Aerial Camera Systems

Basic Types of Aerial Cameras

Film cameras
• Single lens frame camera (most common)
• Multilens frame camera (specialized applications)
• Strip camera (rarely used)
• Panoramic camera (specialized applications)

Non-film cameras (electronic imaging)

• Digital camera (direct digital recording)
• Video camera (analog or digital recording)

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 Film Sizes for Aerial Photography

Cameras for small

area analysis
35 mm film
(24 x 36 mm image)
70 mm film
(55 mm image)

Aerial mapping cameras

240 mm film
(230 x 230 mm image)

Original photo:
• 230 x 230 mm image
(9 x 9 in.)
• NAPP series 1992
• 1:40,000 scale
• Panchromatic film

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 • Project ID, date,
and frame number.
•Side fiducial marks
•Corner fiducial marks

Film Resolution

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Figure 2.33 Resolving power test chart.

Line spacing

GRD
(when lines are projected to the ground)

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 The effects of scale and resolution can be combined to express
image quality in terms of a ground resolution distance (GRD).
This distance extrapolates the dynamic system resolution on a
film to a ground distance. We can express this as

reciprocal of image scale

GRD = (2.13)
system resolution

For example, a photograph at a scale of 1:50,000 taken with a

system having a dynamic resolution of 40 lines/mm would have
a ground resolution distance of

50,000
GRD = = 1250 mm = 1.25 m
40

Resolution Example
A series of parallel docks protrudes into a lake. The width of each dock
is equal to the spacing between the docks, as shown in the figure below:
water

water
water

water

water
dock

dock

dock

dock

2m 2m 2m

GRD

A camera system in a Learjet is being used to photograph an

area at a scale of 1:250,000 and a system resolution of 80
lines/mm. Can this system resolve the docks shown above?

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 Resolution Example:
Solution

1/scale 250,000
GRD = =
system resolution 80

= 3125 mm = 3.125 m

GRD required = 2 m + 2 m = 4 m

Docks can be resolved because 3.125 m < 4 m

Typical Aerial Film Resolution

(at 1:1000 contrast)

Kodak Plus-X Aerial Film (B/W) 160 lines/mm

Kodak 2448 (normal color) 75 lines/mm

NEW Kodak 2444 (normal color) 125 lines/mm

Kodak 2443 (color infrared) 63 lines/mm

NEW Kodak 1443 (color infrared) 100 lines/mm

(A good lens for a 35 mm camera will typically have a

resolution at the center of the image of 70 lines/mm)

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 Electronic Imaging:
Digital Cameras

Electronic Imaging

Electronic imaging instruments typically use two-

dimensional detector arrays for image acquisition,
with each detector in the array sensing one pixel in
the image field.
array of detectors
film

Photography Electronic imaging

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 Digital Cameras

• The detector locations in the two-dimensional array

are called “photosites.”

• Each photosite uses one of the following:

° CCD (charge-coupled device)

° CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-
semiconductor)

• Electric charge produced at each photosite is

proportional to scene brightness.

35mm Digital Cameras:

Typical Array Sizes

Low resolution
• 1024 x 1542 (various) “1.5 megapixel”

Intermediate resolution
• 2048 x 3084 (various) “6 megapixel”

High resolution
• 2704 x 4064 (Canon EOS-1Ds) “11 megapixel”
• 2848 x 4288 (Nikon D2X) “12 megapixel”
• 3024 x 4536 (Kodak DCs 14n) “13 megapixel”
• 3328 x 4992 (Canon EOS-1Ds Mk.II) “16 megapixel”

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 Kodak DCS 14n

• 3024 x 4536 CMOS array

(13.7 million pixels)

• Nikon F80/F100 body

• B&W or color images

• Exposure times as short as 1/4000 second

• 400 images per battery charge

• Approximate cost (2004): $4400

Photosites vs.
Silver Halide Grain Clusters
Photosites:
• Uniform size
• Uniform shape
• Uniform spatial arrangement
• Linear response over entire dynamic range (12-bit
or 4096 gray levels common)

Silver Halide Grain Clusters:

• Random size
• Random shape
• Random spatial arrangement
• Non-linear response along toe and shoulder of
characteristic curve

General Rule:
A 35 mm array of 6 to 11 million photosites has about
the same resolution as 35 mm film.

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 Status of Digital Camera Technology
Used today for applications previously done using
35mm or 70mm film camera (e.g., precision farming).

Major advantages:
• Rapid turnaround
• Computer compatible format
• Amenable to digital image processing
• Greater dynamic range than film
• Resolution now comparable to film

Major disadvantage:
• Data volume

Color Imaging:
Bayer Pattern

Most common method:

• Use a single array, with individual
color filters over each photosite
(“Bayer pattern”)

Advantages:
• Low cost
• No need to co-register images

Disadvantages:
• Need to interpolate images
• Color images have reduced resolution

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 Color Image Formation by Interpolation

Calculate color values for a given pixel based on values in

adjacent pixels, using spatial interpolation.
From “Image Sensors,” Chapter 2 of A Short Course in Digital Photography.
http://www.shortcourses.com

Interpolation using
nearest neighbors

Interpolation
using a 9 x 9
window

From “Image Sensors,” Chapter 2 of A Short Course in Digital Photography.

http://www.shortcourses.com

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 Color Imaging:
Other Approaches

3 (or more) separate arrays (B, G, R, NIR, …)

Advantages: High resolution
Disadvantages: High cost, need to co-register images
Examples: Z/I Imaging Digital Mapping Camera (DMC);
Emerge Direct Digital Imagery system

Color Imaging:
Other Approaches

Multi-layer detectors (Foveon X3)

Advantages: No interpolation or co-registration needed
Disadvantages: Uncommon, low resol. (max 3.4 megapixels)
Example: Sigma SD10 camera

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