Chimeras

The term chimera was first used in Greek mythology during circa eighth century
BCE to describe an obscure creature made from different parts of different animals.
Beginning twentieth century, chimeras are applied metaphorically in the scientific
community to describe grafted plants containing different cells from different sources,
viruses that have appropriated genetic material from another organism, and nonhuman
animals incorporating genetic material from an outside source. But it was only during
the 1953 that the term was used to describe a human after the discovery of a woman
referred to in literature as Mrs. McK who possessed two blood types, which were the
blood groups A and O (Norton & Zehner, 2008).
A crude definition of a chimera in biology is an organism which is the product of
combining genetic materials from two or more genetically different organisms. Chimeric
organisms consist of cells that have differing genetic information which did not originate
from one zygote but from two or more differing sources. Although hybrid organisms,
which are organisms that are a product of sexual reproduction between individuals of
different but closely related organisms, are indeed mixes between different species,
they are not regarded as chimeras since they do not contain genetically distinct cell
populations. In hybrids, the mixture takes place on inner cell level, typologically resulting
in an animal which is sui generis but not a mixture on the cell or organ level, since all
cells of the hybrid animal carry the same genetic fingerprint. In chimeras, the mixture
takes place on the level of cells, resulting in an organism whose cells keep their
disparate genetic identity. However, genetically differing sets of cells are not only found
in chimeric organisms. Mosaicism are also organisms which have genetically distinct
sets of cells, but whose differing cell populations originate from just one zygote. This is
different from chimerism since mosaicism originates just from one zygote (Huther,
2009).
In developmental biology studies, chimeras are used for many animal, plant, and
viral researches.
Tetragametic chimerism is a form of congenital chimerism where there is a
fertilization of two separate ova by two sperm, followed by aggregation of the two at the
blastocyst or zygote stages which results in the development of an organism with
intermingled cell lines. In other words, the chimera is formed from the merging of two
nonidentical twins. The tetragametic state has important implications for organ or stem
cell transplantation since the chimeras typically have immunologic tolerance to both cell
lines (Schoenle et al, 1983).
Monochimerism is the presence of a small number of cells that are genetically
distinct from those of the host individual. People are commonly born with a few cells that
are genetically identical to their mother which eventually becomes fewer in healthy
individuals as they get older. However, people who retain higher numbers of cells
genetically identical to their mother have been observed to have higher rates of some
autoimmune diseases, since the immune system is responsible for destroying these
cells and a common immune defect prevents it from doing so and also causes
autoimmune problems (De bellefon, L. M., et al, 2010).
Germline chimerism occurs when the germ cells of an organism are not
genetically identical to its own. It has been recently discovered that marmosets
(Callithrix jacchus) can carry the reproductive cells of their fraternal twin siblings due to
placental fusion during development. Because of this, marmosets almost always give
birth to fraternal twins (Ross, French, & Orti, 2007).
Artificial chimerism is classified by having two sets of different genetic pedigrees.
One was inherited genetically at the time of the formation of the human embryo and the
other that was intentionally introduced through a medical procedure known as
transplantation. In humans, specific types of transplants that could induce this condition
include bone marrow transplants and organ transplants, as the recipient's body
essentially works to permanently incorporate the new blood stem cells into it (Rinkevich,
2001).
In plants, plastid gene-differential chimeras arise by spontaneous or induced
mutation of a plastid gene, followed by the sorting-out of two kinds of plastid during
vegetative growth. This type of chimera is recognized at the time of origin by the sorting-
out pattern in the leaves and most variegated-leaf chimeras are of this kind. For most
variegation, the mutation involved is the loss of the chloroplasts in the mutated tissue,
so that part of the plant tissue has no green pigment and no photosynthetic ability
resulting in a discoloration on the leaf surface (Zubko & Day, 2002).
Viral chimeras was also first discovered in 2012 as a naturally-occurring RNA-
DNA hybrid virus was unexpectedly discovered during a metagenomic study of the
acidic extreme environment of Boiling Springs Lake that is in Lassen Volcanic National
Park, California. The virus was named BSL-RDHV (Boiling Spring Lake RNA DNA
Hybrid Virus). Other viral chimeras have also been found, and the group is known as
the CHIV viruses or "chimeric viruses" (Diemer & Stedman, 2012).

References
Norton, A. T., Norton, A. T., & Zehner, O. (2008). Which Half is Mommy?: Tetragametic
Chimerism and Trans-Subjectivity. WSQ: Women's Studies Quarterly, 36(3-4),
106–125. https://doi.org/10.1353/WSQ.0.0115
Huther, Constanze (2009). Chimeras: The Ethics of Creating Human-Animal
Interspecifics. Uni München. Retrieved from https://edoc.ub.uni-
muenchen.de/10022/1/Huther_Constanze.pdf
Schoenle, E., et al (1983). 46,XX/46,XY chimerism in a phenotypically normal man.
Human Genetics, 64(1), 86–89. doi:10.1007/bf00289485
De bellefon, L. M., et al (2010). Cells from a vanished twin as a source of
microchimerism 40 years later in a male with a scleroderma-like condition.
Chimerism, 1(2), 56–60. doi:10.4161/chim.1.2.14294
Ross, C. N., French, J. A., & Orti, G. (2007). Germ-line chimerism and paternal care in
marmosets (Callithrix kuhlii). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
104(15), 6278–6282. doi:10.1073/pnas.0607426104
Rinkevich, B. (2001). Human natural chimerism: an acquired character or a vestige of
evolution? Human Immunology, 62(6), 651–657. doi:10.1016/s0198-
8859(01)00249-x
Zubko, M., & Day, A. (2002). Differential regulation of genes transcribed by nucleus-
encoded plastid RNA polymerase, and DNA amplification, within ribosome-
deficient plastids in stable phenocopies of cereal albino mutants. Molecular
Genetics and Genomics, 267(1), 27–37. doi:10.1007/s00438-001-0627-4
Diemer, G. S., & Stedman, K. M. (2012). A novel virus genome discovered in an
extreme environment suggests recombination between unrelated groups of RNA
and DNA viruses. Biology Direct, 7(1), 13. doi:10.1186/1745-6150-7-13