LEARNING THEORIES OF CRIME

"You, too, can learn to be a serial killer." (Robert Hale)

    Some theories in criminology believe that criminality is a function of individual

socialization, how individuals have been influenced by their experiences or relationships
with family relationships, peer groups, teachers, church, authority figures, and other
agents of socialization.  These are called learning theories, and specifically social
learning theories, because criminology never really embraced the psychological
determinism inherent in most learning psychologies.  They are also less concerned for the
content of what is learned (like cultural deviance theories), and more concerned with
explaining the social process by which anyone, regardless of race, class, or gender, would
have the potential to become a criminal.  Social Learning, Control, and Labeling theories
are all examples of social process theories. 

    Learning is defined as habits and knowledge that develop as a result of experiences with
the environment, as opposed to instincts, drives, reflexes, and genetic
predispositions. Associationism (developed by Aristotle, Hobbes, Locke, and Hume) is the
oldest learning theory.  It is based on the idea that the mind organizes sensory experiences
in some way, and is called cognitive psychology today.  Behaviorism (developed by Pavlov
and Skinner) is the second oldest learning theory.  It is based on the idea that the mind
requires a physical response by the body in order to organize sensory associations.  There
are two types of learning in behavioral psychology: classical conditioning (where stimuli
produce a given response without prior training); and operant conditioning (where
rewards and punishments are used to reinforce given responses).  Examples of operant
conditioning include verbal behavior, sexual behavior, driving a car, writing a paper,
wearing clothing, or living in a house. Most social behavior is of an operant
nature.  Imitation (sometimes called contagion) is the oldest social learning theory, and
derives from the work of Tarde (1843-1904), a sociologist who said crime begins as fashion
and later becomes a custom.  The Social learning theory that has had the most impact on
criminology is associated with the work of Bandura (1969), a psychologist who formulated
the principles of "stimulus control" (stimulus-to-stimulus reinforcement rather than
stimulus-behavior reinforcement), outlined the stages of "modeling" (attend, retain,
rehearse, perform), and pioneered the field of "vicarious learning" (media influences, for
example).  Of these many contributions, the one about stimulus-to-stimulus chains of
learning is the most important since it does away with the need for extrinsic rewards and
punishments, arguing that observational learning can take place without them.  Bandura's
ideas about role modeling resonated well with criminology because since the 1930s,
criminology had a similar theory (differential association).  Julian Rotter was also another
psychologist who had an enormous impact on social learning theory in criminology.

SUTHERLAND'S DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY

    Sutherland (1883-1950) is called the father of American criminology.  In 1924, he wrote a
book called Criminology, the first fully sociological textbook in the field.  He first put forth
his theory in the second edition of 1934, revised it again in 1939, and the theory has
remained unchanged since the fourth edition of 1947.  When Sutherland died in 1950,
Donald Cressey continued to popularize the theory.  It's called Differential
Association (DA) theory, and Sutherland devised it because his study of white collar
crime (a field he pioneered) and professional theft led him to believe that there were social
learning processes that could turn anyone into a criminal, anytime, anywhere.  Let's look at
the 9 points of DA theory:

1. Criminal behavior is learned....

2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with others in a process of
communication....
3. Learning criminal behavior occurs within primary groups (family, friends, peers,
their most intimate, personal companions)
4. Learning criminal behavior involves learning the techniques, motives, drives,
rationalizations, and attitudes....
5. The specific direction of motives and attitudes is learned from definitions of the legal
codes as favorable or unfavorable....
6. A person becomes a criminal when there is an excess of definitions favorable to
violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law.... (this is the principle of
differential association)
7. Differential associations vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity (frequent
contacts, long contacts, age at first contact, important or prestigious contacts)
8. The process of learning criminal behavior involves all the mechanisms involved in
any other learning....
9. Although criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and attitudes, criminal
behavior and motives are not explained nor excused by the same needs and attitudes
(criminals must be differentiated from noncriminals)