Session 2: Practical Experiments in Phase Measurement

2.7.0 Introduction:

These experiments will investigate the current/voltage characteristics of two

practical components, namely, a capacitor and an inductor. The source of voltage
will be a sinusoidal-waveform variable in frequency and amplitude, and the
current will be measured using an op-amp configured to behave as a current
meter. As has been described in Section 2.3.1, a property of an op-amp is its
ability to convert current flowing toward the virtual earth into a corresponding
output voltage. In fact, this trans-resistance operation is more flexible than a
conventional ammeter because the output voltage contains amplitude and phase
information about the current which can be observed on the oscilloscope.

2.7.1 Preparation:

Some routine checks and possible adjustments are necessary prior to oscilloscope
usage. Each workstation in the laboratory is equipped with a Rohde & Schwarz
RTM 2024 digital oscilloscope. This is a sophisticated instrument with many
features. In this experiment we shall use two of its four input channels to view
waveforms in our practical circuit.

• Turn the instrument on by pressing the button POWER in the lower left corner.

• To set up the vertical input channel 1, press the button labelled CH1. The
vertical controls will light up yellow to indicate that they are in control of
channel 1.

• Rotate SCALE until the indicator at the top of the screen shows CH1: 1V; each
vertical unit as defined by the grid lines now represents one volt.

• Adjust POSITION until the yellow trace is in the top half of the screen.

• To set up the vertical input channel 2, press the button labelled CH2. The
vertical controls will light up green to indicate that they are in control of
channel 2.

• Rotate SCALE until the indicator at the top of the screen shows CH2: 1V; each
vertical unit as defined by the grid lines now represents one volt.

• Adjust POSITION until the green trace is in the lower half of the screen.
• To set up the timebase, refer to the controls in the box marked HORIZONTAL.
Rotate the control marked SCALE until the indicator at the top left corner of
the screen reads TB: 50µs. Every horizontal unit now represents a time interval
of 50µs.

• Look to the right of the controls. Press SOURCE followed by the soft key
(below the screen) to select channel 1 as the trigger source for the timebase.

• Now clip both probe tips onto the calibration test-point on the oscilloscope.
Careful adjustment of the timebase and vertical-sensitivity should reveal two
square-waves, identical in frequency and amplitude. If necessary, use the
special plastic trim tool to compensate the probes (ask for help if not sure).

• The oscilloscope and its probes are now correctly calibrated.

The next step is to set up the Rohde & Schwarz HMF 2525 arbitrary function
generator, to produce a sine wave of the correct amplitude and frequency.

• Switch the instrument on using the red button on the left hand side.

• Adjust the frequency to be 1 kHz as follows: Press the soft key to select
Frequency, then enter the frequency by pressing numeral 1, followed by the
button kHZ/mV. The display should reflect the new frequency.

• Adjust the amplitude to be 10 V peak to peak as follows: Press the soft key to
select Amplitude, then enter the amplitude by pressing numerals 1, 0 followed
by the button MHz/V. The display should reflect the new amplitude.

• Make sure that the instrument is in sine wave mode by pressing the button
with the sine wave icon (default state of the instrument).

• It will be necessary to alter the frequency and amplitude during the course of
the experiment. They can be varied as follows: Press the soft key to select
Frequency or Amplitude. Use the left and right arrow buttons to select the digit
you wish to change. Rotate the navigation control to increase/decrease the
value. For example, if the “0.1” digit is selected, all the digits to the right will
stay the same but the frequency or amplitude will increase/decrease in units of
0.1 as the navigation control is rotated. Press the navigation control to exit this
mode.

• The function generator is now set up, but the output is not yet on. It can be
turned on by pressing the button labelled OUTPUT.
2.7.2 Capacitor Measurements:

The next step is to construct an op-amp circuit to measure the current flowing in
the capacitor. Examine the schematic circuit in Fig.2.17(a). The source of
sinusoidal-voltage, V1, will be provided by the Rohde & Schwarz function-
generator and monitored on channel 1 of the oscilloscope. The output voltage, V2
is connected to channel 2.

Preparation work prior the laboratory session requires completion of the wiring-
diagram followed by the layout-diagram.

Use a plug-in breadboard to construct the circuit, using a feedback resistor of 15k
 and a capacitor of 10nF. The capacitor is a high-quality type with a polyester
dielectric. Make connections to terminal posts for the input, output, and power
supply. Use the ready twisted 4mm plug leads to connect to the power supply, but
do not plug them in yet. Use a special lead with a b.n.c. plug at one end, and
4mm plugs at the other, to connect the output of the Rohde & Schwarz function-
generator to the input and zero volts. Clip the probe tip of channel 1 to V1, using
as a convenient point a small piece of wire plugged into the breadboard alongside
the left-hand leg of the 10nF capacitor. Clip the other probe tip to the output, at
the junction of the op-amp (Pin1) and the 15k resistor. Both probe earth clips
must be connected to zero volts on the breadboard. Have the circuit checked by
a demonstrator before turning on the power.

2.7.3 Procedure:

• Set the Rohde & Schwarz power supply to +/-12V as described in Session 1,
1.5.0.

• Connect the power supply to the breadboard with the special leads.

• Press the power supply MASTER ON/OFF and set the vertical sensitivity of
both inputs of the oscilloscope to 5V per division.

• Set the frequency of the function generator to 1kHz with a sine-wave output.

• Adjust the amplitude control of the function generator so that the trace on
channel 1 is two divisions peak-to-peak, corresponding to 10V peak-to-peak.
Use the vertical shift control to move the trace near the top of the screen.
• Adjust the vertical sensitivity of channel 2 so that a sine wave of about the
same amplitude (or a bit bigger) is seen. Use the vertical shift control to
position the trace just below the first.

At this point it is necessary to save the picture on the oscilloscope screen. This is
achieved by copying a bit map of the screen to the attached computer. It can then
be saved as part of a WORD document.
There are several ways of saving pictures captured on the oscilloscope screen.
The simplest is to plug a USB memory stick into the front panel socket, and press
the button PRINT. The screen image will be saved onto the memory stick with
automatic numbering. The size of the file depends on the mode selected. Typical
size of a file type PNG is 30 kbyte, and typical size of a file type BMP is 2.4
Mbyte.

The oscilloscope is connected to the PC using Ethernet. A utility is available to

copy the oscilloscope screen directly into an open WORD document, using the
“Add-ins” tab.

The oscilloscope can be accessed from a web browser by typing in the URL
192.168.29.2. The pages which appear allow the oscilloscope to be remote
controlled and to capture the screen.

• Look carefully at the two waveforms. If all is well, the lower trace should be
phase-shifted when compared with the upper trace. Now use the vertical shift
controls to superimpose the two waveforms and with a time-base setting that
allows many cycles adjust the amplitudes on both channels using the vertical
sensitivity controls so that the vertical amplitude of both channels is some five
graticule divisions.

• It may be necessary to make fine adjustment of channel 2 by using the vernier

mode. Rress CH2 followed by a single press of the adjacent control SCALE.
Rotating SCALE adjusts the vertical sensitivity in 1% steps instead of the usual
1, 2, 5, 10, 20 … steps.

• Rotate SCALE carefully until the two traces are the same amplitude.

• Alter the time-base setting so that a single period of the waveform on either
channel occupies 10 graticule divisions. Check that the waveforms are centred
about the graticule horizontal reference line before measuring the difference
between contiguous zero-crossings of the two waveforms. The quotient
formed by this measure and the period when multiplied by 2 provides the
 phase-shift in radians. The phase shift should be 2.5 divisions in 10, equal to
/2 radians. Save this new oscilloscope image in your WORD document.

• Increase the frequency of the function generator to 2kHz and down to 0.5kHz
by using the Frequency control. Make a note of what happens to V2, i.e. any
change in amplitude or phase shift in each case and save the images in your
WORD document.

The next part of the procedure will result in an accurate measurement of phase-
shift, firstly using a technique known as Lissajous Figures, and later using
features of the Rohde & Schwarz oscilloscope. The theory for this technique may
be found in Section 2.5.0.

• Set the function generator Frequency back to 1kHz and move both traces to
the middle of the screen using the vertical SHIFT control. Adjust the vertical
position of the two traces until they are on the centre line of the screen.

• Use the vertical SCALE and, if necessary, the vernier control to make both
traces identical in amplitude, with a vertical size of about five divisions. The
amplitudes of V1 and V2 are now normalised, so that the only difference
between them is the phase-shift.

• Press the button DISPLAY followed by softkey Display Mode XY. This will
change the display so that it is now a graph of the voltage on CH2 on the Y-
axis and CH1 on the X-axis, instead of the usual time X-axis. A circle should
appear on the screen confirming that V1 and V2 are orthogonal (at right
angles). Copy the oscilloscope screen to your WORD document.

2.7.4 Inductor Measurements:

Disconnect the power supply by pressing MASTER ON/OFF and replace the
feedback-resistor with one of 270. Remove the 10nF capacitor and replace it
with the 4mH toroidal inductor as in Fig. 2.18(a). This is a practical component,
and has a certain amount of resistance - about 1.8, according to the
manufacturer's data. Use connections 1 and 2 for this part of the experiment.

2.7.5 Procedure:

• Connect the power supply by pressing MASTER ON/OFF and set the function
generator Frequency to 10kHz.
• Adjust the function generator Amplitude so that the input (V1) is 4V peak-to-
peak.

• Set the oscilloscope horizontal SCALE so that two or three cycles are visible
on screen, and adjust the vertical SCALE to give convenient traces on CH1
and CH2. Look carefully at the two waveforms; there should be a phase shift
between them. Save this image in your WORD document.

• Use the vertical SHIFT controls to superimpose the two waveforms and with
a time-base setting that allows many cycles equalise the amplitudes on both
channels using the vertical SCALE and the CH2 vernier control so that the
vertical amplitude of either channel is about five graticule divisions.

• Adjust the horizontal SCALE control so that a single period of either channel
occupies 10 graticule divisions. Check that the waveforms are equally
disposed about the horizontal reference line before measuring the time
difference between zero-crossings of the two waveforms. The quotient formed
by this time difference and the period of a complete cycle represents lag or
lead whichever the case may be. It can be turned into radians by multiplying
by 2, or degrees by multiplying by 360. Save this image in WORD.

• Try adjusting the Frequency up to 20kHz and down to 5kHz. Make a note of
the peak-to-peak amplitudes of both waveforms at all three frequencies.

• Return the Frequency of the function generator to 10kHz and move both
traces to the middle of the screen using the vertical SHIFT controls.

• Use the vertical-sensitivity and the channel 2 vernier control to make both
traces identical in amplitude, with a vertical size of about five divisions. The
amplitudes of V1 and V2 are now normalised, so that the only difference
between them is the phase-shift.

• Press the button DISPLAY followed by softkey Display Mode XY. This will
change the display so that it is now a graph of the voltage on CH2 on the Y
axis and CH1 on the X axis, instead of the usual time X-axis. A circle should
appear on the screen confirming that V1 and V2 are orthogonal (at right
angles). There will be a slight tilt, however, because the inductor has some
resistance, so it is not a purely inductive component. By comparison, the
capacitor experiment in 2.7.3 gave a near perfect circle, because capacitors
have very little internal resistance. Save this Lissajous pattern in your WORD
document.
2.7.6 Measuring an Inductive Network:

Follow Fig 2.18 but this time include a 100 resistor in series with the inductor
by using connections 1 and 3. The same procedure for phase measurement is
adopted but, in addition, the r.m.s values of V1 and V2 are measured as well.

2.7.7 Procedure:

• Set the function generator Frequency to 1kHz, sine wave, Amplitude 2V peak-
to-peak.

• Follow the steps in section 2.7.5 to normalise the size of the traces and
centralise the spots.

• When the XY mode is selected an ellipse with a negative gradient for the major
axis should appear on the screen.

• It is possible to measure the phase shift from the ellipse using the procedure
in section 2.5.0. Fortunately, however, the Rohde & Schwarz oscilloscope can
measure phase shift directly! Look at the lower left edge of the screen. There
are several rectangles defined by thin lines. If one of these boxes is already
labelled Phase, then skip the next step.

• Press the button labelled MEAS, and look at the new softkeys. Use the first
three softkeys to select Phase (3rd key), to turn on the measurement (2nd key)
and select which box will contain the reading (1st key).

• Connect red and black 4 mm leads to the Rohde & Schwarz multimeter and
select AC Volts as the input.

• Use the multimeter to measure V1 r.m.s. and V2 r.m.s. respectively.

• Repeat the above steps for the different frequencies listed in Table L.

• Obtain the equivalent circuit at each frequency in Table L using the theory
given in section 2.5.1.

• Use the l.c.r. component meter in the laboratory to measure the inductance and
resistance of the inductive network at 1 kHz. Compare the results with those
arrived at by calculation.
 Table L

Frequency (kHz) Voltage V1 (V) Voltage V2 (V) Phase  (Deg.)

1
2
3
4

The inductance and resistance of the resistive network can be calculated using
the following equations:

Impedance Z = (V1 / V2)*270 Ohms Resistance R = Z cos () Ohms

Reactance XL = Z sin () Ohms Inductance L = XL / 2f Henries

Frequency (kHz) Impedance Resistance Reactance Inductance

1
2
3
4

2.7.7 Problems and Questions:

(1) Contrast the behaviour of the inductor and the capacitor as ideal components
in the context of the above measurements.
(2) How well do your results accord with the bridge measurement?
(3) The manufacturer provides the following data for the Toroidal Inductor:

Inductance: 4mH Winding Res: 1.8

Discuss your circuit model at different frequencies in the context of this data.
 +12V

10 uF 0.1 uF
R OP275

1
C 15k  Input V1 10 nF
Output V2
2

10nF 3 1
V Zero Volts Zero Volts
1 V
2

10 uF 0.1 uF
-12V

(a) Circuit for Measuring Capacitor Current (b) Wiring Diagram for Capacitor Current. (incomplete)

Fig. 2.17
.

Red Black Yellow

(+12V) (0V) (V )
1

Blue
(-12V) +

White +

Black Black Black Yellow

(0V) (0V) (0V) (V2 )

Key: Polyester Resistor Ceramic

Capacitor Capacitor
OP275 IC + Tantalum
Capacitor

Fig. 2.17 (c) Layout of Circuit for Measuring Capacitor Current on Plug-in Breadboard (incomplete)
 +12V

10 uF 0.1 uF OP275

1
4 mH + 1.8  Output V
Input V1 2
R
L
270 
Zero Volts Zero Volts
2
4mH + 1.8 
1
V 3
V 10 uF 0.1 uF
1 2 -12V

(a) Circuit for Measuring Inductive Current (b) Wiring Diagram for Inductive Current. (incomplete)

Fig. 2.18


Red Black Yellow

(+12V) (0V) (V )
1

Blue
(-12V) +

 
White +

Black Black Black Yellow

(0V) (0V) (0V) (V2 )

Key: Inductor Resistor Ceramic

1-2: 4mH Capacitor
OP275 IC +
1 23 2-3: 100  Tantalum
Capacitor

Fig. 2.18 (c) Layout of Circuit for Measuring Inductive Current on Plug-in Breadboard (incomplete)
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