ROCK IDENTIFICATIONTo classify a rock, three things must be considered: 

  1) origin,  2)
composition,  and 3) texture.  Rock Origin The first step to identify a rock is to try to categorize
the rock into one of the three main types or groups of rocks.  These include igneous, sedimentary
or metamorphic types.  The only rocks which do not fall into one of these categories are
meteorites.  Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock types are distinguished by the
processes which form them. Igneous rocks:  form by crystallization of a melt (molten rock
material). Subcategories:   Plutonic:  formed at significant depth below the surface. Volcanic: 
formed at or near the surface. Sedimentary rocks:  form by the compaction small or large grains
or fragments of pre-existing rocks, or by the precipitation of mineral matter from a body of water,
such as an ocean, lake or stream. Metamorphic rocks:  formed from pre-existing igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic rocks by subjecting them to heat and/or pressure and/or migrating
fluids, causing the original mineral assemblage of the rock to change to a new assemblage of
minerals. The origin is not always obvious, but sufficient training will enable recognition of certain
features which point to the most likely origin.  Examples include the common presence of
bedding or layering in sedimentary rocks, and the presence of mineral foliations or lineations in
metamorphic rocks.  One must also consider the geologic environment where the rock is found. 
For example, in a young volcanic terrane one is less likely to find sedimentary or metamorphic
rocks.  When the origin is completely unobvious, the composition and texture must be relied
upon to make the best guess. 

48  Rock Composition The rock composition is found by determining which minerals make up
the rock.  By definition, a rock is a solid mass or compound consisting of at least two minerals
(although there are some exceptions when a rock may consist entirely of one mineral). The
minerals comprising the rock can be identified using common field testing methods for individual
minerals, particularly where the texture is sufficiently coarse-grained enough to distinguish the
individual minerals with the naked eye or a hand lens.  Where the grain size of the minerals
comprising the rock are too fine-grained to recognize discrete minerals, “petrographic” methods
(those using a microscope) can be used for reliable identification in many cases. Petrographic
methods involve the use of a microscope to examine the optical properties of discrete minerals
magnified through the microscope lens.  Properties include the behavior of refracted, reflected
and transmitted light either through a thin wafer slice of the rock (called a thin section), or of a
sample plug (for reflected light).  The light source is adjusted to provide light which polarized in
one or two directions.  Different minerals have characteristic optical properties, which can be
used with tables of optical mineral properties to identify the mineral. 

49  Rock Texture The texture of a rock is defined by observing two criteria:  1) grain sizes,    2)
grain shapes. Grain Size:  the average size of the mineral grains.  The size scale used for
sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks are different (Figure 1). Grain Shape: the general
shape of the mineral grains (crystal faces evident, or crystals are rounded). Examples of the size
classifications for each of the three major rock types include:                         FINE-GRAINED > >
> > > > > > > > > > > > > >  COARSE-GRAINED      Sedimentary:           Shale         Siltstone       
Sandstone       Wacke          Conglomerate      Metamorphic:          Slate              
Phyllite                 Schist                Gneiss      Igneous:                 Rhyolite                            
Granite

50  GEOLOGIC  PRINCIPLESOne of the main goals of mineral exploration is to predict the

geometry and relationships of different rock types under the surface where they can’t be seen
either below the surface or beyond the immediate exposures.  This is essential to know in order
to plan a mine.  Much effort and a variety of techniques are used to analyze the timing or
“geologic history” of the area (see “Geologic Time” below).  There are three main principles, or
“laws”, which are used in field geological studies to guide in determining the relative timing of
events. Law of Cross-cutting Relationship;

51  Law of Cross-cutting Relationship;

The “Law of Cross-cutting Relations” is a principle which is useful to employ in igneous
provinces.  It states that invading rocks are younger than those invaded.  For example,  an
igneous dike invading a sedimentary or metamorphic rock.  Another example is a situation where
there are multiple intrusions are found; the sequence of igneous events can be sorted out by
observing which intrusions cut which other intrusions.  The sequence might give an indication of
a particular differentiation pattern of the magma.  The same law applies to veining relationships: 
younger veins cut across older vein sets (Figure 2).  Often times where there are gold-bearing
quartz veins there are also other veins which are barren, and may have a different orientation
due to different structural conditions during formation. 

52  Figure 2. Vein crosscutting relations. Vein A is cut by Vein B

Figure 2.  Vein crosscutting relations.  Vein A is cut by Vein B.  Vein C cuts both A and B, so it is
youngest.

53  Law of SuperpositionThe “Law of Superposition” is a law which applies to sedimentary

rocks.  It states that where undisturbed, layered, sedimentary rocks occur, younger rocks will be
situated on top (above) older rocks.  The same law can apply to layered volcanic flows, where
the ages of the succeeding layers going up section will be relatively younger than the lower part
of the section.  This law is also one which is employed to determine age relationships of different
rock units.  In mineral exploration, a situation where this principle could be employed would be to
project the underground geometry of a mineralized or petroleum enriched formation.

54  Figure 3.   Slightly deformed sedimentary rocks (Eagle Bluff, Alaska). 

55  Principle of Uniformitarianism
The “Principle of Uniformitarianism” states that the earth is a result of natural forces which are
presently active and have persisted over the course of geologic time.  Rocks form most often as
a result of slow, gradual developments resulting from various geologic processes.  Catastrophic
events do occur and contribute to the overall development and history of rocks, but these events
are less frequent and contribute to only a small percentage of the net effect of natural forces in
general.  This principle has been used to study the history of ancient volcanic rocks by observing
present day volcanic activity.  For example, a certain type of massive sulfide deposit has been
documented along an active sea floor rift.  This knowledge can be used to better understand a
certain type of Copper-Lead-Zinc ore deposits, called “volcanogenic massive sulfide depsits”, or
“VMS”.

56  GEOLOGIC TIME        When evaluating the ages of rocks we speak of two types of terms of
ages called “absolute age” and “relative age”.  “Absolute age” is measured in years, and
depends on having some type of time scale to measure against, typically by using a highly
technical chemical dating method.  “Relative age” simply means placing one geologic event or
feature in context with another in a timing sequence.Absolute Age During the early 1900’s,
shortly after the discovery of radioactivity, it was discovered that radioactive decay involves the
transformation of radioactive atoms into completely different elements.  Each radioactive
substance disintegrates at its own rate and forms a unique set of daughter products (elements). 
The rate of decay is generally very slow.  For example, uranium changes into lead at a rate such
that half of the original amount will be converted to lead after a period of 4,500 million years.  Half
of the remaining uranium will convert to lead in another 4,500 million years, and so on. 
Therefore the “half life” of uranium is 4,500 million years.  By measuring the ratio of unchanged
uranium to lead in a sample, and knowing the rate of decay, we can calculate the length of time
the sample has been disintegrating, or in other words, the age of the rock.  Besides the Uranium-
Lead method, several other radiometric techniques are available, including Carbon 14 and
Rubidium-Strontium.

57  Relative AgeWhere different rocks are in physical contact and observable, the relative ages
of the rocks can often be determined evaluating superposition and cross-cutting relationships. 
Rocks comprising the upper strata are younger than rocks comprising the lower strata.  Rocks
formed from an intruding magma are younger than the rocks they intrude.  Inclusions within an
igneous rock are older than the magma which formed the matrix.When different rocks are in
close proximity but their actual contacts are not visible, a geologic map and cross-section can be
made which illustrate the geometric relationships of the rocks, and allows the determination of
relative age.Difficulty is encountered when attempting to correlate rocks which are not in direct
contact or even close proximity.  Fortunately geologists have worked out the evolutionary
succession of fossil forms.  It was found that sedimentary rocks containing fossils could easily be
placed in a successive sequence with respect to time by identifying the fossil assemblages
present. The natural outgrowth of this effort was to begin comparing rocks from all parts of the
globe.  Fossils could now be used to attach relative ages to a wide variety of different
sedimentary rock types.  They have been used to construct what is referred to as the “Geologic
Time Scale”, which is a chronology of the earth’s history largely based on the fossil record.Since
the oldest rocks and the oldest fossils are the ones most likely to become obliterated due to age,
we have much more fossil data available for younger rocks, and hence these contain the
smallest subdivisions of time.  The Paleozoic Era was when invertebrates and simple vertebrates
(fish, amphibians and primitive reptiles) were the dominant life forms.  The Mesozoic Era was
when reptiles, including the dinosaurs, ruled.  The Cenezoic Era is best characterized as the time
when mammals became dominant.

58  INTRODUCTION TO MAPSMaps are one of the most important media used to communicate
information in exploration geology.  Maps are a two dimensional representation of the surface of
the earth and its features. Maps are a kind of shorthand language media with two main purposes:
1) to convey detailed information about a specific area, and 2) to indicate the position of the
specific area relative to other parts of the earth. The first objective is accomplished by recording
information in graphic form, either directly from field observation or indirectly from air
photographs or a wide variety of other sources.  The second objective is accomplished by
showing reference marks (or a coordinate system), or by showing a small scale location map
with well known landmarks.  A coordinate system is nothing more than a graphical means of
locating any point on the map, with two coordinates for each point giving positions with respect to
the X axis and Y axis.Most maps have more than just a map area – they often have lots of other
information that is given in the space around the main map area. A complete map generally has
several main components.  In addition to the main map area, a complete map will usually include
the following information in various positions adjacent to the main map area: 1) title, 2) author(s),
3) date, 4) scale, 5) indication of true and magnetic north, and 5) coordinates or reference
points.  Additionally, almost all geologic maps, as well as geophysical and geochemical maps,
contain an “explanation”.  The explanation is where the code for reading the map is provided. 
This may include the colors, symbols and all other abbreviations used on the map.

59  INTRODUCTION TO MAPSMany types of maps are used in exploration geology. 

Topographic maps are the most widely used maps.  These depict the surface morphology by
showing lines of equal elevation (or “contour lines”).   The most basic and essential type of map
used by geologists is the geologic map.  A geologic map shows rock types (or “lithologies”) and
their geometry.  Geologic maps are very often constructed on a topographic base map. Other
types of maps which are used in conjunction with geologic maps include geophysical maps and
geochemical maps.  Geophysical maps show readings of magnetism, gravity, electrical
conductivity, radioactivity, or other physical properties of rocks in an area.  Geochemical maps,
likewise, show geochemical values of samples collected in an area.  These may be samples of
soil, rock, stream sediments or water.   There may be numerous values or readings from an area,
so typically a “derivative map” will be created from these maps which summarizes the information
or otherwise depicts the data in a fashion such that it can be more quickly evaluated.  Typically
this is done by designing a map which delineates or emphasizes the anomalous (outside normal)
readings or values.  One way these derivative maps can highlight anomalous values is by
contouring the data similar to the way elevations are used to create topographic contours.  This
method clusters data points with similar high values and shows the gradient towards lower
values just in the way hills and valleys show up on a topographic map.  The other method of
creating a derivative map is to create a “thematic map”.  A thematic map uses colors or symbols
to “code” the values on the map.
60  COORDINATE SYSTEMSThere are many, many types of coordinate systems used for
maps, but relatively few are in common usage in exploration geology.  These include latitude-
longitude, UTM, metes and bounds and local grids.  As stated, the map is a two dimensional
representation of an irregular surface forming a portion of a sphere of the earth (also called a
geoid).  Problems arise when trying to fit a flat piece of paper onto a rounded object.  The result
is a flat map which contains distortion, particularly in the corner areas.  This distortion is
accommodated by using a “projection”, which is a mathematical or geometric means of
minimizing the problem.Latitude-longitude has historically been the most frequently used
coordinate system for both navigation purposes as well as for conducting exploration geology.  In
this system the coordinates consist of degrees, minutes and seconds.  The latitude, which
represents the Y value, is the angular distance north of the equator,  which ranges from 0
degrees at the equator to 90 degrees at the poles.  The longitude, which represents the X value,
is the angular distance westward from the 0 degree meridian, also known as the prime
meridian.The UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) coordinate system is rapidly becoming the
coordinate system of choice in creating maps for exploration geology.  The major advantage to
this system is that it is based on the metric system, using meters (or kilometers) for distance
units.  This greatly simplifies mathematical calculations concerning scale and distance
measuring.  The UTM system is based on a series of geographic zones, each containing a
rectangular grid.  The Y value of the grid system is referred to as the Northing and increases
towards the north.  The X value of the grid system is referred to as the Easting and increases
towards the east.

61  NAVIGATION AND GPSAccurate navigation is essential to conducting many types of

geological investigations.  The primary activities often involve sampling or data collecting on a
specified grid or other location system.  For detailed sampling, past work has relied on the
compass, although handheld GPS instruments have become standard surveying equipment
since about 1995 in Alaska. “Bearing” means direction.  Bearing can be noted in two main ways. 
The “quadrant” method indicates the bearing in terms of the number of degrees from a cardinal
direction (N, S, E or W).  For example, N30E indicates a bearing of 30 degrees east of north. 
The second system is called “azimuth”.  The azimuth system refers to the number of degrees
around a complete 360 degree circle.  For example, an azimuth of 300 indicates a bearing of 60
degrees west of due north.  The azimuth system is becoming the most common for navigation
purposes during exploration activities. Reconnaissance surveying is often employed during
geochemical sampling on grids.  This is accomplished using a compass in conjunction with some
type of distance measuring device.  The ones most commonly used are the hipchain and the
tape.  The hipchain lets out a thread, which is wound around a counting device and allows
distance measurements to be viewed.  Tapes are made of a few different materials, but are
manipulated the same way, which is to lay the tape, which has marked distances, out along the
length of surface to be sampled.  Hip chains are used mostly for reconnaissance work where the
terrain is rough and less precision is required.  Tapes are used for detailed sampling, for
example, along a trench floor.The two main types of compasses in use today are the Brunton
and the Silva Rangefinder (or comparable).  The Brunton compass is more expensive, but more
accurate than the Silva.  The Brunton is calibrated to the nearest degree, while the Silva is to the
nearest two degrees.  The Brunton compass uses a bubble level type inclinometer, which is
more reliable than the pendelum type used in the Silva.  The compass must be set to the correct
declination of the area being explored.  This is given on standard one inch equals one mile
USGS topographic maps for the area.  However, where magnetic anomalies exist, the
declination must be adjusted for local variations.  This can be done by locating a survey line in
the area with a known bearing.  For example, many section lines, especially near population
centers are brushed when they are surveyed. GPS (global positioning system) is currently an
integral part of any navigation purposes.  Handheld units have become very portable and quite
reliable in many instances.  GPS’s can be used in two main ways.  First, location coordinates can
be pre-entered into the unit, so the unit can be used to guide the explorationist to a pre-
determined point, perhaps obtained from a map.  The second way GPS’s are used in the field is
to “mark” or automatically record a waypoint while in the field, and then plot the location on a
map.  GIS (geographic information system) software can then be used to plot the point on a
map.  Two of the most popular GIS programs are MapInfo and Arcview. 

62  GEOLOGIC MAPSGeologic maps are central to almost any geological exploration projects. 
First, all previous geologic maps and data for an area needs to be sought after.  Once the
previous geologic maps have been assessed, there may be need for additional geologic
mapping to be completed at a smaller scale to show more detail.  Geologic maps may be created
at different scales to show different levels of detail.  For example, a reconnaissance geologic
map will generally have less detail than an underground mine map.  When trench or
underground mapping requires the illustration of great detail, so must be made at a larger
size. Rocks can be exposed at the surface in three main ways.  They can be present in “outcrop”,
which is a direct observation of bedrock.  They can be present in the form of “rubble”, which is
loose rock having no obvious connection with bedrock.  Rubble is generally pretty consistent,
and thus may frequently be used to represent bedrock.  “Float” is defined as loose rock material
which has no obvious origin.  Float generally is less consistent, ie, there is more variability in
composition.  The type of rock exposure observed in the field should be noted as outcrop, rubble
or float.  The map should eventually document what type of rock exposure is being used to
provide the basis for the interpretation of the geology shown on the map.  Outcrop maps are
more reliable to predict the subsurface geology. There are several different types of outcrop
geologic maps commonly made at an early stage in the exploration of a prospect or area.  The
decision as to which lithologies to show is a matter of mapper’s opinion.  Each lithology can be
made into a separate map unit, or lithologies can be combined into one map unit.  The amount of
detail needs to fit the map scale chosen, such that it will fit within the map units and be legible. 
Within each outcrop, the various contacts between differing map units and structural features are
shown.