted by Eurocode 1.3 gave accurate values for open and built-
up cross-sections but were found to be conservative for lipped
channel columns. The authors suggested that further research is
needed to find out the optimal cross-section shape for thermal
restraint.
The experimental carried by Coimbra University team were per-
formed by using axial, rotational and thermal restraints as well as
transient state method, which are more close to real-life scenarios.
Furthermore, the team considered variety of cross-sectional shapes
including both open and close cross-sections, thus, providing a
huge database for the improvement of design codes and numerical
studies. However, the initial imperfections of the members, which
may greatly influence the critical temperature of the CFS columns
[107] should have been considered.
In real life, most of the CFS compression members are protected
by insulations and plasterboards, mostly made of gypsum. After an
event of fire, the plasterboards can be removed with ease for
inspection and identification of damage in compression members.
In this scenario, the final decision regarding the use of member has
to be taken by the structural engineer. In past, the behavior of hot-
rolled structural steel studs after the fire event was studied by a
number of authors including Tide [118], Dill [119], Chan [120]
and Kirby, Lapwood and Thomson [121]. However, very limited
research has been done regarding the structural behavior of CFS
members after an event of fire. According to the best of author’s
knowledge, so far there are no standard rules/guidelines available
for evaluating CFS members exposed to fire. Due to this, the struc-
tural engineers have to make some over-conservative decisions
while assessing the residual capacities of CFS members affected
by fire. Furthermore, the current design standards contain very lit-
tle information regarding the mechanical properties of CFS mem-
bers after being exposed to fire.
The accuracy of design methods mentioned in current codes
was assessed and a detailed review of FE analysis of thin-walled
compression members was presented by Ellobody [122]. In addi-
tion, some assumptions were also suggested by Ellobody for per-
forming a consistent FE analysis both at ambient and elevated
temperatures [122].
The experimental and numerical work on CFS columns at an
elevated temperature since 2008 is presented in table 3.
5.3. Research gap for columns
Compared to beams, CFS columns under elevated temperature
were studied relatively more. Further research is required in order
to incorporate different aspects (support conditions, considering
different shapes, post-fire behavior, different type of tests) of the
698 M.F. Javed et al. / Construction and Building Materials 144 (2017) 686–701

Table 3
Experimental work on CFS columns at elevated temperature.

S. No. of samples/ Type of Mode of Test Yield Thickness, Length, Temperature Cross-sectional Shape Mode of failure Reference
No Models/studies Tests strength, mm mm
MPa
1 39 Steady Experimental 250, 450 0.95,1.90 1800 20–700 °C Lipped and un-lipped C Flexural- [97]
state and 550 and 1.95 and torsional
2800 buckling
2 273 Steady FEA 250, 450 0.95,1.90 1800 20–700 °C Lipped and un-lipped C Flexural- [98]
state and 550 and 1.95 and torsional
2800 buckling
3 Not mentioned Steady FEA 250, 450 0.95,1.90 1800 20–700 °C Lipped and un-lipped C Flexural- [99]
state and 550 and 1.95 and torsional
2800 buckling
4 Not mentioned Steady FEA 250, 450 0.95,1.90 1500– 20–700 °C Lipped and un-lipped C Flexural- [100]
state and 550 and 1.95 4000 torsional
buckling
5 91 Steady Experimental 250, 450 0.95,1.90 150– 100–700 °C Lipped and un-lipped C Local Buckling [97]
state and 550 and 1.95 320
6 252 Steady FEA 250, 450 0.95,1.90 150– 100–700 °C Lipped and un-lipped C Local Buckling [101,104]
state and 550 and 1.95 320
7 52 Steady Experimental 350 1.2, 1.5 400 20–770 °C Lipped and un-lipped C Local and [105]
state and 2.0 distortional
buckling
8 Not mentioned Steady FEA 350 1.2, 1.5 400 20–770 °C Lipped and un-lipped C Local and [106]
state and 2.0 distortional
buckling
9 150 Steady Experimental 250 and 0.6, 0.8 180– 20–800 °C Lipped C with and Distortional [107]
state 550 and 0.95 280 without additional lips buckling
10 Not mentioned Steady FEA 250 and 0.6, 0.8 180– 20–800 °C Lipped C with and Distortional [108]
state 550 and 0.95 280 without additional lips buckling
11 18 Transient Experimental 280 2.5 3000 iSO-834 C, I and 2R Different types of [115]
state buckling
12 48 Transient Experimental 280 2.5 3000 iSO-834 C, I, R and 2R Different types of [116]
state buckling
13 48 Transient Experimental 280 2.5 3000 iSO-834 C, I, R and 2R Different types of [1]
state buckling

behavior of CFS columns. The following are some recommenda-
tions for carrying out research in future.
1. Most of the studies on flexural-torsional buckling of CFS col-
umns at elevated temperatures (up to 700 °C) were carried
out using steady-state method [97–100,103]. It is known that
transient state method is more close to realistic fires and many
researchers have shown their concerns regarding steady-state
method. Hence, more research should be focused on CFS col-
umns using transient state method.
2. Since CFS compression members are vulnerable to local and dis-
tortional buckling particularly at elevated temperatures and as
per author’s knowledge, no full-scale experimental data is avail-
able in the literature on this subject (Only small-scale speci-
mens were tested by [101]). Furthermore, very limited
numbers of shapes were studied for local buckling of CFS under
compressive loading. Hence, it is suggested that more research
work should be carried out in this area so as to minimize this
research gap.
3. No full-scale post-fire experimental studies have been done so
far on CFS columns. Hence, it is very difficult to evaluate the
structure after an event of fire and often very conservative
decisions are made by engineers and designers. Hence, both
experimental and numerical studies are recommended for the
post-fire behavior of CFS columns. Furthermore, there are no
standard rules/guidelines available for evaluating CFS members
exposed to fire. Thus, there is a need to develop international
standards so as to evaluate the performance of CFS members
after fire.
4. There is a lack of knowledge on the local buckling of columns
subjected to asymmetrical, nonlinear temperature gradients
as might happen in case of localized fires and hence further
in-depth studies are required.
5. The current design methods like effective width method and
direct strength method have been used successfully for very
limited elevated temperature conditions. Hence, all the other
possible scenarios must be investigated as suggested in the
available literature [8].
Conclusively, the experimental data available for CFS columns
at elevated temperatures is more compared to beams, however,
still it is not enough to prepare practical guidelines and design
codes. Hence, the need of the hour is to carry out further experi-
mental and numerical investigations in this field.
6. Conclusions
The advancement in cold-formed steel has been a combination
of developments in applications and improvements in technology.
It has placed engineers and researchers under some pressure to
find an adequate practical design codes and procedures for increas-
ingly complicated load scenarios. The emphasis of this review was
to include the recent research related to fire performance of load-
bearing CFS members like beams and columns. These studies are
extremely important for researchers who are doing research on
structural vulnerability assembled with CFS. It is worth pointing
out that among the two members described in this paper, behavior
of CFS beams has been studied to a lesser extent. Also, the current
fire resistance guidelines are very restrictive in applications and
cannot be used under performance-based codes.
In short, future research needs to include the methods of finding
the real temperature distribution across the section and along the
length of the member. It is known that the response of the struc-
ture changes as the temperature around the structure and within
the member changes. Therefore, more emphasis should be given
 M.F. Javed et al. / Construction and Building Materials 144 (2017) 686–701
on studying the mode interactions for better understanding the
behavior of CFS thin-walled beams in fire. In addition to the degra-
dation of stiffness and steel, the member also undergoes large
deflections, which results in the failure of members. Hence, semi-
rigid end restraints conditions should be studied in depth. Very
limited experimental data is available on the performance of differ-
ent cross-sections, so more research is recommended in this area.
Furthermore, post-fire studies of beams and columns should be
emphasized, as this area received less attention in past.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by University Malaya Postgraduate
Research Fund (PPP – Project No. PG155-2015B) and Fundamental
Research Grant Scheme, Ministry of Education, Malaysia (FRGS –
Project No. FP047/2013B).
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