GEOLOGIC MAPPING METHODS

The aim of geologic mapping is to create a map which summarizes the geologic data gathered in
the field.  Every place that an observation is made, a sample is gathered, or any type of data
collection takes place, it is positioned on the map at the appropriate X – Y coordinates. 
Conventionally, reconnaissance geologic maps are created with true north toward the top edge
of the map.   The map can be small scale and show much detail, or be large scale and
generalized.   At each point, sometimes called a “station”, two essential pieces of information
need to be recorded, including the lithology and the geometry (or structure), which are defined
using color, shading, patterning, and symbology Generally the key to the graphics are shown in
an “explanation” near one edge of the map.  The information shown graphically on the map is
generally also recorded in writing in a field notebook.   As each contact between lithologies is
traced on the map, the type of contact needs to be defined.   The possible types of contacts
including different types of sedimentary contacts, intrusive contacts, and fault contacts. 
Sedimentary contacts may be either normal, which is called a “conformable” contact, or show an
erosional surface as the contact, which is called an “unconformable” contact.  Intrusive contacts
are often sharp, but can be gradational over a large zone.  This could be illustrated graphically
using dashed or stipple lines. The structure data which should be recorded include the geometry
of the bedding in the case of sedimentary or volcanic rocks.  It would include the foliation in the
case of a metamorphic rock.  In some cases, layering within plutonic igneous rocks can also be
measured.  Jointing in igneous rocks can also be an important type of structural data to collect. 
Where faults are present, the surface must also be measured for its orientation.  Fault traces on
maps are often shown as heavy, dashed or squiqqly lines.  There may be lineations, such as
streaks on fault surfaces or alignment of elongate minerals, which can be measured if they are
present at the location.  These are shown graphically as a small arrow in the direction of the
lineation.  As mentioned, it is important to not only show the information graphically on the
map.The geometry of many types of planar features are shown using the “strike and dip”
symbol.  The strike is the bearing of a horizontal line in the plane of the feature.  It is measured
with a compass and plotted on the map.  The direction of inclination of the same plane is called
the “dip”, and is measured, using an inclinometer, in a direction perpendicular to the strike.  The
inclination direction is shown by the small mark on the side of the strike line, and the
measurement is placed next to it. The methodology of determining lithology and structure for
map units is the same for reconniassance, trench or underground mapping.  However, the
normal convention of north at the top edge of the map is not always the case for trench or
underground maps, or any other type of geologic map where a lot of detail is desired. 

64  FIELD DATA COLLECTIONField data collection, done in conjunction with field mapping, is
frequently done in one of two ways.  The first way is to record information chronologically in a
field notebook.  The notebook represents a daily log of the field activities which were completed. 
Each day should begin with a header consisting of the date.  Then it is customary to summarize
the general location.  Then a systematic list of stations, observations, sample numbers, etc...
should follow.  The second method of collecting field data is to use a standard data collection
form which is designed for the project.  This method requires a separate form for each station or
sample location. 

65  Hydrothermal Alteration
Rock alteration simply means changing the mineralogy of the rock.  The old minerals grow are
replaced by new ones because there has been a change in the conditions.  These changes
could be changes in temperature, pressure, or chemical conditions or any combination of these. 
Hydrothermal alteration is a change in the mineralogy as a result of interaction of the rock with
hot water fluids, called “hydrothermal fluids”.  The fluids carry metals in solution, either from a
nearby igneous source, or from leaching out of some nearby rocks.  Hydrothermal alteration is a
common phenomena in a wide variety of geologic environments, including fault zones and
explosive volcanic features. Hydrothermal fluids cause hydrothermal alteration of rocks by
passing hot water fluids through the rocks and changing their composition by adding or removing
or redistributing components.  Temperatures can range from weakly elevated to boiling.  Fluid
composition is extremely variable.  They may contain various types of gases, salts (briney fluids),
water, and metals.  The metals are carried as different complexes, thought to involve sulfur and
chlorine.Sources of hydrothermal fluids are not well understood, however, there are three main
possibilities that exist.  One source can be the magmatic rocks themselves, which exsolve water
(called “juvenile” water) during the final stages of cooling.  In metamorphic terranes a potential
source of the fluids is dehydration reactions which take place during the metamorphic event. 
With increasing temperature of metamorphism, early, low temperature, hydrous minerals
recrystallize into new, higher temperature, anhydrous minerals.  The excess water circulates
through the surrounding rocks and may scavenge and transport metals to sites where they can
be precipitated as ore minerals.  Near surface groundwater is another source of water (called
“meteoric” water).  Evidence from some ore deposits suggests meteoric waters may mix with
juvenile or metamorphic waters during late stages of mineralization. 

66  Hydrothermal fluids in plutonic settings are thought to circulate along a large scale
convective path.   It would be analogous to a pot of boiling water:  hottest water rises fastest
directly above the heat source, and at the surface changes flow direction to horizontal, and finally
downwards along the sides of the pot.  In a similar manner, hydrothermal fluids circulate upward
and outward from an igneous intrusion at depth.  Porous and permeable host rocks (those
containing lots of interconnected pore spaces) allow this to happen more readily, for example, in
a coarse-grained sandstone.  Some types of rocks, like shale or slate, are extremely
impermeable.  A layer of shale can cause damming or ponding of the hydrothermal fluids, which
can lead to a concentration of mineralization behind the impermeable barrier.  Fluid migration
can be also facilitated by the presence of lots of thin layers . Hydrothermal fluids also circulate
along fractures and faults.  A which has a well-developed fracture system may serve as an
excellent host rock.  Veins form where the fluids flow through larger, open space fractures and
precipitate mineralization along the walls of the fracture, eventually filling it completely.  Fault
zones are excellent places for fluids to circulate and precipitate mineralization.   Faulting may
develop breccia and gouge, which is often a good candidate for replacement style
mineralization.  The form of mineralization and alteration associated with faults is highly variable,
and may include massive to fine-grained, networks of veinlets,  and occasionally vuggy textures
in some breccias. 

67  Alteration ZoningAlthough mineral zoning patterns are not uncommonly developed around
ore deposits, they are not always present or obvious.  The patterns can be caused by changes in
temperature, fluid chemistry or gas content.  The change in parameters over time, such as
decreasing temperature of the fluids, can cause overprinting of lower temperature minerals by
higher temperature minerals.  Structural deformation, such as when a rock shattering or faulting
event affects the host rocks, can cause more complexity.Alteration zoning can occur in many
different geometric forms, ranging from concentric shells, to linear forms, to irregular and
complex. Porphyry copper deposits are characterized by concentric shell-shaped zones of
alteration, which overlap to some extent Figure 8 – 1 A.  The core area contains “potassic”
alteration in the form of potassium feldspar and biotite.  Further outward is a zone of “phyllic”
alteration consisting of the assemblage quartz-sericite-pyrite.  The outermost zone, called
“propylitic”, is characterized by the assemblage quartz-chlorite-carbonate and locally containing
epidote, albite or adularia. 

68  Epithermal deposits associated with major structures (faults or fractures) have linear zones
which parallel the structure.  The mineralogy is highly variable, as is the geometry.  One example
of alteration zoning associated with a volcanic vent is shown in Figure 8 – 1 B.  This example
indicates an inner zone of silicification forms within a central breccia formation, and an outer
zone of propylitic alteration lies adjacent.  Sericite is a common alteration mineral formed in
zones along fault structures or fault zones in low to moderate temperature settings.

69  Alteration MappingAlteration can be mapped graphically using patterns or colors in much the
same way that lithologic units are mapped.  The primary characteristics to note are the alteration
mineralogy, style and intensity.  The mineral assemblages can be coded using patterns or
colors.  The style of alteration refers to the form, which could be disseminated or massive or
anything in between.  Another form of alteration is “veinlet-controlled”, which indicates that
alteration is restricted to narrow zones adjacent to veinlets.  The intensity of alteration refers to
how well-developed the alteration is.  It could be incipient mineral growth due to weak
development, or it may be pervasive throughout the rock, indicating strong
development. Mapping alteration can be used to predict mineralization.  In theory, this is done by
comparing the results of alteration mapping with known alteration zoning patterns for known
mineral deposits.   In practice however, the process is seldom so simple because every mineral
deposit has some uniqueness to its alteration zoning. 

70  Alteration TypesThere are as many alteration types as there minerals.  The following types
are the most commonly described types:Propylitic:   (Chlorite, Epidote, Actinolite)  Propylitic
alteration turns rocks green, because the new minerals formed are green.  These minerals
include chlorite, actinolite and epidote.  They usually form from the decomposition of Fe-Mg-
bearing minerals, such as biotite, amphibole or pyroxene, although they can also replace
feldspar.  Propylitic alteration occurs at relatively low temperatures.  Propylitic alteration will
generally form in a distal setting   relative to other alteration types.Sericitic:    (Sericite)  Sericitic
alteration alters the rock to the mineral sericite, which is a very fine-grained white mica.  It
typically forms by the decomposition of feldspars, so it replaces feldspar.  In the field, its
presence in a rock can be detected by the softness of the rock, as it is easily scratchable. It also
has a rather greasy feel (when present in abundance), and its color is white, yellowish, golden
brown or greenish.  Sericitic alteration implies low pH (acidic) conditions. Alteration consisting of
sericite + quartz is called “phyllic” alteration.  Phyllic alteration associated with porphyry copper
deposits may contain appreciable quantities of fine-grained, disseminated pyrite which is directly
associated with the alteration event.Potassic:   (Biotite, K-feldspar, Adularia)  Potassic alteration
is a relatively high temperature type of alteration which results from potassium enrichment.  This
style of alteration can form before complete crystallization of a magma, as evidenced by the
typically sinuous, and rather discontinuous vein patterns.  Potassic alteration can occur in deeper
plutonic environments, where orthoclase will be formed, or in shallow, volcanic environments
where adularia is formed.Albitic:   (Albite)  Albitic alteration forms albite, or sodic plagioclase.  Its
presence is usually an indication of Na enrichment.  This type of alteration is also a relatively
high temperature type of alteration.  The white mica paragonite (Na-rich) is also formed
sometimes.Silicification:   (Quartz)  Silicification is the addition of secondary silica (SiO2). 
Silicification is one of the most common types of alteration, and it occurs in many different styles. 
One of the most common styles is called “silica flooding”, which results form replacement of the
rock with microcrystalline quartz (chalcedony).  Greater porosity of a rock will facilitate this
process.  Another common style of silicification is the formation of close-spaced fractures in a
network, or “stockworks”, which are filled with quartz.  Silica flooding and/or stockworks are
sometimes present in the wallrock along the margins of quartz veins.  Silicification can occur over
a wide range of temperatures.Silication:  (Silicate Minerals +/- Quartz)  Silication is a general
term for the addition of silica by forming any type of silicate mineral.  These are commonly
formed in association with quartz.  Examples include the formation of biotite or garnet or
tourmaline.   Silication can occur over a wide range of temperatures. The classic example is the
replacement of limestone (calcium carbonate) by silicate minerals forming a “skarn”, which
usually form at the contact of igneous intrusions. A special subset of silication is a style of
alteration called “greisenization”.  This is the formation of a type of rock called “greisen”, which is
a rock containing parallel veins of quartz + muscovite + other minerals (often tourmaline).  The
parallel veins are formed in the roof zone of a pluton and/or in the adjacent country rocks (if
fractures are open).  With intense veining, some wallrocks can become completely replaced by
new minerals similar to the ones forming the veins. 

71  Carbonatization:  (Carbonate Minerals)  Carbonitization is a general term for the addition of

any type of carbonate mineral.  The most common are calcite, ankerite, and dolomite. 
Carbonatization is also usually associated with the addition of other minerals, some of which
include talc, chlorite, sericite and albite.  Carbonate alteration can form zonal patterns around ore
deposits with more iron-rich types occurring proximal to the deposit. Alunitic:  (Alunite)  Alunitic
alteration is closely associated with certain hot springs environments.  Alunite is a potassium
aluminum sulfate mineral which tends to form massive ledges in some areas.  The presence of
alunite suggests high SO4 gas contents were present, which is thought to result from the
oxidation of sulfide minerals. Argillic:  (Clay Minerals)  Argillic alteration is that which introduces
any one of a wide variety of clay minerals, including kaolinite, smectite and illite.  Argillic
alteration is generally a low temperature event, and some may occur in atmospheric conditions. 
The earliest signs of argillic alteration includes the bleaching out of feldspars. A special
subcategory of argillic alteration is “advanced argillic”.  This consists of kaolinite + quartz +
hematite + limonite.  feldspars leached and altered to sericite.  The presence of this assemblage
suggests low pH (highly acidic) conditions.  At higher temperatures, the mineral pyrophyllite
(white mica) forms in place of kaolinite.Zeolitic:  (Zeolite Minerals)  Zeolitic alteration is often
associated with volcanic environments, but it can occur at considerable distances from these.  In
volcanic environments, the zeolite minerals replace the glass matrix.   Zeolite minerals are low
temperature minerals, so they are generally formed during the waning stages of volcanic activity,
in near-surface environments. Serpentinization and Talc Alteration:  (Serpentine, Talc) 
Serpentinization forms serpentine, which recognized softness, waxy, greenish appearance, and
often massive habit.  This type of alteration is only common when the host rocks are mafic to
ultramafic in composition.  These types of rocks have relatively higher iron and magnesium
contents.  Serpentine is a relatively low temperature mineral.  Talc is very similar to the mineral
serpentine, but its appearance is slightly different (pale to white).  Talc alteration indicates a
higher concentration of magnesium was available during crystallization.Oxidation:   (Oxide
Minerals)  Oxidation is simply the formation of any type of oxide mineral.  The most common
ones to form are hematite and limonite (iron oxides), but many different types can form,
depending on the metals which are present.  Sulfide minerals often weather easily because they
are susceptible to oxidation and replacement by iron oxides.  Oxides form most easily in the
surface or near surface environment, where oxygen from the atmosphere is more readily
available.   The temperature range for oxidation is variable.  It can occur at surface or
atmospheric conditions, or it can occur as a result of having low to moderate fluid temperatures.

72  Placer Deposits Placer deposits, or simply “placers”, are accumulations of valuable minerals

concentrated in overburden, in stream sediments or in beach materials by natural processes. 
The minerals are freed from solid rock by mechanical and chemical weathering, and then
transported usually by water or wind action to the final resting place.  Most of the placer deposits
being mined today are Cenezoic or younger and occur in unconsolidated materials.  However,
some ancient placers, or “paleo-placers”, are found in sedimentary rocks as old as Precambrian
in age.  In fact, some paleo-placers which are eroded become the source of present day placer
deposits.

73  Placer MineralsTwo types of minerals form placers:  1) minerals which are more resistant to
chemical and mechanical erosion (called “resistate” minerals), and 2) minerals which have high
specific gravities (called “heavy minerals”).  There are three categories of resistate minerals,
including those which are relatively inert (non-reactive), those which are maleable (tend to bend
rather than break), and those which have greater hardness :Inert Minerals: Inert Oxide Minerals: 
Cassiterite (tin oxide)Chromite (chromium oxide)Rutile (titanium oxide)Magnetite (iron
oxide)Ilmenite (iron titanium oxide)Inert Silicate Minerals:WolframiteZirconMaleable
Minerals:Native Metals:             GoldPlatinumBismuthHard
Minerals:                         DiamondCorundumGarnet

74  Examples of heavy minerals include native metals, sulfide minerals (including pyrite and
galena), magnetite and scheelite.  The high density of these minerals enables them to be
concentrated because they are less easily mobilized by water currents.  As a result, less dense
mineral grains surrounding them are “winnowed” (washed away) with ease leaving the heavy
minerals to lag behind.  Winnowing also occurs as a result of wave action on beaches, and even
as a result of wind action.  The minerals most likely to accumulate in placers are those which are
both resistates and heavy.  This is the reason gold and magnetite (often called “black sand”) are
the most common minerals to accumulate in placers. Other factors influence the ability of a
mineral to become concentrated in a placer, such as the settling rate.  The settling rate is a
function of the grain size, grains shape, specific gravity, surface roughness and electrostatic
charge.  Larger grains, because they are heavier, settle faster than small ones.  Thin, flat grains
(such as gold “flakes”) tend to catch currents and be whisked away more easily than rounded
grains (such as gold “nuggets”).  Surface roughness causes greater friction, inhibiting ease of
movement.  Some mineral grains are known to carry electrostatic charges which cause them to
stick to other grains the way a balloon rubbed against your shirt will stick to your hand. Placer
gold occurs in many shapes and sizes.  Larger pieces (generally > 10 mesh) are called nuggets,
and smaller, flat pieces are called flakes.  “Colors” are the tiny pieces (generally < oz) which are
found by panning or sluicing.  Placer gold is not pure, but instead is a mixture of gold and other
native metals (usually silver, copper or bismuth).  The purity of placer gold is referred to as the
“fineness”, which is essentially the volume percent of gold stated in parts gold per 1000
millileters.  As gold particles travel further downstream, the metal impurities are leached out,
causing an increase in gold fineness downstream.  The texture of gold is also an indication of
distance of downstream transport.  Rough, angular texture is generally considered to be an
indication of close proximity to the source. 

75  Placer minerals also accumulate in alluvial fan deposits, which are fan-shaped areas of
unconsolidated, unsorted stream sediments at the mouths of major stream drainages.  This is
due to the sudden decrease in the stream gradient and consequent decrease in stream velocity
and turbulence.  The maximum amount of winnowing occurs in the middle portion of the fan,
called the “mid-fan facies”, hence this is where the largest accumulations of placer minerals
occur in the fans.  Ancient fan deposits which have been buried and lithified are the source of
some very rich placer gold deposits in an area of South Africa called the Witwatersrand
District.Most of the concentration of heavy minerals occurs during flooding, when current velocity
and winnowing are at a maximum.  Each time a flood occurs, heavy minerals which were once
randomly scattered within the sediments end up resting on the new stream bed created by the
scouring action of the flood (Figure 11 – 2).  Periodically, large scale floods scour the stream bed
completely down to bedrock, resulting in deposition and accumulation of the heavy minerals on
bedrock.  This is why the richest pay streaks of placer gold and other heavy minerals is usually
found on or very near bedrock. 

76  Figure 11 – 2.  Profile of a stream showing how placer deposits form by the action of floods,
and how major floods cause most placer deposits to accumulate on bedrock (after Faulkner,
1986).

77  Coarse-grained gold and other heavy minerals are usually found associated with coarse
sediments, such as pebbles, cobbles, boulders and coarse sands.  The coarser sediments, due
to size and weight, drop out of suspension in the same hydrologic environments that deposit the
heavy minerals.  Similarly, fine-grained heavy minerals are usually found associated with
deposits of sand or silt. Wave action on beaches winnows away light minerals and leaves heavy
minerals to lag behind, similar to the manner in which water currents operate in the stream
environment.  As each wave retreats it washes light minerals back towards the the ocean or
lake.  As a result, heavy minerals, along with larger pebbles and cobbles, lag behind.  These “lag
deposits” form a linear band which is generally parallel to the shoreline.  Regional subsidence
can result in these deposits becoming submerged beneath the water, forming offshore placer
deposits.  Regional uplift can result in these deposits occurring on high benches further inland,
which represent ancient shorelines. 

78  General principlesMineral deposits represent anomalous concentrations of specific

elements, usually within a relatively confined volume of the Earth's crust. Most mineral deposits
include a central zone, or core, in which the valuable elements or minerals are concentrated,
often in percentage quantities, to a degree sufficient to permit economic exploitation. The
valuable elements surrounding this core generally decrease in concentration until they reach
levels, measured in parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb), which appreciably exceed
the normal background level of the enclosing rocks. These zones or halos afford means by which
mineral deposits can be detected and traced; they are the geochemical anomalies being sought
by all geochemical prospectors.The zone surrounding the core deposit is known as a primary
halo or anomaly, and it represents the distribution patterns of elements which formed as a result
of primary dispersion. Primary dispersion halos vary greatly in size and shape as a result of the
numerous physical and chemical variables that affect fluid movements in rocks. Some halos can
be detected at distances of hundreds of meters from their related ore bodies; others are no more
than a few centimeters in width.Abnormal chemical concentrations in weathering products are
known as secondary dispersion halos or anomalies and are more widespread. They are
sometimes referred to as dispersion trains. The shape and extent of secondary dispersion trains
depend on a host of factors, of which topography and groundwater movement are perhaps most
important. Groundwaters frequently dissolve some of the constituents of mineralized bodies and
may transport these for considerable distances before eventually emerging in springs or streams.
Further dispersion may ensue in stream sediments when soil or weathering debris that has
anomalous metal content becomes incorporated through erosion in stream sediment. Analysis of
the fine sand arid silt of stream sediment can be a particularly effective method for detection of
mineralized bodies within the area drained by the stream.

79  Survey designThe degree of success of a geochemical survey in a mineral exploration

program is often a reflection of the amount of care taken with initial planning and survey design.
This phase of activity is often referred to as an orientation survey; its practical importance cannot
be overstressed.When a geochemical prospecting survey is contemplated, four basic
considerations must be addressed: the nature of the mineral deposits being sought; the
geochemical properties of the elements likely to be present in the target mineral deposit;
geological factors likely to cause variations in geochemical background; and environmental, or
landscape, factors likely to influence the geochemical expression of the target mineral deposit.
Elucidation of these factors in an orientation survey will permit design of a geochemical
prospecting survey that is most likely to prove effective under the prevailing conditions. See also
Prospecting.Geochemical prospecting surveys fall into two broad categories, strategic or tactical,
which may be further subdivided according to the material sampled. Strategic surveys imply
coverage of a large area (generally several thousands of square kilometers) where the primary
objective is to identify districts of enhanced mineral potential; tactical surveys comprise the more
detailed follow-up to strategic reconnaissance. Typically the area covered by a tactical survey is
divided into discrete areas of high mineral potential within the general anomalous district.Soil and
glacial till surveys have been used extensively in geochemical prospecting and have resulted in
the discovery of a number of ore bodies. Generally, such surveys are of a detailed nature and
are run over a closely spaced grid.Biogeochemical surveys are of two types. One type utilizes
the trace-element content of plants to outline dispersion halos, trains, and fans related to
mineralization; the other uses specific plants or the deleterious effects of an excess of elements
in soils on plants as indicators of mineralization. The latter type of survey is often referred to as a
geobotanical survey.Rock geochemical surveys are reconnaissance surveys carried out on a grid
or on traverses of an area, with samples taken of all available rock outcrops or at some specific
interval. One or several rock types may be selected for sampling and analyzed for various
elements. Geochemical maps are compiled from the analyses, and contours of equal elemental
values are drawn. These are then interpreted, often by using statistical methods. Under favorable
conditions, mineralized zones or belts may be outlined in which more detailed work can be
concentrated. If the survey is executed over a large expanse of territory, geochemical provinces
may be outlined.Isotopic surveys are applicable to elements which exist in two or more isotopic
forms. They employ the ratios between isotopes such as 204Pb, 206Pb, 207Pb, 208Pb, or 32S
and 34S to “fingerprint” or indicate certain types of mineral deposits which may share a common
origin. Isotopic ratios may also be used to determine the ages of minerals or given rock types
and may, thus, assist in elucidating questions of ore formation.Geochemistry applied to
hydrocarbon exploration differs from that in the search for metallic mineral deposits; the former
chiefly involves detection and study of organic substances found during drilling; the latter,
detection and study of inorganic substances at the surface. Once hydrocarbon accumulations
have been discovered, their classification into geochemical families is important. The final stages
of detailed exploration may involve complex multivariate computer-aided modeling of all available
geological, geochemical, geophysical, and hydrological data—to determine the ultimate
hydrocarbon potential of a given basin
80  Dispersion HalosDispersion is the process of dispersing elements outward from a source.  A
dispersion halo is a zone around a mineral deposit where the metal values are less than those of
the deposit but significantly higher than background values found in the country rocks around the
deposit.  Geochemical sampling and testing can be used to outline the “dispersion halo”.

81  Primary Dispersion Halos:   Primary dispersion refers to dispersion which occurs in rocks at
or near the time of formation of a mineral deposit.  It is usually the result of “hydrothermal” (hot
aqueous) fluids which are responsible for creating the deposit.  Fluid movements in rocks are so
variable that the halo formed by primary dispersion may or may not reflect the shape of the ore
deposit itself.  The extent of the primary dispersion halo can range from inches to hundreds of
feet.   The extent of the primary halo is dependent on very dependent on the nature of the rock. 
Extremely porous or highly fractured rocks usually develop more extensive primary dispersion
halos.

82  Secondary Dispersion Halos:   Secondary dispersion refers to dispersion which occurs in the
secondary environment (soils, stream sediments or plants) long after the formation of a mineral
deposit.  This type of dispersion is usually the result of mechanical and/or chemical weathering. 
Mechanical weathering is caused primarily by breakage due to freezing and thawing.  Chemical
weathering is caused by chemical reactions between minerals and groundwater resulting in
chemical decomposition of minerals.  Chemical decomposition can also be caused by bacterial
action. 

83  The dominant means of chemical breakdown of minerals in the near surface environment is
oxidation.  Oxidation has dramatic effects on the behavior of iron and sulfur, which happen to key
elements in many types of ore deposits.  After decomposition, the elements from the minerals
are released into groundwater or surface water, which carries the elements outward.  Halos
caused by secondary dispersion are usually much more widespread than those caused by
primary dispersion.  For this reason, sampling of soils, stream sediments or plants can detect the
presence of a mineral deposit from a much further distance. 

84  Groundwater and surface waters migrate and transport metallic ions away from ore
deposits.  Weathering, oxidation and water migration also produce and transport iron and
manganese ions, which are paritcularly abundant in and around ore deposits.  Iron and
manganese ions tend to precipitate easily once they leave acidic water conditions around a
weathered ore deposit and come into contact with normal pH water conditions.  They precipitate
as hydroxides forming solid particles which are abundant in soils and silt size stream sediments.  
These hydroxides are negatively charged, and behave like magnets to metallic cations in
solution, causing them to be precipitated also.  This process, called adsorption, leads to small
accumulations of metallic ions in soils and stream sediments (Figure 12 – 1).

85  Figure 12 – 1.  Dispersion of metallic ions in soils near ore body (SME Mining & Engineering
Handbook).

86  Dispersion results in the transport of metallic ions away from a source.  Some of these ions
are precisely the ones sought after, and others are called “pathfinder” metals or elements. 
Pathfinder elements are those which are closely associated with the metal of interest.  High
values of pathfinder elements may be more significant because they have better mobility,
resulting in greater dispersion.  For example, arsenic and bismuth are good pathfinders for gold.

87  Stream Sediment Sampling Surveys

Stream sediment surveys are very useful for mineral exploration because of greater dispersion in
the stream environment.  Greater dispersion means greater ability to detect an ore body from a
greater distance.  A drainage basin is an area with a network of streams like the branches of a
tree:  smaller streams join together leading into larger and larger streams.  It is assumed that the
values will decrease downstream from the source, so following the “path” of increasing values
upstream. may lead to mineralization (Figure 12 – 2).Mechanical erosion leads to the breakdown
of host rocks containing ore minerals.  Consequently, tiny grains of the minerals occur in the
suspended load of the stream.  Turbulence of the water keeps the particles in suspension. 
Turbulence is greatest in steeper areas where the stream water flows faster.  Downstream where
the topography is gentler the stream waters move slower, thereby decreasing turbulence.  This
causes the suspended load to drop out, resulting in deposition of the mineral grains in the stream
sediments.  Heavy minerals, like ore minerals, tend to drop out first because less turbulence is
needed to keep them in suspension.Studies have shown that the preferred material to collect for
a stream sediment sample is the –100 mesh size fraction, which corresponds with silt size. 
About ½ to 1 cup of this size material is sufficient in most cases.  If gravel or organic material is
mixed with the silt, then a larger sample needs to be collected.  Steep areas may lack the
hydrologic conditions which allow silt and fine grained sediments to settle, which can make
sample collection very difficult.  The downstream sides of large boulders are sometimes the best
place to look in these areas.  Moss growing on boulders within the stream can act as a filter,
trapping finer grained sediments, and can be collected to provide samples from these more
difficult areas.  The material needs to be collected from the active stream channel, not dried up
side channels. A single sample taken at the mouth of a large drainage basin may be a good way
to quickly evaluate potential of a large area, but it provides little detail of the location of a source
of mineralization.  By sampling the entire stream network of an area, the location of
mineralization can be narrowed down considerably.  This can be done by collecting samples at
close spacings (approximately ¼-mile spacing is common) and by sampling both sides of every
stream fork.  In this manner, if an anomaly occurs on one side and not on the other, only the fork
with the anomaly needs to be considered in locating the source.  The trail of anomalies forms a
path upstream towards the source.  Generally the values will increase upstream towards the
source and reach a maximum value in close proximity to the source, and then drop to
background values further upstream from the source.Another type of survey which relies on
collection of alluvium is the “pan concentrate” survey.  In a pan concentrate survey, coarse
materials (generally pebble-sized) are collected and screened to ¼ inch or smaller and placed in
a gold pan.  The screened material is then panned using a standardized method, down to a
volume size of approximately ½ cup.  This will be further processed in a laboratory setting and
then analyzed.   Pan concentrate samples give an indication of the types of heavy minerals
present in an area.  Due to inherent inconsistencies in sample collection and panning methods,
results from these surveys are difficult to evaluate statistically.  To help remedy this problem,
special methods are sometimes employed in the field which use screening and collection of
specified volume of material, and minimize or eliminate the use of actual panning of the materials
(ie, concentration of heavy minerals).

88  Figure 12 – 2.  Stream sediment anomaly pattern (SME Mining & Engineering
Handbook).

89  Soil Sampling Surveys Soils are the product of weathering of bedrock, decomposition of

organic material at the surface, and deposition of other materials which have been transported. 
Generally speaking the soils tend to form certain layers called “horizons”.  The lowermost horizon
consists largely of decomposed bedrock and is called the “C” horizon.  The uppermost horizon,
called the “A” horizon, is variable in composition.  In vegetated areas the “A” horizon consists
largely of organic material.  The “B” horizon is between the “A” and “C” horizons, and is
essentially a mixed zone.  Dispersion is generally greatest in the “A” and “B” horizons.  For this
reason, soil samples collected from the “B”  horizon can detect a mineral deposit from a greater
distance.   In arctic regions, the “B” horizon tends to be poorly developed (if present at all).   It is
best to collect soil samples from the “C” horizon in these regions.Soil surveys are typically
situated to investigate target areas outlined by previous geophysical survey or stream sediment
surveys, or they may be positioned to cover certain structural features or rock units which are
known.  Generally close spacing (< 500 feet) is needed to detect subsurface mineralization,
because large spacings may miss the target.  The pattern which usually emerges is one which
shows highest values directly over the ore, and a broad area surrounding these with highly
elevated values corresponding to alteration in the host rocks adjacent to the main ore zone
(Figure 12 -  3).The strategy most often employed is to collect samples at set line or grid
spacings.  The tighter the spacing, the more likely it will be to locate a soil anomaly over a buried
ore deposit.  A grid survey has a big advantage over a line survey because the anomalies which
are discovered may form a trend indicating the trend of the buried mineralization.  An anomaly
discovered along a line survey gives no indication of trend, and usually must be followed up with
a grid survey. 

91  GeostatisticsGeostatistics is the use of statistics to evaluate geochemical data.  Numerous

samples of different types of rocks and other materials comprising the earth’s crust have been
analyzed.  As a result, the average abundance of trace elements in these materials is fairly well
established.  The average value for a specified rock is called the “background” value.  We are
interested in values which are much greater than average or “anomalous” because these values
may indicate the presence of an ore body.   A cutoff value, or  “threshold value”, is the value
above which all values are considered anomalous.  The threshold value can be selected
arbitrarily by simply viewing the data, or it can be selected by statistical methods.  Geologists
endeavor to select which values of a data set are truly significant and therefore worthy of follow-
up geochemical sampling or other types of exploration.  Most element concentrations in
geological materials follow a lognormal distribution.  This is demonstrated by plotting of
histograms which show a skewed distribution of values towards either the high or low values. 
Plotting the log values instead of the real values yields a typical “bell-shaped” distribution. 
Plotting the of geochemical values using geostatistical methods helps define the following types
of values:Threshold Value:  the value chosen above which values are considered
anomalous.Anomalous Values:  any value above the selected threshold value.Background
Values:  “normal” values for the given environment; majority of values are background
values.Threshold values can be selected in several different ways.Arbitrary threshold – find the
highest value, find the median value (the value at which half of the samples have higher values
and half of the samples have lower values), and select a value in between, but closer to the
highest value.Cumulative frequency diagrams – line up values in by rank; determine class
intervals; determine frequency percent and cumulative frequency percent; plot a graph with class
intervals on the X axis and concentration on the Y axis using log probability paper.  Then specify
the percentile to use as the threshold value.  This often selected at the 97.5 percentile value
(second standard deviation), however, lower cutoffs may be selected to highlight a greater
number of anomalous values.  This method also highlights the presence of different “populations”
of values which may be related to different geologic features or rock types.The evaluation of
results depends largely of the type of samples being studied.   For stream sediment, pan
concentrate, and in some cases soil samples, the procedure is often to plot all the values on a
map, determine an arbitrary or statistical threshold and highlight the anomalous values.  This will
suffice to look for general mineralization trends.

92  For soil sample grids:  1) contour the data; look for trends  2) make a thematic map which
color codes the samples according to specified class intervals; look for patterns and trends.One
method is to assign a color code system or use symbols for specified ranges of values.  This type
of map is called a “thematic” map (Figure 12 – 4).  The advantage of thematic maps is that they
are simple to make and provide the reader with a quick understanding of the distribution of
anomalies in an area.  Another method is to create a “geochemical contour” map (Figure 12 –
5).  Here the values are contoured:  lines of equal value (called isopleths) are extrapolated
between every data point and the adjacent points.  This type of map accentuates possible
mineralization trends but is much more tedious to construct. 

93  Figure 12 – 4.  Thematic geochemistry map showing highest values in red and lowest
values in blue.

94  Figure 12 – 5.   Geochemical contour map showing highest values in red and lowest
values in gray.
95  Trench/Adit MappingTrench or adit mapping is the process of creating a geologic map, which
shows the geology of the floor and walls of the trench or adit.  Adit mapping emphasizes
mapping of the walls more than the floor because the floor is often poorly exposed due to the
presence of a layer of debree which results from blasting and mucking.  Trench mapping
emphasizes floor mapping because:  1) the floor is usually scraped as clean as possible with a
dozer or backhoe, and 2) because floor mapping shows a “map view”.  Trench or adit mapping
always involves setting up a base line using a tape.  Footage or meter marks are then painted or
flagged and labeled.  The base line and footage marks are then drawn to scale on the map page
to facilitate mapping.  Often the same base line is used to accomplish a chip channel sampling
program.One approach is to first draw the outline of the floor, which will be oriented with respect
to true north and drawn to scale.  The geology of the floor is then mapped just as an ordinary
geologic map is made.  The corner of the trench or adit matches the edges of the strip showing
the geology.  This is the “map view” (looking straight down) of the geology of the floor.  The
edges of the “strip map” represent the two bottom corners of the trench.  The walls of the trench
or adit are mapped adjacent to the strip map such that the right wall is mapped as if looking at
the vertical on the right, and the left wall is mapped as if looking at the vertical wall on the left. 
These can be labeled to indicate they represent the geology of the walls, even though it is
usually obvious.  This gives a 3-D perspective of the geology, which greatly facilitates the
interpretation of the geometry of features.  For example in determining the dip of layers, faults,
joints, etc... on the floor of the trench, it is useful to show where the feature trends as it intersects
the adjacent walls.  Structural measurements can be put directly on the map, in notation form
next to the appropriate footage mark.Another simpler approach used to make mapping more
rapid is to sketch the floor outline at a standard, average width and not worry about the exact
width.  The outline is drawn parallel to the edge of the map sheet without regard to actual
geographic orientation.  The azimuth of the axis of the trench or adit floor is carefully measured
and noted on the map.  If the trench or adit contains bends, then the new orientation is noted at
the appropriate footage mark on the map.The alteration style can be added to one side or the
other of the map if desired.  The alteration can be mapped using colors, patterns or other
designators, in the same way the rock types are mapped. 

96  Figure 13 – 1. Example of Trench 5 map oriented to true north.

97  Figure 13 – 2.  Example of Trench 5 map with trench axis parallel with map page
edges.