Introduction to the NDI of the Equipment for

Aircraft Cargo Holds and Containers

Compartment
Introduction to the NDI of the Equipment for Aircraft
Cargo Holds and Containers Compartment

Eddy Current Magnetic Particle

Liquid Penetrant Radiography Sonic /Resonance

Ultrasonic Visual/Optical

Infrared Thermography
Introduction to the NDI of the Equipment for Aircraft
Cargo Holds and Containers Compartment

… the smallest flaw that can be

detected by an NDT method…

VS

…the largest flaw that can be missed?

Introduction to the NDI of the Equipment for Aircraft
Cargo Holds and Containers Compartment

The PoD is usually expressed as a function of

flaw size (i.e. length or depth), although in reality
it is a function of many other physical and
operational parameters, such as, the material,
the geometry, the flaw type, the NDT method,
the testing conditions and the NDT personnel
Examples of Loading Machines NDI: Hook
Examples of Loading Machines NDI: Hook
 Examples of Loading Machines NDI: Hook
Hooks having any of the following conditions
shall be removed from service until repaired or
replaced:
1. Deformation – Any visibly apparent bend or twist
from the plane of the unbent hook.
2. Throat opening – Any distortion causing an
increase in throat opening as recommended by
the manufacturer.
3. Wear – Any wear recommended by the
manufacturer of the original section dimension of
the hook or its load pin.
4. Cracks.
5. Any self-locking hook that does not lock.
 Examples of Loading Machines NDI: a
Magnetic Particle Hook Inspection
One of the advantages that a magnetic
particle inspection has over some of
the other nondestructive evaluation
methods is that flaw indications
generally resemble the actual flaw.
This is not the case with NDT methods
such as ultrasonic and eddy
current inspection, where an electronic
signal must be interpreted. When
magnetic particle inspection is used, Magnetic particle wet
cracks on the surface of the part fluorescent indication of a
crack in the crane hook
appear as sharp lines that follow the
path of the crack. Flaws that exist
below the surface of the part are less
defined and more difficult to detect.
 Examples of Loading Machines NDI: a
Magnetic Particle Hook Inspection

Black light-sensitive magnetic particles would align on the poles of any hairline
fractures, making it possible to detect them.
 Examples of Loading Machines NDI:
Liquid Dye Penetrant Testing

Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI), also called Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI)
or Penetrant Testing (PT), is one of the oldest and simplists NDT methods
where its earliest versions (using kerosene and oil mixture) dates back to the
19th century.

Liquid penetrant inspection is used to detect any surface-connected

discontinuities such as cracks from fatigue, quenching, and grinding, as well
as fractures, porosity, incomplete fusion, and flaws in joints.
DPI is based upon capillary action, where low surface tension fluid
penetrates into clean and dry surface-breaking discontinuities. Penetrant
may be applied to the test component by dipping, spraying, or brushing. After
adequate penetration time has been allowed, the excess penetrant is
removed, a developer is applied. The developer helps to draw penetrant out
of the flaw where an invisible indication becomes visible to the inspector.
Inspection is performed under ultraviolet or white light, depending upon the
type of dye used - fluorescent or nonfluorescent (visible).
Examples of Loading Machines NDI: Liquid Dye
Penetrant Testing
 Examples of Loading Machines NDI: Liquid Dye
Penetrant Testing
ADVANTAGES
•High sensitivity (small discontinuities can be detected).
•Few material limitations (metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and nonmagnetic).
•Rapid inspection of large areas and volumes.
•Suitable for parts with complex shapes.
•Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual
representation of the flaw.
•Portable (materials are available in aerosol spray cans)
•Low cost (materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive)
DISADVANTAGES
•Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
•Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.
•Pre-cleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.
•The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
•Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
•Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
•Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
•Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
 Examples of Loading Machines NDI: Gear
Boxes
Although many faults
may be easily detectable by
physical examination of a
component, using techniques
such as Microscopy, X- ray,
Dye Penetrates, Magnetic
Particles, etc., these methods
usually cannot be performed
without removal of, and in
some cases physical damage
to, the component.
 Examples of Loading Machines NDI: Gear
Boxes
Most modern techniques for gear
diagnostics are based on the analysis of
vibration signals picked up from the
gearbox casing. The common target is to
detect the presence and the type of fault at
an early stage of development and to
monitor its evolution, in order to estimate
the machine’s residual life and choose an
adequate plan of maintenance. It is well
known that the most important
components in gear vibration spectra are
the gear meshing frequency (GMF) and its
harmonics, together with sidebands due to
modulation phenomena. The increment in
the number and amplitude of such
sidebands may indicate a fault condition.
 Examples of Loading Machines NDI: Gear
Boxes

Source identification and fault detection from vibration signals

associated with items which involve rotational motion such as
gears, rotors and shafts, rolling element bearings, flexible couplings,
and electrical machines depend upon several factors: (i) the
rotational speed of the items, (ii) the background noise and/or
vibration level, (iii) the location of the monitoring transducer, (iv)
the load sharing characteristics of the item, and (v) the dynamic
interaction between the item and other items in contact with it.
 Examples of Loading Machines NDI: Gear
Boxes

AE sensors. AE is effective to capture early stages of gear faults (e.g., tooth

edge fracture and pitting) before they grow and change their vibration
behavior. For bearings AE parameters were able to identify bearing defects
before their appearance in the vibration range. This led to an investigation that
used the AE technique for the detection of subsurface cracks resulting from
rolling contact fatigue. The method provided the ability to determine the
position of sub-surface fatigue cracks by relating the crack positions to the
location of the AE signal source. AE sensors could capture frequencies that
are much higher than those in vibration signals and therefore their use
enables the technicians to detect inchoate faults before any damage occurs.
Also, by quantitative methods, one could monitor the fault evolution
process from the very beginning. Compared with vibration analysis, AE
signals have the potential to detect small abnormal friction, initial cracking and
so on.
 Acoustic Emission NDI

When a defect occurs (initiation and subsequent propagation of the

crack) a generation of elastic waves spreads through the entire
volume and thus can be captured by the network of sensors.

The great advantage of this method is that it is an integral or volumetric method. The
whole body volume is tested in real time
 Acoustic Emission NDI

•If we have a network of acoustic emission sensors on the structure, it is possible to

locate, based on the physical principles of wave propagation, the source, that generates
these acoustic stress waves.
•The method is even able to detect the initial phase of initiation of defects in the
Acoustic emission is an amazing, promising and challenging subject of the
modern technology and science. It is a well known from everyday life
phenomenon: sound of breaking glass, falling tree, cracking ice are some
examples of fracture sound we may hear from different objects subjected
to stress. Scientifically defined, acoustic emission is a phenomenon of
sound and ultrasound wave generation by materials that undergo
deformation and fracture processes. Sources generating AE in different
materials are unique. For examples, in metals, primary macroscopic
sources are crack jumps, processes related to plastic deformation
development and fracturing and de-bonding of inclusions. Quantitative and
qualitative characteristics of acoustic emission waves, generated by
sources of different nature depend directly on material properties and
environmental factors.
 Examples of Loading Machines NDI: Gear
Boxes
Sound and noise analysis.
Though sound and noise analysis
cannot diagnose all potential
gearbox or gearmotor problems,
sound measurement can provide
valuable clues about a gearbox's
condition. Three elements make up
sound: a sound source, such as a
gearbox; a medium — typically air;
and a sound receptor — the human
ear, for example.
NDI: Another Application
 Examples of Loading Machines NDI: Gear
Boxes

Gearboxes and gearmotors generate operational sounds in a variety of ways: Gear

mesh, bearing rotation, lubricant splash, and the interaction of the gearbox within the
machine structure all contribute to the overall sound generated by a gearbox during
operation.
 Examples of Loading Machines NDI:
Gear Boxes

Oil Analysis. The different

analysis tools include Spectrographic
Analysis, PQ (Quantifying) Index, and
Wear Particle Analysis. Spectrometric
analysis methods can determine the
elemental content of oil samples,
including wear debris. Typical wear
metals reported may include Iron (Fe),
Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), Aluminum
(Al), Lead (Pb), and Copper (Cu).
Examples of Loading Machines NDI:
Gear Boxes Wear Particles Analysis
Examples of Loading Machines NDI: Steel
Ropes.
Wire ropes are consumable items
with limited life. During service the
physical properties of the wire rope
will change. At the commencement
of service, the individual wires and
strands settle into position and the
rope breaking strength increases.
After reaching a maximum it
decreases rapidly.
 Examples of Loading Machines NDI: Steel
Ropes
Visual testing. Visual testing (VT) enables to
reveal outer defects such as corrosion, broken and
missing wires if rope surface is accessible for visual
examination. VT may be accompanied with
magnifying glass, and is carried at low speed. For
these reasons VT requires sufficient time being very
subjective. Most wires in the rope may not be
visually inspected. Only outer wires are available for
examination, but these wires disappear inside the
rope on half of their length, and may be covered
with heavy grease, that reduces effectiveness of such
inspection. Ropes with protecting coating may not
be inspected visually.
 Examples of Loading Machines NDI: Steel
Ropes
MFL (Magnetic Flux Leakage) rope inspection. Nowadays MFL principle is
common for nondestructive testing of wire ropes. MFL instruments can precisely
and fast measure LMA (Loss of Metallic cross-section Area) to assess level of
abrasion and corrosion, and detect outer and inner LFs even under the grease or
protecting coating. To obtain high LMA accuracy and LF (Localized Flaws).
sensitivity MFL equipment should contain strong magnets to magnetically saturate
the rope under test, and inspect the rope at applied magnetic field, i.e. while the rope
is magnetically saturated.
 Examples of Loading Machines NDI: Steel
Ropes

Magnetic head of the instrument usually comprises magnetizing system with permanent
magnets, surrounding the rope under test and producing the magnetic flux along the rope. While
rope is passing through the head, the section of rope inside the head is magnetically saturated.
Sensors (Hall generators or coils), which are located inside the head close to the rope surface,
catch magnetic flux leakage distortion, created by LF or/and LMA. Permanent magnets must be
strong enough to magnetically saturate the rope. Most of equipment, designed for rope NDT,
operate MFL principle, and for this reason inspection of rope with such instruments often called
magnetic rope testing (MRT).
 Bearing damage and failure analysis
Every year an estimated 10
billion bearings are
manufactured around the
world. Only a small fraction of
all bearings in use actually fail.
Most of them (some 90%)
outlive the equipment in which
they are installed. A number of
bearings (9,5%) are replaced
prior to failure for security
(preventive) reasons.
Approximately 0,5% of
bearings are replaced because
they are damaged or fail. This
means that some 50 000 000
bearings are replaced every
year due to damage and
failure.
 Bearing damage and failure analysis

• 1/3 fail due to fatigue

• 1/3 fail due to lubrication problems (wrong lubricant, wrong quantity, wrong
lubrication interval)
• 1/6 fail due to contamination (ineffective seals)
• 1/6 fail for other reasons (improper handling and mounting, heavier or
different loading than anticipated, wrong or inadequate fits)

The amount of time from the first (initial) damage until the bearing becomes
unserviceable can vary considerably. At higher speeds, it can take a few
seconds. In large, slow rotating machines, it can take months. The question,
“When should I replace the bearing?”, is best answered by monitoring the
condition of the bearing.