Applied Clay Science 116–117 (2015) 281–288

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Applied Clay Science

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Research paper

Clay stabilization using coal waste and lime — Technical and

environmental impacts
Amir Modarres a,⁎, Yaser Mohammadi Nosoudy b
a
Babol Noshirvani University of Technology, Babol, Iran
b
Islamic Azad University, Ayatollah Amoli Branch, Amol, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study evaluates the technical and environmental effects of coal waste materials on the stabilization of a
Received 2 December 2014 medium plastic clay. The coal waste was used in its natural state and after igniting at 750 °C to produce
Received in revised form 24 March 2015 the coal waste ash. In addition, hydrated lime powder was applied as a traditional stabilizer. Atterberg limits,
Accepted 25 March 2015
California bearing ratio (CBR) in dry and saturated condition along with swelling and unconfined compressive
Available online 23 April 2015
strength tests were carried out. Soil structural changes during the curing period were analyzed using the X-ray
Keywords:
diffraction and scanning electron microscope (SEM) tests. About the environmental issue, toxicity characteristic
Soil stabilization leaching procedure (TCLP) test was carried out to analyze the leachate obtained from different studied samples
Coal waste for heavy metal concentrations. Based on the CBR and compressive strength tests, the addition of coal waste
Plastic characteristics powder and its ash to some extent enhanced the soil bearing capacity. However, the combination of these
Compressive strength additives with lime resulted in considerably higher compressive strength and CBR especially in saturated condi-
Swelling tion. The results of X-ray diffraction and SEM analyses indicated substantial changes in the soil structure after
Heavy metal leakage adding the additives. The initial structure of the soil was porous and flaky which transformed to a solid and
coherent structure after treating with the combination of coal waste and lime. Concentration of heavy metals
in stabilized samples containing the coal waste and its ash was less than the regulatory levels determined for
hazardous materials and properly satisfied the minimum requirements.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction polymer additives, recycled glass and combination of waste materials

Soil stabilization is one of the conventional methods used to improve
the quality of road subgrade and pavement layers. This method enables
enhancing the existing material properties at the project site and
reaching the needed specifications. Besides, improving the quality
of pavement and filling layers would reduce the total thickness of
pavement and leading to a reduction in administrative costs. According
to literature in the past hundred years, several additives were used as
stabilizing agents. Some of these stabilizer additives consist of various
types of cements, lime, pozzolanic additives and bitumen. Aside from
the aforementioned materials which are considered as common soil
stabilizers, in recent years, most researchers are taking greater interests
on application of waste materials. In addition to land occupation, the
waste depot produced from various manufacturing industries causes
many environmental problems as well (Lee et al., 2011; Jafari and
Esna-ashari, 2012; Fauzi et al., 2013; Ahmed, 2015). Some of the
waste materials which have been taken into consideration included
blast furnace slag, cement kiln dust, rice husk ash, coal ash, recycled
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: a.modarres@nit.ac.ir, amirmodarres2003@yahoo.com
(A. Modarres).
with conventional stabilizers such as cement and lime (Lee at al.,
2011). In addition to modifying the behavioral characteristics of existing
soil, reduction of the environmental problems resulting from the waste
disposing was one of the main goals of these studies (Ansari Mahabadi
et al., 2007).
Several researchers have reported on the formulation of new soil
stabilizers by replacing the conventional additives with industrial
waste products. During a research study, a combination of blast furnace
slag and lime was applied to stabilize a low bearing capacity clay. As
reported, the application of such material increased the compressive
strength and the soil bearing capacity, especially during the flood condi-
tion (Obuzor et al., 2012). Other research studies have introduced the
pozzolanic by-products such as the rice husk ash (RHA), cement kiln
dust (CKD) and cement dust as effective stabilizer agents especially
for clayey soils (Sreekrishnavilasam et al., 2007; Seco et al., 2011; Oza
and Gundaliya, 2013).
In recent years, soil reinforcement with discrete fibers has been
developed as another soil improving method. Jafari and Esna-ashari
(2012) investigated the combination effects of tire cord waste products
and lime on the mechanical characteristics of clayey soil subjected to
freezing and thawing cycles. The results indicated that the compressive
strength and stress–strain behavior of soil depended on both the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2015.03.026
0169-1317/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
282 A. Modarres, Y.M. Nosoudy / Applied Clay Science 116–117 (2015) 281–288
stabilization and reinforcement effects of lime and fiber, respectively.
Based on the obtained results, the inclusion of fiber somewhat caused
flexible behavior and compensated for weakness of stabilization (Jafari
and Esna-ashari, 2012).
Coal is one of the most abundant resources used to produce energy.
Every year almost 5.5 billion tons of coal is produced worldwide and
about half of the coal obtained from mines is buried as waste material
(Doulati Ardejani et al., 2010; Garcia et al., 2012). One of the most
beneficial ways to avoid the environmental problems arising from
disposal of the waste materials is to consume them in construction
industry such as in pavement construction layers.
Several studies have been conducted about the application of coal
and particularly its ash in civil engineering projects (Mfinanga and
Kamuhabwa, 2008). According to literature (Kinuthia and Nidzam,
2009; Obozor et al., 2012; Lu et al., 2014; Shibi and Kamei, 2014) the
addition of coal ash to stabilized soil containing conventional stabilizers
such as cement and lime increased the material strength and improved
its durability against moisture and freeze–thaw conditioning. During a
research study, coal waste was used as a part of embankment layer
materials. Herein waste material and siliceous additives were imple-
mented to stabilize the coal materials (Kinuthia and Nidzam, 2009).
According to the attained results, the strength of the applied material
was proper after 7, 28 and 90 days of curing periods (Kinuthia and
Nidzam, 2009).
In most studies coal ash has been used as a supplementary additive.
Due to high pozzolanic components and low free lime this additive
shows the behavior of type F or type N fly ashes. The specifications of
these types of fly ashes have been presented in ASTM C618 (ASTM,
2012). Shibi and Kamei (2014) assessed the effect of freeze–thaw cycles
on the strength and physical properties of cement stabilized soil
containing recycled bassanite and coal ash. Bassanite is a by-product
derived from gypsum waste. Results showed that the addition of
bassanite and coal ash combination improved the strength and durabil-
ity, whereas the addition of coal ash alone had a negative effect on the
strength characteristics of stabilized soil. The improvement was mainly
related to the formation of ettringite as a result of reaction between the
calcium oxide and aluminum oxide of coal ash and the calcium sulfate of
the bassanite (Shibi and Kamei, 2014).
A comparative study was performed to assess the effects of the RHA
and coal ash on the behavior characteristics of an expansive clay. For
this purpose RHA and coal ash were added to the clayey soil at four
levels of 0, 2, 4 and 6% by weight and cured for 180 days. Results indicat-
ed that the RHA increased the macroaggregates with a diameter larger
than 0.25 mm and reduced microaggregates with a diameter less than
0.25 mm, whereas the coal ash did not significantly affect the formation
of macroaggregates. Finally it was presumed that the RHA and coal
ash are proper soil amendment agents for the improvement of the
expansive clayey soils (Lu et al., 2014).
Apart from the technical and mechanical properties, presence of
pollutants in soil or stabilizer material can bring about several risks to
the surrounding environment, particularly contamination of under-
ground water resources. For instance, excessive heavy metal concentra-
tion in the soil or stabilizer material certainly increases the risk of
respiratory and cancer diseases by contaminating the underground
water resources. The water penetrated to the road pavement and
subgrade layers could directly seep to underground water resources.
Thus, the amount of pollutant in the stabilized soil, especially the leach-
ate removed from these layers was analyzed in many studies.
Industrial by-products such as fly ashes, red mud, biosolids, dolomit-
ic residues and berringite, have been shown to contribute to metal
immobilization (Mench et al., 2000; Garrido et al., 2005; kumpiene
et al., 2007). Coal and biofuel combustion fly ashes are alkaline materials
with high absorptive capacity. During a research the effects of the coal
ash and peat combination on the mechanical properties of a copper
and lead contaminated soil was evaluated. According to results, after
the soil stabilizing process the rate of copper and lead leakage reduced
as much as 98 and 100%, respectively (Kumpiene et al., 2007). The
obtained results confirmed that the stabilization method was a promis-
ing technique for in situ remediation of copper and lead (Kumpiene
et al., 2007).
Every year a significant amount of coal waste are gathered from the
coal washing plants in Iran. For example, many dumps containing huge
amounts of waste exist around the area of Alborz Markazi coal washing
plant located in the northern part of Iran. During a day more than
250 tons of coal waste is produced in this plant (Shahhoseiny et al.,
2013). One of the solutions for the environmental issue is the use of
these coal wastes in various industries such as highway construction.
The main objective of this study was to investigate the feasibility of
using this material for subgrade soil stabilization and comparing it
with lime as a common stabilizer.
2. Materials
In this section the technical characteristics of the studied soil and
stabilizing additives used in this research are presented and analyzed.
2.1. Clay (CL)
In this research, the clay samples were provided from the suburbs of
the Taleghan city, Iran. The soil gradation was determined using the
hydrometer test according to ASTM D422 (ASTM, 2007). Fig. 1
compares between the gradation of the studied soil and additive
materials.
Atterberg limits tests were performed using ASTM D4318 test
method (ASTM, 2003). Based on the results, the liquid and plastic limits
of soil were equal to 47 and 21%, respectively. According to the Unified
classification as standardized in ASTM D2487 (ASTM, 2011) this soil was
classified as CL. Compaction test was performed using the modified
proctor method according to ASTM D1557 (ASTM, 2012). Based on
the obtained results the optimum moisture content and the maximum
dry density of studied soil were equal to 18% and 1.67 g/cm3, respective-
ly. In addition the specific gravity of the soil which was determined
using ASTM D854 (ASTM, 2014), was equal to 2.57.
The chemical composition of clay was determined using X-ray
fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) method according to ASTM E 1621
(ASTM E1621–13, 2010). Table 1 presents the results of XRF test.
Given this table, the main chemical compositions of studied clay
consisted of SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and CaO. The presence of the pozzolanic
compositions (i.e. SiO2 and Al2O3) along with the calcium oxide in the
soil would play an important role in the formation of the cementitious
compounds in combination with the examined stabilizers.
Fig. 1. Gradation of studied clay in comparison with additives.
 A. Modarres, Y.M. Nosoudy / Applied Clay Science 116–117 (2015) 281–288 283

Table 1 complete the specimen name, the amount of additive used was notified
Chemical composition of clay and studied additives. after the acronym. For instance, the stabilized soil containing 3% CWA
Chemical % by total weight and 6% lime was named as CWA3HL6.
composition
Clay Coal waste Coal waste ash Hydrated lime
(CL) (CW) (CWA) (HL) 3. Laboratory experiments
SiO2 50.90 34.40 55.63 1.19
Al2O3 13.00 14.40 23.25 0.69 In order to assess the technical properties of stabilized soil, Atterberg
MgO 4.10 0.93 1.54 0.53 limits, compaction properties, California bearing ratio (CBR) and uncon-
Na2O 1.90 0.34 0.59 0.25 fined compressive strength tests under different curing conditions were
Fe2O3 8.60 3.40 8.09 0.12 performed. For more detailed analysis of results, micro-structural
TiO2 0.86 1.20 1.63 b0.10
CaO 8.60 1.30 2.28 70.85
analysis was carried out using a scanning electron microscope (SEM).
K2O 3.10 3.50 3.96 b0.10 Moreover, X-ray diffraction (XRD) test was also performed to recognize
LOI 8.82 38.7 2.01 26.1 the substantive changes in the soil structure by adding each additive
after a proper curing period. Finally, the environmental impact of
using CW and CWA was assessed by toxicity characteristic leaching
2.2. Coal waste (CW) and coal waste ash (CWA) procedure (TCLP) test.

CW materials were obtained from the existing dumps in Alborz
Markazi coal washing plant. The chemical composition of coal waste is
presented in Table 1. According to this table, CW consisted of significant
pozzolanic compounds. The differences between the studied CW and
other pozzolanic materials such as type C fly ash and cement were the
higher value of loss on ignition (LOI) and the slight amount of lime
compounds. The LOI parameter indicates the volatile materials lost
which usually consist of combined water and carbon dioxide. Based
on previous studies this material has no cementitious properties and
only plays the role of an inert filler material (Neville, 1993). In order
to reduce the LOI content, the raw coal waste was burned at different
temperatures up to 1000 °C and the LOI was measured at 450, 750,
950 and 1000 °C. Since slight change in LOI content was observed at
higher temperatures than 750 °C, this temperature was chosen as the
optimum burning temperature for converting the raw CW to CWA.
Table 1 presents the chemical analysis of CWA. According to this table,
burning CW at 750 °C reduced the amount of LOI from about 39% to
2%. The gradations of CW and CWA are depicted in Fig. 1. With regard
to figure, both additives had a coarser gradation than studied soil. More-
over, the CWA gradation was finer than the CW. The specific gravity of
CW and CWA was determined according to ASTM D854 (ASTM,
2014). According to results, the specific gravity of CW and CWA was
equal to 1.78 and 1.94, respectively.
2.3. Hydrated lime (HL)
In this research HL was applied as a common stabilizer of clayey
soils. This additive was incorporated solely and in combination with
CW as a supplementary material. The chemical composition of studied
HL is presented in Table 1. Combining HL with these additives could
compensate the low free lime available and activate the pozzolanic
compounds in these materials. In Fig. 1, the gradation of HL has been
compared with other additives and studied clay. As it can be seen, HL
had a coarser gradation than other materials. The specific gravity of HL
was also determined which was equal to 2.32.
2.4. Mix proportions
The amount of incorporated additives was equal to 3, 6 and 9% by
dry weight of soil. As presented in Table 1, the CW contained higher
LOI and less pozzolanic compounds than CWA. Therefore, a number of
samples were prepared with 12% CW. For composite samples (i.e. sam-
ples containing CW or CWA with HL) the rate of CW or CWA was equal
to 3, 6 and 9% and the rate of lime was fixed to 3 and 6% by dry weight of
soil.
In order to introduce the specimens, acronyms were selected
throughout the paper including, CL for natural clay, CW for coal waste,
CWA for coal waste ash and HL for hydrated lime. Moreover, to
3.1. Atterberg limits
This test was accomplished for different mix proportions using
ASTM D4318 (ASTM, 2003). For stabilized samples, first the soil and
additive were precisely mixed and then cured for about an hour in a
controlled temperature room before performing the test.
3.2. Compaction properties and strength tests
Optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of each
sample were determined using the modified proctor method in accor-
dance with ASTM D1557 standard (ASTM, 2012). Samples of CBR and
compressive strength tests were prepared and compacted at optimum
moisture content. These tests were accomplished after proper curing
of samples. CBR test specimens were categorized in two groups of dry
and saturated samples. After compacting the specimens at optimum
moisture content, dry samples (i.e. samples prepared with optimum
moisture content) were placed into an oven and cured at 50 °C for
72 h. After removing from the oven, the curing of specimens continued
for 96 h at a controlled temperature room with the temperature of 25 °C.
Then, cured specimens were tested and the obtained result was noted as
dry CBR. Similarly, for the second part, specimens were first compacted
at optimum moisture content to achieve the maximum dry density. Af-
terward the specimens were initially placed in an oven for 72 h. Then
cured specimens were saturated by placing in a water bath for 96 h.
During this period, the swelling rate was determined by installed swell-
ing gauge. After removing the specimens from the saturation molds, the
CBR test was accomplished to measure the bearing capacity in saturated
condition.
The compressive strength samples were compacted at optimum
moisture content. After the compaction process, samples were kept in
mold for 24 h. Curing continued at 25 °C after removing the samples
from the mold and the test was accomplished on specimens after 7,
28, 60 and 180 days of curing. During the curing process, the samples
were covered by plastic envelope to prevent rapid moisture removal.
3.3. XRD and SEM
To facilitate the macro-behavior comparison and explanation
especially during the curing process, the mineralogical study techniques
namely SEM and XRD were employed to qualitatively identify
the micro-structural developments in the matrix of the stabilized
samples. To achieve this goal a model JXA-840 electron microscope
manufactured by JEOL of Japan and XRD device manufactured by the
German Broker company were implemented. For SEM analysis repre-
sentative tiny pieces with about 20 mm diameter were selected from
the air-dried specimens of raw and stabilized soil. Since the samples
were not electrically conductive, they were coated with a thin layer
of gold–palladium alloy before being processed by SEM equipment.
284 A. Modarres, Y.M. Nosoudy / Applied Clay Science 116–117 (2015) 281–288

The XRD tests were performed on raw and stabilized specimens. After
complete drying, the specimens were pulverized and sieved. The
powder finer than 50 μm was collected and mixed with methanol.
The specimen was oven dried for about 20 min prior to testing.

3.4. TCLP

Since the stabilized layers are usually in direct contact with the
surface or underground water resources, there would be a high risk of
water pollution through leaching the hazardous materials such as
heavy metals into underground water resources. TCLP is one of the
main leaching procedure tests that has been utilized to analyze the
risk of heavy metal leachability from the stabilized layers (Xue et al.,
2009).
In this paper, the TCLP test was first performed on the samples of CW
obtained from the coal washing plant and CWA. In addition, some
samples were taken from the acidic leachates drained from the coal
dumps located around the plant to assess the concentration of pollut-
ants. Finally, the test was performed on stabilized soil samples contain-
ing the highest amount of CW and CWA (i.e. CW12 and CWA9 mixes). In
this test, about 10 g of the samples was placed in a container made of
polypropylene. Then about 200 ml of standard solution of this test
including deionized water and acetic acid was added to the beaker
containing the sample. Samples were placed inside a special machine
and vibrated at a rate of 30 rpm for 18 h at 20 °C. At the end of this
period, samples were placed on a special filter made of glass fibers.
Then acetic acid solution was added to the obtained leachate until the
pH of solution became less than 2. This process was repeated four
times for the samples and the obtained leachate was assessed with
inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometer (ICP-AES)
machine and the concentrations of heavy metals were determined.
4. Results and discussion
In this section the results obtained from the technical properties
tests, microscopic studies and environmental analysis are presented
and discussed.
4.1. Atterberg limits
Fig. 3. The effects of the additive combination on the plastic properties of soil.
Fig. 3 illustrates the results of Atterberg limits tests for treated
samples containing the combination of CW or CWA and lime. According
to this figure, using the combination of additives was more beneficial es-
pecially for CW mixes. Based on literature (Consoli et al., 2009;
Khemissa and Mahamedi, 2014), the progression rate of ion exchange
reaction is the most important factor that modifies the plastic behavior
of treated soil. During this reaction, the single valence ions are replaced
by divalent ions of calcium. This interplay reduces the water absorption
of the soil particles (Khemissa and Mahamedi, 2014).
4.2. Compaction properties
The compaction properties of different mix proportions have been
presented in Table 2. According to this table, the maximum dry density
increased by adding the CW and CWA additives. On the contrary, the
addition of these materials led to a reduction in optimum moisture
content. With regard to Fig. 1, the latter issue could be related to finer
gradation of clay compared to the CW and CWA. The finer the gradation
the higher is the specific gravity. Therefore, higher moisture is needed to
better lubricate the soil particles. Based on Table 2, adding HL to the soil
reduced the maximum dry density. Due to the high amount of calcium
hydroxide in clay–HL mix, the initial reactions rapidly occur which
enhance the soil stiffness. Formation of the hard cementitious matrix

The results obtained from the Atterberg limits tests are shown in
Table 2
Fig. 2. According to the figure, the application of each additive led to a
Compaction properties of different mix proportions.
reduction in the liquid limit of the studied soil. However, lime had
the greatest impact, especially at higher values than 6%. The plastic Mix name CW (%) CWA (%) HL (%) Maximum dry Optimum
density moisture
limit of CW and CWA specimens was remained unchanged while the
(g/cm3) content (%)
addition of lime content to 9% reduced the plastic limit to about the
CL 0 0 0 1.67 18.0
50% of its initial value. The change in the plastic index of all mixes was
CW3 3 0 0 1.69 17.4
highly similar to liquid limit. CW6 6 0 0 1.71 16.3
CW9 9 0 0 1.74 15.4
CW12 12 0 0 1.76 14.6
CWA3 0 3 0 1.72 17.9
CWA6 0 6 0 1.75 17.3
CWA9 0 9 0 1.82 16.5
HL3 0 0 3 1.64 18.8
HL6 0 0 6 1.59 19.2
HL9 0 0 9 1.53 19.8
CW3HL3 3 0 3 1.59 18.9
CW6HL3 6 0 3 1.56 19.6
CW9HL3 9 0 3 1.55 20.5
CWA3HL3 0 3 3 1.56 20.2
CWA6HL3 0 6 3 1.55 20.8
CWA9HL3 0 9 3 1.51 21.6
CW3HL6 3 0 6 1.57 20.9
CW6HL6 6 0 6 1.53 21.1
CW9HL6 9 0 6 1.49 21.9
CWA3HL6 0 3 6 1.55 21.2
CWA6HL6 0 6 6 1.53 21.3
CWA9HL6 0 9 6 1.50 21.6
Fig. 2. The effects of additives on the plastic properties of clay.
 A. Modarres, Y.M. Nosoudy / Applied Clay Science 116–117 (2015) 281–288 285

Table 3
The swelling potential of different mix proportions.

Mix name Swelling (%) Mix name Swelling (%)

CL 2.20 CW3HL3 0.18

CW3 1.79 CW6HL3 0.11
CW6 1.32 CW9HL3 0.07
CW9 1.11 CWA3HL3 0.17
CW12 0.87 CWA6HL3 0.09
CWA3 1.36 CWA9HL3 0.07
CWA6 0.92 CW3HL6 0.08
CWA9 0.60 CW6HL6 0.05
HL3 0.27 CW9HL6 0.00
HL6 0.13 CWA3HL6 0.04
HL9 0.05 CWA6HL6 0.00
– – CWA9HL6 0.00

Fig. 4. The effects of additives on the CBR for dry and saturated conditions.
in the soil structure reduces the compactibility and therefore the maxi-
mum dry density of stabilized soil (Yi et al., 2015). Similar results were
obtained for stabilized samples containing both CW or CWA and HL.
4.3. Strength properties
Fig. 4 illustrates the results of CBR test for stabilized samples contain-
ing each of the additives. According to the figure, for specimens that
compacted at optimum moisture content, the CW and especially CWA
specimens had higher CBR than those stabilized with HL. On the other
hand, for saturated samples, even though all three additives had benefi-
cial effects on the load bearing capacity HL proved to have more efficient
impacts rather than the other ones. For CW specimens the saturated
CBR first increased by increasing the CW content to 9% and then
decreased gradually with an increase in the CW content to 12%.
Fig. 5 compares the CBR of stabilized samples containing the combi-
nation of additives. According to this figure at optimum moisture
content the CBR of stabilized specimens was at least three times greater
than the natural soil. The combined effect of additives was even more
pronounced at saturated condition. For both optimum and saturated
conditions, the bearing ratios obtained from the CWA–HL combinations
were to some extent higher than the CW–HL.
Table 3 presents the swelling of different mix proportions. Based on
this table the natural clay showed the highest swelling potential with
2.2% swelling after the conditioning period. This could be related to
higher clay minerals and the lack of cementitious compositions in the
natural soil matrix. Using all three additives reduced the hydrophilic
nature of soil and reduced the swelling of treated soil. Regarding the
fact that lime had better performance in saturated condition, minor
amounts of lime can be applied as a supplementary stabilizer into the
soil containing CW.
Fig. 6 demonstrates the impact of each additive on the compressive
strength of the studied soil. According to the figure, the compressive
strength of all samples increased by increasing the curing time. In
addition, lime proved to have the most beneficial effects on the
compressive strength of samples during the curing period. However,
the CW and CWA additives were also effective and enhanced the
compressive strength of stabilized soil. Fig. 7 shows the effects of the
additive combination on the compressive strength of the stabilized
soil. Compared to Fig. 6, the application of CW–HL and CWA–HL combi-
nations resulted in higher compressive strength than the stabilized
samples containing one of these additives. With regard to Fig. 6, the
maximum compressive strength was equal to 1.14 MPa obtained for
180-day specimen containing 9% HL. While, as it can be seen in Fig. 7
several samples containing the CW–HL and CWA–HL combinations
have reached this compressive strength only after 28 days of curing.
For instance, the compressive strength of a 28-day specimen containing
6% HL and 6% CW was equal to 1.17 MPa. During a similar research, Yi
et al. (2015) studied the effect of lime and ground granulated blast
furnace slag (GGBS) combination on the compressive strength of a
marine soft clay at different Lime/GGBS ratios from 0.05 to 0.4. Based
on their report the maximum compressive strength was obtained at
Lime/GGBS of 0.20 for 7 and 28-day specimens while the ratio of 0.1
was the optimum value for 90-day specimens. The Ca/Si ratio was
found to be an important factor in strength properties of lime–pozzolan
combination. Higher lime/pozzolan ratios result in CSH the main pozzo-
lanic reaction product, with a high Ca/Si ratio. As reported in literature,
the binding ability of CSH would decrease as the Ca/Si ratio increased
(Aydin and Baradan, 2012).
In order to better macro-behavior comparison, X-ray diffraction
experiments were performed for different mix proportions. Fig. 8
illustrates the XRD patterns obtained for CL, CW12, HL6 and CW6HL6
compounds after 60 days of curing. Based on the Bragg theory, sub-
stances with a crystalline structure, if investigated by X-rays produce

Fig. 5. The effects of additive combination on the CBR for dry and saturated conditions. Fig. 6. The effects of additives on the compressive strength at different curing times.
286 A. Modarres, Y.M. Nosoudy / Applied Clay Science 116–117 (2015) 281–288
Fig. 7. The effects of the combination of additives on the compressive strength at different
curing times.
specific diffraction peaks completely absent in the XRD patterns of
amorphous substances (Consoli et al., 2009). According to the figure,
the raw soil showed presence of clay minerals namely, kaolinite, mont-
morillonite, quartz, calcite and hematite. As the figure depicts there was
a reduction in the most peak intensities of stabilized samples particular-
ly for sample stabilized with lime. Similar results have been reported in
several relevant researches (Ghosh and Subbarao, 2001; Sezer et al.,
2006; Consoli et al., 2009). It should be notified that clay minerals
such as quartz, montmorillonite and kaolinite were detected in all four
samples but with the weaker appearance in stabilized specimen
containing lime. This could be attributed to the occurrence of the pozzo-
lanic reaction that resulted in the reduction of the clay minerals in
stabilized material and lower peak intensities. According to the figure,
Ca(OH)2 was absent in the CW6HL6 and HL6 specimens that indicates
the considerable progression of pozzolanic reaction after 60 days of
curing. The main difference between the XRD patterns of the CW12
and CL sample was in calcite peaks that appeared with higher intensities
in CW12 graph. Calcite is known as a hardening material which also
helps to improve the strength of the soil (Ahmed, 2015).
To better recognize the influence of the studied additives, the micro-
structure of the natural and treated soils was examined using SEM
micrographs. Fig. 9 demonstrates the SEM micrograph of the natural
soil at magnification level of 3000. This image clearly shows the flaky
and discontinuous structure of clay where the voids are more visible
due to the absence of the cementitious products. As it is shown in
Fig. 10, the coal waste had laminated and sharped-edge particles with
the particle size of less than 50 μm. According to the previous studies,
this particle size is very suitable for pozzolanic activities (Kumpiene
et al., 2007).
Fig. 8. The results of XRD test for different combinations after 60 days of curing.
Fig. 9. Microscopic image of clay with 3000× magnification.
Fig. 11 illustrates the SEM image of a stabilized soil containing 6% HL
after 60 days of curing. The soil structure changed due to the progres-
sion of pozzolanic reaction between the soil and HL. Comparison
between Figs. 9 and 11 shows marked change in morphology. It is
clear that the natural soil structure has transformed from a particle
based form in Fig. 9 to a more integrated composition in Fig. 11 due to
the pozzolanic reaction and cementitious compositions produced.
Fig. 12, shows the SEM image of the soil–CW combination. The image
revealed similar morphology to Fig. 11 with more integrated matrix
than those of Figs. 9 and 10. The SEM image in Fig. 12 proves the
effective reaction between the additives and soil and the formation of
C–S–H which resulted in higher compressive strength and CBR value
especially in saturated condition.
According to the results obtained from the CBR and compressive
strength tests, the addition of CW and especially CWA can have advan-
tageous influence on the strength characteristics of soil. The results
indicated that lime could be used as a supplementary material that
activates the pozzolanic compositions available in coal waste powder
and especially its ash.
Fig. 10. Microscopic image of coal waste particles with 3000× magnification.
 A. Modarres, Y.M. Nosoudy / Applied Clay Science 116–117 (2015) 281–288 287

Table 4
Results of TCLP test.

Sample Test no. Heavy metal concentration (mg/l)

Cd Cr Pb Ni Hg As Cu Zn

Coal waste 1 0.58 5.12 12.11 5.33 0.19 2.49 0.66 0.32
2 0.69 5.85 13.42 5.61 0.26 2.62 0.72 0.29
3 0.72 5.41 14.10 5.42 0.22 2.73 0.59 0.27
4 0.52 4.73 12.08 5.10 0.16 2.51 0.51 0.17
Coal waste ash 1 0.73 7.73 13.14 6.42 0.27 3.40 0.69 0.36
2 0.93 8.11 13.86 6.77 0.31 3.31 0.67 0.31
3 0.81 6.55 12.90 6.12 0.28 3.26 0.63 0.29
4 0.62 6.13 12.55 5.83 0.22 3.13 0.55 0.23
CW12 1 0.12 0.73 2.27 0.68 Nd 0.32 0.11 Nd
2 0.17 0.89 2.47 0.79 Nd 0.38 0.13 Nd
3 0.13 0.65 2.15 0.71 Nd 0.36 0.08 Nd
4 0.09 0.54 1.89 0.60 Nd 0.30 0.06 Nd
CWA9 1 0.14 0.69 2.17 0.71 Nd 0.41 0.12 Nd
2 0.16 0.82 2.15 0.69 Nd 0.45 0.11 Nd
3 0.11 0.93 1.88 0.58 Nd 0.39 0.09 Nd
4 0.10 0.71 1.64 0.46 Nd 0.33 Nd Nd
AMD 1 0.86 7.42 11.87 4.12 0.24 2.28 0.59 0.23
Regulatory level – 1 5 5 25 0.20 5 25 25

Fig. 11. Microscopic image of clay with 6% hydrated lime after 28 days with 3000×
magnification.
4.4. TCLP
The results of TCLP test are presented in Table 4. The concentrations
of heavy metals including cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb),
nickel (Ni), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), copper (Cu) and manganese
(Zn) were investigated. In this study, the stabilized samples containing
the highest amount of CW and CWA were examined. In addition, some
samples were taken from the acidic leachates drained from the coal
dumps of plant to assess the concentration of pollutants (i.e. AMD in
Table 4).
For all samples except the AMD the test was performed for a total
of four progressive steps. Although, the AMD sample was assessed
after one step conditioning. The regulatory levels presented in Table 4
are in accordance with the recommendations of the Environmental
Protection Agency of America (EPA). Regulatory levels are the maxi-
mum amount of heavy metal concentrations that have been defined
by this institute for non-hazardous material (USEPA, 1311, 1992).
Regarding the table, the concentrations of Cr and Pb in the CW, CWA
and the AMD were more than the regulatory levels. On the contrary,
for the stabilized soils, the concentration of heavy metals considerably
reduced and met the requirements of standard limits for all samples.
One of the remarkable outcomes was the impact of the conditioning
repetitions on the TCLP results. According to the table, the concentration
of heavy metals in the second and third stages of the test was mostly
more than the first stage. Therefore, in order to assess the concentration
of contaminants more efficiently, it is necessary to perform the test for
at least three progressive stages.
Based on the results, it can be concluded that not only the applica-
tion of CW or CWA in soil stabilization had technical benefits but also
it reduced the detrimental effects on the environment. These environ-
mental impacts are significant in several ways. Implementation of
waste material reduces the land occupation around the factories. In
addition, it reduces the contaminating impacts of such materials on
the surrounding area especially the surface and underground water
resources. On the other hand, the combination of these materials with
clay stabilizes the soil as well as the heavy metals available in coal so
that the leakage of pollutants into water resources will be within the
regulatory levels.
Therefore, it could be concluded that the use of coal waste powder
and its ash not only improves the technical properties of the studied
soil but also reduces the leachability of the pollutant waste and its
harmful effects to environment.

5. Conclusions

In this study, the effect of coal waste powder, coal waste ash and
lime-activated coal waste was compared with lime for stabilization of
medium plasticity clay. Based on the obtained results and performed
analysis the following conclusions can be drawn:

Fig. 12. Microscopic image of clay with 9% coal waste and 3% lime after 28 days with
3000× magnification.
1) Compared to hydrated lime, coal waste and its ash had slight effects
on the plastic behavior. However, the combined effect of lime and
coal waste was considerable.
2) The use of coal waste and its ash moderately increased the CBR of the
soil at optimum moisture content. For saturated specimens hydrated
lime had considerably better effects on improving the CBR and
specially swelling properties of studied soil.
3) The lime activated coal waste resulted in considerably higher
compressive strength than the corresponding clay soil containing
the coal waste powder solely.
4) Several diffraction peaks were detected in the XRD pattern of natural
soil which indicated the crystalline structure of the clay minerals.
288 A. Modarres, Y.M. Nosoudy / Applied Clay Science 116–117 (2015) 281–288
On the contrary the intensity of diffraction peaks reduced in
stabilized soil especially for lime activated clay.
5) The SEM micrograph of the natural soil clearly showed the flaky and
discontinuous structure of the clay where the voids were more
visible. In addition, coal waste had laminated and sharped-edge
particles. SEM micrograph of stabilized soil showed that the natural
soil structure has transformed from a particle-based form to a more
integrated composition.
6) The concentration of heavy metals such as chromium and lead in the
natural coal waste leachate was more than the regulatory levels.
However, all of the metal concentrations leached from stabilized
samples satisfied the required criteria.
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