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L-L-T T-T-L: Figure 2-52 Detection of Embedded Linear Defects Using MC Techniques
L-L-T T-T-L: Figure 2-52 Detection of Embedded Linear Defects Using MC Techniques
L-L-T T-T-L: Figure 2-52 Detection of Embedded Linear Defects Using MC Techniques
L-T-L T-L-T
CE-1
30-70-70
L-L-T T-L-L
70º L
Indirect 31º T
Direct 34º T
Creeping L-ID
120
110
100
CE 2
90
Ultrasonic path [mm]
80
70
60
50
40
30
CE 1
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Thickness [mm]
Figure 2-54 Ultrasound path dependence on thickness for CE 1 (30°-70°-70°) and for CE 2
(creeping waves).
84 Chapter 2
the LL doublet, and the ligament is evaluated by CE 1 and CE 2 amplitudes. A
vertical defect with a ligament greater than 4 mm will reflect only the
doublets and CE 1. The signal amplitude of CE 1 varies linearly with crack
height. However, if the defect is inclined, CE 1 amplitude is no longer linear.
60˚ LW 60˚ LW
doublet doublet
CE 1 (30-70-70) CE 1 (30-70-70)
CE 1 L L CE 1
L L
Figure 2-55 Detection, confirmation, and sizing of a fatigue crack by LL doublet and CE 1
(30°-70°-70°) for a 60° LW probe; left = crack signals; right = EDM notch signals; ligament =
5 mm; height = 11 mm.
Another MC sizing method is the delta technique (see Figure 2-56). The delta
technique consists of a combination of a 60° shear wave and a 0° longitudinal
wave. The height measurement can be calculated from formula (2.46):
( t – h crack )
TOF Δ60 = -------------------------------------------------------------
- (2.46)
v T [ ( 1 ⁄ cos β ) + ( v T ⁄ v L ) ]
Due to the beam spread, the 60° shear wave detects the crack tip because of a
direct hit and of a reflection at the backwall. For steel, the crack height is
given by formula (2.47):
where CRTTW is the shear wave time of arrival from the screen.
LW TW
Figure 2-56 Principle of Δ60° technique and an example of ID-connected crack sizing; note
the crack tip detection by skip.
Figure 2-57 Detection of four vertical FBH with a phased array pitch-and-catch mode-
converted setup in a 100-mm test piece. Blue lines show shear waves, and red lines show
longitudinal waves.
86 Chapter 2
Mode-converted techniques are very useful for narrow gap welds on thick
plates. The most common defect is the sidewall lack of fusion (see Figure
2-58).
A more traditional approach is the “tandem” technique using 45° shear waves
(Figure 2-58, right). Tandem techniques work well with phased arrays.
Figure 2-58 Detection of side lack of fusion in a narrow gap weld by MC techniques with a
single (left) and double (pitch-and-catch) probe (right).
where:
vT = shear-wave velocity
For steel, a simplified formula is: D void = 0.7ΔUT path , with the ultrasonic
path calibrated in shear wave half distance.