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Assignment on the Infective Agent, Sources, Mode of

Transmission, Risky/Vulnerable Host, Control and Prevention
of Malaria, Dengue Fever, Zika Virus, Chikungunya, and the
Life Cycle of Malarial Parasites.

Submitted by
Md. Shoaib Zakaria
ID:1912460030
Course Title: Introduction to Public Health
Section:7

Submitted to
Dr. Shaikh Abdus Salam
Lecturer
Department of Public Health
North South University

Submitted on 23 March 2021

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Table of Context
Page No.
• Malaria
o Infective agent……………………………………………………………. 3
o Source…………………………………………………………………….. 3
o Mode of Transmission…………………………………………………… 3
o Risky/ Vulnerable Host………………………………………………….. 4
o Control and Prevention ………………………………………………….. 4

• Dengue
o Infective agent……………………………………………………………. 5
o Source…………………………………………………………………….. 5
o Mode of Transmission…………………………………………………… 5
o Risky/ Vulnerable Host………………………………………………….. 6
o Control and Prevention ………………………………………………….. 6

• Zika
o Infective agent……………………………………………………………. 7
o Source…………………………………………………………………….. 7
o Mode of Transmission…………………………………………………… 7
o Risky/ Vulnerable Host………………………………………………….. 7
o Control and Prevention ………………………………………………….. 8

• Chikungunya
o Infective agent……………………………………………………………. 9
o Source…………………………………………………………………….. 9
o Mode of Transmission…………………………………………………… 9
o Risky/ Vulnerable Host………………………………………………….. 9
o Control and Prevention ………………………………………………….. 9

• The Life cycle of Malarial Parasite…………………………………… 11

• References……………………………………………………………………. 13
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Malaria

Infective Agent
Causative agents, Plasmodium Parasites, cause malaria. There are a total of five
species that are responsible for Malaria disease. They are,
• Plasmodium falciparum (or P. falciparum)
• Plasmodium malariae (or P. malariae)
• Plasmodium vivax (or P. vivax)
• Plasmodium ovale (or P. ovale)
•Plasmodium knowlesi

Sources

The primary source of the malaria parasite is infected female

Anopheles mosquitos. Any other type of mosquito cannot spread this
disease.

Figure 1: Aenopheles
Mosquito

Mode of Transmission
Malaria is a vector-borne, indirectly transmitted disease. People get the virus from an
infective female Anopheles mosquito. It is occurred by a blood component transfusion.
High-risk complications are caused by contaminated blood transfusions that expressly
release Plasmodium parasites into the bloodstream. Since the virus is found in red
blood cells, the transmission mode can also be organ transplantation, blood transfusion,
or shared needles.
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Risky/Vulnerable Host

People with fragile or weak

immunity, such as newborns,
pregnant women, are at high risk.
If a person is coming from areas
with no malaria, they are more
likely to be infected and get sick,
in some cases, die. Malaria is
prevalent in many countries in
Africa and Eastern Mediterranean
Region.

Figure 2:A little child is suffering from malaria

Control and Prevention

Since there is no licensed malaria vaccine on the market, controlling can be
challenging. But we can minimize the disease by taking these steps:
• Vector control
• Early diagnosis can raise the chance to get well of an infected person
• high-risk individuals living in endemic areas (pregnant, elderly, patients with end-
organ failure) should be started on chemoprophylaxis against malaria
• Personal hygiene should be maintained properly
• Sufficient isolation, quarantine, and surveillance capacity should be ensured. An
adequate supply of Personal protection such as mosquito repellents, protective
clothing, and mosquito nets should be provided.
• People from all walks of life should be educated and be aware of this disease.
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Dengue Fever

Infective agent
Dengue virus is a single strand flavivirus. It is a mosquito-borne virus.

Sources
Monkeys were affected by this virus 800 years ago, and by
the time the virus spread to humans. The primary source of
the Dengue virus is female Aedes mosquitos, especially
Aedes Aegypti. There is one document that states the virus
can be spread through breast milk.

Figure 3: Aedes Aegypti

Mode of Transmission

All transmission occurs when the

infected Aedes aegypti and Ae.
Albopictus bite. The human body
is the primary Host. Mosquitoes
become infected by biting an
infected person with that virus.
Then they spread the virus, and
the cycle goes on. Bloodborne
transmission is also possible
through exposure to infected
organs. If a mother is infected
near the time of birth, perinatal
transmission is also possible. As
of now, the only animal that has
been affected by dengue is
Figure 4: Transmission of Dengue
monkeys.
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Risky/Vulnerable Host
Dengue has been a problem to the world since the 1960s. The outbreaks occur in many
countries in America, Africa, The Middle East, and the Pacific Island. If people from less
affected area travels through an area with a high risk of dengue, they are more likely to
be infected by the virus. Children under 15 years of age are at significant risk.

Control and Prevention

• There is a vaccine that has been

licensed in almost 20 countries. If it is
possible, the vaccine should be taken
within an appropriate time.
• Waterlogging should be fixed. In homes
where water is stagnant, such as tubs,
car tires, various containers, they need
to be clean so that mosquitoes do not
lay eggs.
• Wearing proper clothing should be worn
during late afternoon and morning which
cover the arms and legs.
• Aedes mosquitos love to live insided our
house. So, insect repellent, netting the
Figure 5: Dengue Vaccine
windows are some great examples to
stay away from mosquitos.
• Proper education and awareness
regarding dengue should be ensured.
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Zika

Infective Agent
Zika virus is a single-stranded RNA virus of the Flavivirus family, genus Flavivirus.

Source
This is a mosquito-borne virus that was first discovered in
Uganda in monkeys. Daytime-active Aedes mosquitoes
spread the Zika virus. The virus can be found in semen,
blood, and breast milk also.

Figure 6: Aedes Albopictus

Mode of Transmission
Zika virus is transmitted to people by the bite of infected Aedes species mosquito as
dengue. Zika virus can be transmitted from a pregnant woman to her fetus, which
caused congenital disabilities. Zika is also passed through sex. Transfusion of blood,
organ transplantation can also be ways of transmission.

Risky/Vulnerable Host
People in an area with a high risk of
zika are more likely to be affected by
the virus. Pregnant women are most
at risk. Babies born with zika virus are
more likely to have specific congenital
disabilities and developmental
problems known as "congenital Zika
syndrome" (CZS). Babies with CZN
Figure 7: A baby with birth defects.
suffer from microcephaly (tiny head and
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brain), eye problems, hearing loss, brain defects, seizures, etc. People who live in
areas at risk of zika and perform unprotected sex are also in great danger.

Control and Prevention

No vaccine is approved for the zika virus. It is necessary to take caution to control and
prevent this virus
• Pregnant women should avoid traveling
from places where the risk of zika is high.

• Zika can be transmitted from sex, so

protections such as condoms should be
used during sex.
• Sleeping under a mosquito net is a very
effective way not to be in touch with
mosquitos.
• Vector control is essential.
• Mass education about this virus should be
ensured.
Figure 8:Prevention is better than cure
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Chikungunya
Infective Agents
Chikungunya, a single-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the family Togaviridae,
genus Alphavirus

Source
Mosquitos such as Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus spread
this virus. No evidence shows the virus stays in breast milk,
semen, and saliva.

Figure 9:Aedes Aegypti

Mode of Transmission
Chikungunya is also transmitted to humans via the bite of infected mosquitos, Aedes
aegypti, and Ae. Albopictus. The primary Host is the human body. This virus can be
transmitted through blood.

Risky/Vulnerable Host
Chikungunya is common in Africa, Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent. Though
chikungunya is not as dangerous as dengue, it can cause harm to people severely.
Older people who are above 65 years old are at risk. It has been found that people
with an underlying medical condition are more likely to get harmed by this virus.
Travelers are also suffered from this virus.

Control and Prevention

There is no approved vaccine for chikungunya, but we can take some steps to
prevent, combat, and control this virus.
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1. Using Mosquito net is a must-do

2. Staying indoor as long as possible
3. Usage of insect repellent with active
DEET, oil of lemon eucalyptus, or
IR535 creat protection in the repellent.
4. Wearing proper clothes and covering
the face, arms, and legs can protect
against these mosquitoes.
5. Vector controlling is the key to prevent
this virus.
6. Elderly children should take caution
during sleeping in the daytime.
7. Eliminating unnecessary water
Figure 10: Vector controlling amidst the Chikungunya
outbreak in Dhaka, Bangladesh containers can reduce mosquito
breeding.
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The Life Cycle of Malarial Parasites

Malaria parasite develops in the human body as well as the body of female Anopheles
mosquitoes. While staying in the human body, the parasite undergoes different
phases and processes. The lifecycle of Plasmodium vivex is very complicated. It has
two phases. One takes place in the human body, and another in mosquitos.

In salivary glands of Anopheles

mosquitos, sporozoites form of
plasmodium virus is stored.
When an infected female
Anopheles mosquito comes to
the touch of a human body and
bites a person, sporozoites are
injected into the bloodstream. It
takes 45 minutes to reach to
pancyma cells of the liver of a
human body from the
bloodstream. Over the next 7 to
10 days, the sporozoites get
multiplied asexually. They take
food from the liver and become
round-shaped, which is called
cryptozoite. Every cryptozoite's
nucleus constantly gets divided
and forms an uncountable small
nucleus, and makes new cells.
They are called cryptomerozoite.
This phase is called hepatic
schizogony. In the bloodstream,
the merozoite invades red blood
cells and gets bigger and bigger.
Asexual multiplication of cells
also occurs here. The
merozoites in these cells
become the sexual forms of the
parasite. It is called gametocyte.
Gametocytes can not live more
than 7 days in human blood.
Figure 11:Life cycle of malarial parasite
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When a mosquito bites an infected person, it absorbs gametocyte. Gametocytes

develop mature sex cells called gamates.

As a result of fertilization, Gametes become a zygote. 12 to 14 hours from ingesting

gametocytes, circular and motionless zygote become taller and moving called
ookinete. It becomes an oocyst after being bound into a thin cyst. After 47-79 hours
from ingesting the blood, the mitosis and meiosis division results in the multicellular
oocyst. Every nucleus of these cells becomes sporozoite. Sporozoites become big
enough to burst and eventually stored in mosquitos salivary glands. There can be
3,26,000 sporozoites in a mosquito's salivary glands. Each bite can contain 10% of
them. Again the cycle begins when an infected mosquito bites a person.
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References
Butanis, B. (2021). What is the Zika Virus? | Johns Hopkins Medicine. Retrieved 22 March 2021, from
https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/zika-virus/what-is-zika-virus.html

Chikungunya fact sheet. (2020). Retrieved 22 March 2021, from https://www.who.int/news-

room/fact-
sheets/detail/chikungunya#:~:text=Chikungunya%20is%20a%20viral%20disease,%2C%20nausea%2C
%20fatigue%20and%20rash.

Dengue | CDC. (2021). Retrieved 22 March 2021, from https://www.cdc.gov/dengue/index.html

Centre for Health Protection, Department of Health - Dengue Fever. (2021). Retrieved 22 March 2021,
from
https://www.chp.gov.hk/en/healthtopics/content/24/19.html#:~:text=Dengue%20fever%20is%20tran
smitted%20to,directly%20from%20human%20to%20human.

Life cycle of the malaria parasite. PATH's Malaria Vaccine Initiative. Retrieved 22 March 2021, from
https://www.malariavaccine.org/malaria-and-vaccines/vaccine-development/life-cycle-malaria-parasite.

Sanchez, J. (2021). PAHO/WHO | Factsheet Chikungunya. Pan American Health Organization / World
Health Organization. Retrieved 22 March 2021, from
https://www.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=8303:2013-hoja-informativa-
chikungunya&Itemid=40023&lang=en.