• Chapter 3

• The Dynamics of Ecosystem

Functioning
• Ecosystem dynamics is the study of
Introduction how ecosystems change over time.
Ecosystems are dynamic in nature,
subject to regular micro and macro
disturbances, both internal and external.
THE DYNAMIC OF ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONING

3.1 NATURAL LAWS

Nature itself does not have crises. The crises lie in human hands. Plants and animals fit into the system that
function according to specific laws, but humankind elevate themselves above the laws. Environmental
factors act in a very orderly way according to specific laws and principles.
-THERMODYNAMIC LAW
There are two kinds of thermodynamic law namely:
-The first law which state that there is a limit to available energy and humans are unable to create energy.
-The second law which state that the use of energy inevitability leads to entropy and energy is not
reusable.

-PRESERVATION OF MATTER
It restrict human development. For instance, energy cannot be created, it can only be transferred therefore
implements can be thus can be manufactured from raw material.

-LIMITING FACTOR
Micro- nutrients like boron, molybdenite are the limiting factor because they occur in small quantity in the
soil. in order for species to survive the place, environmental conditions must be within the tolerance level.
Production and distribution of plants and animals are controlled by five main groups of factors:
-Climatological factor
For an example temperature, solar radiation, wind exposure, humidity and precipitation.
-Biotic
For an example effect of grazing, deforestation.
-Edaphic factor
For an example physical characteristics of the soil, soil chemistry, nutrient status.
-Geographical and evolution factor
For an example continental drift, long term climate change.
-International biological factor
For an example health succession, competitive mechanism.

-TRIGGER FACTOR
Changing a factor within a system which have complicated impact than the removal of an element from
static structure.

-HOLOCENOTIC PRINCIPLE
It teaches us that everything is attached to everything else in a functioning dynamic way.
The functioning of environmental systems
3.2.1 food chains
Green plants can produce complex organic compounds from simple elements derived from the soil, water
and air. not only are the plants dependant on this process, but every other form of life on earth as well,
including humans. In its simplest form this process comprises the production of glucose from carbon dioxide
and water in the presence of light. this process is known as photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplast where a pigment called the chlorophyll is present is present.

Figure 1: A model of photosynthesis

Food networks
Food chains very seldom occur in isolation, but rather join up to form an interconnecting food
network or food web.

A simple food web can be as follows; a partridge eats grass seeds and grass sprouts as well asa caterpillar th
at was also eating the same grass sprout.

The patridge also eats a few maggots that are found in the carcass of an animal that was caught by a lion.

Figure 2: The actual representation of the food chain on Omarion Island in terms of exotic cat and mouse populations
3.1 Cycles in the ecosystem
• Cycles in the ecosystem:
1. Hydrological cycle – Involves Water
2. Gaseous cycle – Involves Gases
3. Sedimentary cycle – Involves Minerals

• Certain cycles take hundreds of years to complete 1 cycle.

• Reservoirs – Places where compounds are temporarily stored until they form part of the cycle
again.
• Biogeochemical cycles – Includes living organisms in the cycle.

Living Non-living Living Non-living

3.3.1 Hydrological cycle
1. Evaporation from Ocean.
2. Water condenses into clouds.
3. Clouds move inland by means of
weather systems.
4. Precipitation occurs.
5. Water enters soil, rivers and
lakes.
6. Some water flows to the sea by
means of rivers (Surface runoff)
and majority evaporates back
into the atmosphere.
7. Condensation and precipitation
repeat.

Available from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/chapter/reading-phases-of-the-hydrologic-cycle/

 Life is dependent on the hydrological cycle

It is one of the most important nutrient cycles

Hydrological It is not uniform over the earths surface

Cycle notes
It changes according to seasonal changes

Plays an important role in supplying nutrients and

minerals to plants by means of ground water.
 3.3.2 Gaseous Cycle
1. Carbon dioxide is removed from the ocean and
atmosphere reservoirs by means of
photosynthesis through plants.
2. Animals and Humans consume the plants and
respirate forming CO2 in which the carbon
returns to the atmosphere.
3. Burning of organic material results in carbon
being released in which returns to the reservoirs.
4. Corpses decompose where tissues are broken
down to form CO2 and other inorganic
compounds.
5. Fossil fuels are burnt in factories releasing large
amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere. (contribute
to the greenhouse effect)
6. The ocean absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere
and regulates the amount of CO2 in the
atmosphere.
Available from: http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/9r.html
3.3.3 Sedimentary Cycles
1. Erosion causes rocks to wither and release
important minerals including phosphates
into the soil.
2. Many minerals enter the hydrological cycle
and run-off into the ocean.
3. Some phosphates are consumed by plants.
The plants are then eaten by Animals.
(Plant – Herbivore – Carnivore)
4. Phosphorous is released by means of
organic decomposition into soil.
5. The Phosphates that enter the ocean are
consumed by phytoplankton and
eventually become part of marine food
chains.
6. Humans mine a lot of Phosphates which
are chemically treated and used as
fertilizers to increase crop yield.
Available from: https://www.britannica.com/science/biogeochemical-cycle
7. These phosphates enter the sewerage
system and eventually enters, lakes, rivers
and the sea
 • Disrupting these various cycles can cause drastic
effects on the ecosystem.
Examples:
• Excessive amounts of CO2 pumped into the
atmosphere contributes to the greenhouse
effect, climate change and global warming.
Human • Use of Detergents leads to an increase of
phosphates in water systems, which can lead to
Interference increased algae growth.
• Climate change can disrupt the hydrological
cycle in various regions leading to drought.
• Various cycles are interdependent and are
affected by changes in other cycles.
Energy flow • The second law of thermodynamics teach us that
energy cannot be used again, because it losses its
and food quality when changed from one form to the other.
pyramids • Respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis and
compromises oxidation(burning) with the release
of energy. Organisms then use the energy for their
maintenance of its life process.
• C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
Energy flow
through the
ecosystem
Food
pyramid
It is clear that there must be
more or greater biomass of
primary producers present in
an ecosystem than herbivores.
And there must also be more
herbivores than carnivores.
Ecological
pyramid
Productivity • Primary production
• The flow of energy through the community starts
and biomass with the fixation of sunlight by plants, a process
that in itself demands the expenditure of energy.
This is energy accumulated by plants.
• Secondary production
• The amount of energy accumulated by the
primary consumers or the T2-organisms.
Section 3.6 Population Numbers
Definition: Population Numbers refer to the number of Factors influencing Population
living organisms / animals reproduced over the life span
of that species.
Numbers:

reproduction rate lifespan

A stable population number means that 2 offspring Predators Disasters
replaced their 2 parents.

Q: How many offspring can two parents have?

A: It depends on the species:

➢ Elephants: 10 offspring over a 40 year lifespan.

➢ Birds: between 1 and 40 offspring per year.
➢ Frogs: a few hundred per year.
➢ Fish: a few thousand per year.
➢ Insects: a few million per year.
 Q: What is Carry Capacity?
A: It refers to the Population number that can be sustained in a specific environment.
Example: The number of elephants that can survive in a certain area.

Balanced Carry Capacity VS Too many animals per hectare.

 R H Y T H M I C I T Y (Section 3.12)
GENETICALLY DETERMINED ANIMALS

PLANTS
HUMANS

NATURE
Migration

JET LAG

Seasonal
Changes
3.7 Biological control mechanisms for population numbers
Predation
• Interaction whereby one organism known as the predator kills and devours another organism known as
the prey. Predators usually have an advantage over their prey such as size or teamwork.
• Predators play an important role in the community because their first targets when hunting prey are the
weak prey that may be weak due to sickness. This ensures the elimination of defects in the population.
• Prey adapt to increase they chance of escaping predators. These adaptations are called survival
strategies and include camouflage, speed and increased reproduction that ensures that the population
numbers are never endangered by predators.
• Certain predators are used to control agricultural pests.

Cannibalism, cronism and prolicide

• Cannibalism is the act of consuming a member of one’s species as food. About 138 different species are
known to practice cannibalism. In the animal kingdom it should not be viewed as deviant behaviour
since it is done due environmental stimuli.
• Prolicide is when one kills one’s own offspring, in the animal kingdom it also refers to an animal killing
offspring of the same species as it. Male lions are known to do this when they take over a pride then
fertilizing the female lions that would be in oestrus (in heat).
• Fratricide is when siblings kill one another.
Symbiosis
• Any close and long term to permanent interaction two organisms of different species. It includes
mutualism, commensalism and amensalism.

• Mutualism
• Mutually beneficial interactions between 2 or more species. Often called symbiosis which is not the
case.

• Commensalism and amensalism

• Amensalism is a relationship in which one individual inhibits/destroys the other while remaining
unaffected itself. Amensalism usually involves chemical interactions with other organisms.
• Commensalism is a relationship between two species in which only one benefits while the other does
not benefit and is not harmed.

• Parasitism
• It is when one organism(parasite) lives on or in another organism(host) temporarily or permanently. It is
like amensalism but differs in that the parasite does not kill the host since that could cause its own
death as well. Parasites are smaller than their host.
• Ectoparasites occur on the outside while endoparasites occur on the inside of the host.
Table showing the effect of symbiosis on
population numbers

Forms of symbiosis Species A Species B

Mutualism + +
Predation and parasitism + -
Commensalism + 0
Competition - -
Amensalism - -
+ = Benefit - = Detriment 0 = No effect

Suicide
• Inexplicable mass suicide within a population oftentimes occur. Examples of these include thousands of
Lemmings plunging over cliffs into oceans and aquatic animals such as whales and dolphins swimming to
shore where they die.
• It is thought that radar sounds may be affecting the sensitive direction-finding sensor mechanisms of
these animals.
3.10 STABILITY
• Stability is the ability to maintain a condition of equilibrium in species
composition, biomass and production
• An ecosystem should be able to return to state of equilibrium after it has
been acted upon by external factors
• Stability is directly proportional to the number of species
HOMEOSTASIS:
• The ability of an ecosystem to resist change and remain in state of
equilibrium
• It is attained as a result of the resistance or tolerances of the species
DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM:
• It is the process of adaptation to the changing environment
• Restructuring occurs when an ecosystem has been disturbed.
• Elements/species closer to the disturbance will experiences suffer severely than the
ones far away from the disturbances.
• Competition occurs as a result of the disturbances.
• If stability is not maintained, a new system occurs.
• Vulnerability
• It is the inability of an ecosystem to survive in the presence of disturbing factors.
• Nature of disturbances influence the vulnerability of the ecosystem.
3.11 Carrying capacity

• The carrying capacity is that level or intensity of use that a renewable resource can tolerate and remain productive. The concept of carrying capacity can
never really be satisfactory described and there are also no specific measuring techniques that do not in some way present problems. By way of illustration
the following examples of carrying capacity in a recreation resort are given

Physical carrying capacity

• This can be measured in terms of the area per visitor, the number of caravan sites, braai areas, ablution facilities, etc

Psychological carrying capacity

• It is exceeded when the resort becomes so congested that the quality of the recreation experience is spoiled.

Economic carrying capacity

• A minimum and maximum of a resort exists without or above which, from a financial point of view, it will no longer be economically viable.

Management capacity
• Concept of carrying capacity and especially recreational carrying capacity has been criticized. Carrying capacity is not an objectively derived absolute
reality and should be a management concept which is rather judgemental, and goal orientated

For example, should the manager of a resort decide to make maximum profit, he could decide to pave large areas of resort and allow people up the point
where the physical carrying capacity comes into play. As an alternative scenario the manager might wish to retain ecological integrity of the ecosystem and
then he will bring as little changes into the system as possible. Then the carrying capacity will be regarded as being very low. Thus, can speak of Design
Capacity. The problem of determining carrying capacity has led researchers to use terminology such as Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) and Recreational
Opportunity Classes

Ecological carrying capacity

• This is a measure of the maintenance of the biotic component of the environment. When the number of visitors to the resort causes damage to plant and
animal life, the resort will lose attraction and there hold of the ecological carrying capacity will be exceeded.
Main objectives
• From a grazing point of view the carrying capacity is the ability of the veld to support of certain number of herbivores.

• Technically it can be viewed as the grazing capacity and is expressed as the area per herbivore unit per length of the grazing period

• The ecological carrying capacity can also be described as the highest yield that can be maintained over a long period of time

• It is a long-term concept and short-term actions must always be viewed in terms of the long-term effect

There are two variables that are difficult to predict

1. The variation in productivity from season to season, as influenced by climatic factors. During a good season an area can handle a greater impact than
normal, while during a dry, hot season an area can be damaged by only slight use’

2. The intensity of use can be much higher for shorter periods of time as compared to sustained use over long periods

> Carrying capacity encompasses a range of interwoven characteristics between the vegetation, herbivores and the ecosystem

> The inherent ability of the veld to maintain a certain number of herbivores is limited by such factors as climate, especially precipitation and temperature,
as well as the basic vegetation or veld type, for example grassland and Bushveld

>On the other hand, the veld type is a product of climate, geology, soil, slope, height aspect and other factors

> The most important criteria used to determine the carrying capacity of an ecosystem is undoubtedly the vegetation, most animal species have preference
for certain plants. However, there is some overlap between species resulting in a degree of competition for the same food resources

Herbivores can be classified in three main groups

• Grazers (grass eaters) such as buffalo, white rhinoceros, hippotamus, zebra and wildebeest, as well most domestic animals and mixed feeders

• Grass and leaf eaters such as elephants, impala and duikers that live on grass, fruit, pods and leaves of trees and shrubs and browsers

•Leaf eaters which exists primarily on the leaves of trees and shrubs