Review of Thermodynamics

2103471 Internal Combustion Engine

 States of substance and ideal gas

• States of substance and ideal gas

– Solid
– Liquid and Liquid/Solid combination
– Vapor and Liquid/Vapor combination
– Solid/Liquid/Vapor combination
 States of substance and ideal gas
• States of substance and ideal gas
– As an approximation can assume solids and liquids
are incompressible (i,e density = const.)
– For vapor state, a simplified equation can be used -
ideal gas model.
• P.v = Ro. T …(2.1a)
Units : P = kPa, v = m3/kmole , Ro =8.314 kJ/kmole-K ;
And T = deg K .
– The above equation can also be represented as :
• P.V = n.Ro. T where V = volume (m3), n=moles …(2.1b)
• P.v = R . T where R = Ro/Mol. Wt amd v=m3/kg …(2.1c)
• P.V = m.R.T where V=volume(m3), m =mass (kg) …(2.1d)
 Ideal gas processes
Const. Pressure process (p=const, fig. 2a)
• Work done = Δ w = ∫p.dv
= p (v2 - v1) …(2.2)
 Ideal gas processes
Const. Volume process (v=const, fig. 2.a)
• Work done = Δ w = ∫p.dv = 0 …(2.3)
 Ideal gas processes
Const. Temperature process (T=const, fig. 2.a)
⎛v ⎞
• Work done =Δ w = p.dv = RT loge ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ …(2.4)
v
⎝ 1⎠
 Representation on P-v plot
• Polytropic processes : P vn = constant
• P = constant , n Æ o ; v = constant , n Æ ∞
• T = constant , n Æ 1 ; adiabatic , n = cp/cv
• If 1< n < γ , then polytropic with heat transfer
 Energies
• Internal energy (u or U) , du = Cv.dT
• Enthalpy (h or H ) , dh = Cp.dT
• Work or work energy (w or W)
• Heat energy or heat transfer (q or Q)
 Energies
• Internal energy change Δ u = ∫ Cv.dT …(2.6)
2

• Enthalpy change Δ h = ∫ C .dT …(2.7)

2

1 p
• For gases Cv and Cp are f(T)
• Ratio of specific heats Cp/Cv = γ > 1 for gases
 Systems
Closed System (m=const, energy may cross system
boundaries, ex. Gas in piston-cylinder
mechanism)
Open System (m and energy may cross system
boundaries, ex. Intake process)
• steady state, steady flow
• uniform state, uniform flow
• unsteady state/flow
 First Law of Thermodynamics
For closed system, energy equation
dq = dw +du …(2.8)
• Continuity equation : m = const.
• Sign : heat transerred into is > 0, out <0
• Work transferred into is <0, out>0
• Can show : if the process is a constant
pressure process then the energy
equation is
dq = dh …(2.9)
 First Law of Thermodynamics
For an open system ( ∆K.E. = 0, ∆P.E. = 0 )
(a) steady state, steady flow :
• energy equation dq = dw +dh …(2.10a)
• continuity equation : ∑ m& in = ∑ m& exit …(2.10b)
(b) uniform flow :
• energy equation
Q = W + Hex - Hin + Ecv …(2.11)
• continuity equation :
Δmcv =Δmin - Δmex …(2.12)
For ideal gas, we can show :
Cp - Cv = R (or Ro depending on units) …(2.13)
For a closed system with no heat transfer (adiabatic process), compression and
expansion can be represented by
P. vn = const, with n = γ = Cp/Cv …(2.14)
γ
Or P.v = const
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
The entropy of an isolated system cannot decrease during any real
thermodynamic processes.
• Change in entropy is defined as
dS = (dQ/T)rev proces …(2.15)
• For any isolated system dS ≥ 0 …(2.16)
• Can show :
∫dQ/T ≤ 0 …(2.17)
= 0 for a reversible cycle,
< 0 for irreversible
• Combining first and second laws of thermodynamics, it can be
shown that for a reversible process
• ⎛T ⎞ ⎛V ⎞
R − R = c ⋅ log ⎜ 2 ⎟ + R ⋅ log ⎜ 2 ⎟
…(2.18)
1 2 v e ⎜T ⎟ e ⎜V ⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 1⎠
• And ⎛T ⎞ ⎛P ⎞
R2 − R1 = c p ⋅ log e ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + R ⋅ log e ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ …(2.19)
⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ P1 ⎠
 Properties of gas mixtures
Let y1 = mole fraction
Let supercript ∧ represent quantities based on mole
Then, for mixtures of gases
on molar basis
• Sp. internal energy uˆmix = ∑ yi ⋅ uˆi …(2.20)
• Sp. enthalpy hˆmix = ∑ yi ⋅ hˆi …(2.21)
• Sp. Heat @p=const Cˆ p mix = ∑ yi ⋅ Cˆ p i …(2.22)
• Sp. Heat @v=const Cˆ v mix = ∑ yi ⋅ Cˆ v i …(2.23)
• Mol wt of the mix M mix = ∑ yi ⋅ Mˆ i …(2.24)
 Properties of gas mixtures
Let x1 = mass fraction
Let supercript ¯ represent quantities based on mass
Then, for mixtures of gases
on mass basis
• Sp. internal energy umix = ∑ xi ⋅ ui …(2.25)
• Sp. enthalpy hmix = ∑ xi ⋅ hi …(2.26)
• Sp. Heat @p=const C p mix = ∑ xi ⋅ C p i …(2.27)
• Sp. Heat @v=const Cv mix = ∑ xi ⋅ Cv i …(2.28)

and Cˆ p mix C p mix …(2.29)

γ mix = =
ˆ
Cv mix Cv mix
 Thermodynamic Cycles

• Air-standard analysis is used to perform

elementary analyses of IC engine cycles.
• There are several standard cycles, using air as the
working fluid, that are used to model reciprocating
internal combustion engines. These are ‘closed’ models
whereas the engine is an ‘open’ cycle.
• The two types of reciprocating engine cycles analyzed
are:
1) Spark ignition – Otto cycle
2) Compression ignition – Diesel cycle
 Thermodynamic Cycles
• Simplifications to the real cycle include:
1) Fixed amount of air (ideal gas) for working fluid
2) Combustion process not considered
3) Intake and exhaust processes not considered
4) Engine friction and heat losses not considered

• assumptions common to the ensuing analysis:

1. air is the working fluid
2. combustion is represented by heat transfer to air
3. air goes through a closed cycle
4. air is returned to its original state by heat transfer
from
the air.
 SI Engine Cycle vs Thermodynamic Ideal Otto Cycle

FUEL
A
I Ignition
R

Fuel/Air
Mixture Combustion
Products
Actual
Cycle

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke

Qin Qout

Air
Otto TC
Cycle
BC

Compression Const volume Expansion Const volume

Process heat addition Process heat rejection
Process Process
 Ideal Otto cycle

processes:
5 - 1 inlet
1 - 2 isentropic, adiabatic compression
2 - 3 constant volume heating
3 - 4 isentropic, adiabatic expansion
4 - 5 constant volume cooling
1 - 5 exhaust
 First Law Analysis of Otto Cycle

1Æ2 Isentropic Compression AIR

Q W
(u 2 − u1 ) = − (− in )
m m
Win
= (u 2 − u1 )
m
vr v2 1 P2 v2 P1v1 P T v
2
= = R= = → 2 = 2⋅ 1
vr1
v1 r T2 T1 P1 T1 v2

2Æ3 Constant Volume Heat Addition

Qin W
(u3 − u 2 ) = ( + )− Qin
m m AIR
TC
Qin
= (u3 − u 2 )
m
P2 P P T
v= = 3 → 3 = 3
RT2 RT3 P2 T2
3 Æ 4 Isentropic Expansion
Q Wout
(u 4 − u3 ) = − (+ ) AIR
m m
Wout
= (u3 − u 4 )
m
vr v4
4
= =r P4 v4 P3v3
= →
P4 T4 v3
= ⋅
vr3
v3 T4 T3 P3 T3 v4

4 Æ 1 Constant Volume Heat Removal

Qout W
(u1 − u 4 ) = (− )−
m m AIR Qout
Qout
= (u 4 − u1 ) BC
m
P4 P P P
v= = 1 → 4 = 1
RT4 RT1 T4 T1
 First Law Analysis Parameters

Net cycle work:

Wcycle = Wout − Win = m(u3 − u4 ) − m(u2 − u1 )

Cycle thermal efficiency:

Wcycle Wout − Win (u3 − u4 ) − (u2 − u1 )

ηth = = =
Qin Qin (u3 − u2 )
(u3 − u2 ) − (u4 − u1 ) u4 − u1
ηth = = 1−
u3 − u 2 u3 − u 2

Indicated mean effective pressure is:

Wcycle imep Qin ⎛ r ⎞ 1 ⎛ Qin / m ⎞⎛ r ⎞
imep = → = ⎜ η
⎟ th = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ηth
V1 − V2 P1 P1V1 ⎝ r − 1 ⎠ k − 1 ⎝ u1 ⎠⎝ r − 1 ⎠
In order to calculate the thermal efficiency, we must
note that the air standard cycle considers a fixed
mass of fluid. In constant volume processes, we do
not use the steady flow energy equation (SFEE)
and the enthalpy to study the cycle but, rather, the
non-flow energy equation (NFEE) and the internal
energy. For a calorifically perfect gas, this is:

q - w = Δ u = Cv Δ T

both the SFEE and the NFEE are simply forms of

the first law of thermodynamics ie. the law of
conservation of energy.
 Ideal Otto cycle
calculate the thermal efficiency
Ideal Otto cycle
Indicated mean effective pressure (I.M.E.P)
 Cycle Work

• The net work output per cycle Wcycle can be increased by either:
i) Increasing the compression ratio, or
ii) Increase Qin (increase the engine bore).

3’’
P

3 (ii)
4’’
Qin 4
Wcycle
4’
2
(i)

1
1’

V2 V1
 Cold Air-Standard Analysis

• For a cold air-standard analysis the specific heats are assumed to be

constant evaluated at ambient temperature values (k = cp/cv = 1.4).

• For the two isentropic processes in the cycle, assuming ideal gas with
constant specific heat using Pv k = const. Pv = RT yields:
k −1
k −1
1Æ2: T2 ⎛ v1 ⎞ T2 ⎛ P2 ⎞ k
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = r k −1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
T1 ⎝ v2 ⎠ T1 ⎝ P1 ⎠
k −1
k −1 k −1
3Æ4: T4 ⎛ v3 ⎞ ⎛1⎞ T4 ⎛ P4 ⎞ k
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
T3 ⎝ v4 ⎠ ⎝r⎠ T3 ⎝ P3 ⎠

cv (T4 − T1 ) T1 1
ηth = 1− = 1 − = 1 − k −1
const cV cv (T3 − T2 ) T2 r
 Effect of Compression Ratio on Thermal Efficiency

• Spark ignition engine compression ratio limited due to “knock”

• For r = 8 the efficiency is 56% which is about twice the actual value

1
ηth = 1−
const cV r k −1

Current SI
engines
7 < r < 10

k = 1.4
Effect of Specific Heat Ratio on Thermal Efficiency

1
ηth = 1−
const cV r k −1

Specific heat
ratio (k)

Cylinder temperatures vary between 20K and 2000K so 1.2 < k < 1.4
k = 1.3 most representative
Effect of Compression Ratio on Thermal Efficiency and MEP

imep Qin ⎛ r ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ηth
P1 P1V1 ⎝ r − 1 ⎠

k = 1.3
 Thermodynamic Cycles for CI engines

• In early CI engines the fuel was injected when the piston reached TC
and thus combustion lasted well into the expansion stroke.

• In modern engines the fuel is injected before TC (about 20o)

Fuel injection starts

Fuel injection starts

Early CI engine Modern CI engine

• The combustion process in the early CI engines is best approximated by

a constant pressure heat addition process Æ Diesel Cycle

• The combustion process in the modern CI engines is best approximated

by a combination of constant volume and constant pressure Æ Dual Cycle
 Early CI Engine Cycle and the Thermodynamic Diesel Cycle

FUEL Fuel injected

A
at TC
I
R

Fuel/Air
Mixture Combustion
Products
Actual
Cycle

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke

Qin Qout

Air
Diesel TC
Cycle
BC

Compression Const pressure Expansion Const volume

Process heat addition Process heat rejection
Process Process
Ideal Diesel cycle
 First Law Analysis of Diesel Cycle

Equations for processes 1Æ2, 4Æ1 are the same as those presented
for the Otto cycle

2Æ3 Constant Pressure Heat Addition AIR

Qin
Qin P (V − V2 )
(u3 − u 2 ) = ( + )− 2 3
m m
Qin
= (u3 + P3v3 ) − (u 2 + P2 v2 )
m
Qin RT2 RT3 T v
= (h3 − h2 ) P= = → 3 = 3 = rc
m v2 v3 T2 v2
3 Æ 4 Isentropic Expansion
Q W
(u 4 − u3 ) = − (+ out )
m m AIR

Wout
= (u3 − u 4 )
m
vr v4 v4 v4 v2 v1 v2 r vr v4 r
4
= note v4=v1 so = ⋅ = ⋅ = Æ 4
= =
vr3
v3 v3 v2 v3 v2 v3 rc vr v3 rc
3

P4 v4 P3v3 P T r
= → 4 = 4⋅
T4 T3 P3 T3 rc
 Ideal Diesel cycle

Qout m u −u
ηDiesel = 1 − = 1− 4 1
cycle Qin m h3 − h2

For cold air-standard the above reduces to:

ηDiesel = 1 − k −1 ⎢ ⋅
(
1 ⎡ 1 rck −1 ⎤ ) ηOtto = 1 −
1
const cV r ⎣ rc −1 ⎦
k ( ⎥
) recall,
r k −1

Note the term in the square bracket is always larger than one so for the
same compression ratio, r, the Diesel cycle has a lower thermal efficiency
than the Otto cycle

When rc (=v3/v2)Æ1 the Diesel cycle efficiency approaches the

efficiency of the Otto cycle
Ideal Diesel cycle
Ideal Diesel cycle
Effects of compression ratio and cut-off ratio on Thermal Efficiency

Thermal efficiency

Modern CI Engines
12 < r < 23

Compression ratio

The cut-off ratio is not a natural choice for the independent variable
A more suitable parameter is the heat input, the two are related by:

k − 1 ⎛ Qin ⎞ 1 as QinÆ 0, rcÆ1 and η ÆηOtto

rc = 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ k −1
k ⎝ P1V1 ⎠ r
Higher efficiency is obtained by adding less heat per cycle, Qin, need to
run engine at higher speed to get the same power.

k = 1.3

k = 1.3
 Modern CI Engine Cycle and the Thermodynamic Dual Cycle

Fuel injected
A at 20o bTC
I
R

Air Combustion
Products
Actual
Cycle

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke

Qin Qin Qout

Air
Diesel TC
Cycle
BC

Compression Const volume Const pressure Expansion Const volume

Process heat addition heat addition Process heat rejection
Process Process Process
 Dual Cycle
Process 1 Æ 2 Isentropic compression
Process 2 Æ X Constant volume heat addition
Process X Æ 3 Constant pressure heat addition
Process 3 Æ 4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4 Æ 1 Constant volume heat rejection

X 3 Qin
3

2 Qin
X

4
4 2

1
1 Qout
 Thermal Efficiency

Qout m u4 − u1
η Dual = 1 − = 1−
cycle Qin m (u X − u2 ) + (h3 − hX )

For cold air-standard the above reduces to:

1 ⎡ αrck − 1 ⎤
η Diesel = 1 − k −1 ⎢ ⎥
const c V
r ⎣ (α − 1) + αk (rc − 1)⎦

where rc= v3/vX and α = P3/P2

Note, the Otto cycle (rc =1) and the Diesel cycle (α=1) are special cases:

ηOtto = 1 −
1
η Diesel
(
= 1 − k −1 ⎢ ⋅
)
1 ⎡ 1 rck − 1 ⎤
r k −1 const cV (
r ⎣ k rc − 1 ⎦)⎥
The use of the Dual cycle requires information about either the fractions
of constant volume and constant pressure heat addition (common
assumption is to equally split the heat addition), or the maximum
pressure P3.

Transformation of rc and α into more natural variables yields

k − 1 ⎡⎛ Qin ⎞ 1 α − 1⎤ 1 P3
rc = 1 − ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ k −1 − α=
αk ⎣⎝ P1V1 ⎠ r k − 1 ⎥⎦ r k P1

For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 and the same compression ratio:
ηOtto > η Dual > η Diesel
For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 and the same peak pressure
(actual design limitation in engines):

η Diesel > η Dual > ηotto

For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 For the same inlet conditions P1, V1
and the same compression ratio P2/P1: and the same peak pressure P3:

Qout
ηth = 1 −
Qin
1
∫4 Tds
= 1− 3
∫2 Tds
tt o
O
al
Du
sel Dies
el
Die
al
Du
to
Ot
 4 Stroke SI Engine

indicator diagram (pressure vs crank angle) and valve timing

diagram for a typical 4 stroke SI engine:
 2 Stroke SI Engine

two stroke indicator

diagram in terms of
crank angle:
comparison between two and four stroke engines
 Actual Otto cycles
for a spark ignition engine using the Otto cycle, a typical
indicator diagram may look like:
 Actual Otto cycles
For a spark ignition engine, comparing real engine and
ideal air standard Otto cycle, a typical indicator diagram
may look like:
The differences between the actual and the ideal cycles:
1. compression: processes are similar, with only a small heat loss.
2. combustion: actual combustion is not instantaneous and therefore
cannot be at a constant volume. A finite combustion rate gives a lower
maximum pressure.
3. expansion: heat transfer is significant. The cylinder pressure also falls
from ‘c’ due to exhaust blowdown.
4. pumping loss: negative work out because the exhaust needs to be
expelled and the fresh mixture induced
5. other: gas leakage past pistons
combustion duration depends on:
type of fuel chamber design and shape number and
position of ignition sites engine speed
variations in specific heats with temperature (particularly of
products) and species dissociation reduces lower pressure and
lower temperature, thus lower heat release during combustion.
Actual Diesel cycle
*** most of the above also applies to diesel engines.***
The combustion duration is determined by:
1. physical delay: the time taken to atomise, vaporise and mix the
fuel with the air
2. chemical delay: the time taken for preflame reactions to initiate
a fuel combustion reaction.

Therefore, to minimise the delay we require:

1. good atomisation
2. volatile fuel
3. good self-ignition quality (Cetane no.)
4. good spray penetration
5. high air temperature
 Fuels and ignition
An important difference between the diesel and petrol (Otto) engines is their
respective use of ‘heterogeneous’ and ‘homogenous’ combustion.
1 Homogeneous combustion (petrol)
a) the fuel and air are premixed as a gaseous mixture. Combustion
proceeds from initiation at one (or more) points, with ignition is by one
or a number of sparks
b) conditions up to spark ignition must be such that the fuel does not
ignite.
c) fuels are either a volatile liquid or gas: petrol, LPG, alcohol, natural gas.
d) fuels must be resistant to autoignition
2 Heterogenous combustion (Diesel)
a) fuel is injected as a finely atomised spray of liquid droplets. The fuel
burns when it is evaporated and mixed with air.
b) ignition is spontaneous, due to the high mixture temperature. The
compression ratio must therefore be high.
c) the engine compresses the air only, and the fuel is injected late into the
compression stroke.
d) fuel must readily autoignite.
Limitations on the compression ratio
Spark ignition engines
knock: as the compression ratio increases, the peak pressure
and temperature increase. Eventually the self-ignition
temperature is reached and non-spark initiated combustion
occurs. This gives uncontrolled combustion and the related
pressure waves are called knock, and can result in poor
performance and engine damage.

to prevent knock, usually either retard ignition, improve

combustion chamber designs or increase the fuel octane number
Limitations on the compression ratio
Diesel engines
the trade-off in compression ratio is between:
1. improved efficiency.
2. increased heat losses with higher V r .
3. increased engine strength and friction
Heat losses and engine strength are considerations which can be
controlled by improved design