CHAPTER Environmental Conservation After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 8.1 Appreciate the value of nature conservation for sustainable living. 8.2 Reflect on the state of nature conservation in South Africa. 8.3 Speculate on a future scenario for conservation in South Africa. 199P R E A Ma. B# Eo IE ... the whole land will be laid waste because there is no one who cares. (der. 12:11) 8.1 1e environment consist ‘two are not even clearly ‘They form a continuum across a number of dimensions. In the urban context the artificial aspect dominates but is nevertheless pervaded by natural elements such as air, water, plants, etc. Neither can it be isolated from other natural The concept: Environment elements such as the soll. In rural areas on the other hand, artificial structures are subordinate to Nature. Nevertheless, even agriculture can be re- jarded as a cultural construct. The term therefore normally refers to th needs to be added, however, that one can i Gee ialeane a is discussion attention will focus specifically on the natural environment. 2 Roots of environmental conservation s fast as possible. Contemporary feeling This conservation concept had no clear begin- ning. There was no single event that sparked a ‘mass movement, no single great prophet who are the gradual realization was sci research that unfolded the picture that trace the moc certain degree to the 18th century British naturalists who started to fight for the Such are the roots of conservation. A survey of the history of conser- vation is ably dealt with by McCormick, 1989 and Jordan, 1995, 200 @Ecoplan Environmental Management3 Objectives of nature conservation approxim: vation”. But, ‘sustainable development and conservation. Both terms reste we responsible tation of The perce my between se (0 terms is further discussed in par. 9.4 The value of environmental 8.4 conservation 8.4.1 Nature conservation ‘ TCOME 8. il: After studying this section you should be able to appreciate the value of nature conservation. the perceptions and attitudes of people. What would be regarded at a certain stage as a valuable resource could a short while later become worthless. Ostrich feathers were in great demand towards the start of the 20th century as a result of the fashion requirements of 1 the time. Ostriches were therefore regarded as a This is the most common way of awarding a very important resource and certain parts of the value to a resource. Without economic value an country flourished economically. When the object can scarcely be labelled as being a feather market in Europe collapsed, ostriches resource in our market driven economy. Reser- became completely vations are being ex- worthless overnight, and in ecological many farmers opened as to whether it the gates of their camps is correct to take the ex: and allowed ostriches to ploitation costs of a roam around wild in the veld in great numbers. resource as a measure to determine its value In recent years ostrich meat and leather articles (Odum, 1989). The price of water for example, are very fashionable and the value of ostriches Is is based on the infrastructure and the administra- again increasing. tive framework needed for its supply. These do 201 Chapter 8: Environmental Conservationnot take the ecological value of water into trade in rhino horns as an example. On the other hand, if the price were reduced, people would be inclined to waste the particular resource - as is the case with water. From an economic point of tna isto should be made between the (Glue oFTesoueTs The value of arse as such very low, but it is a valuable resource in terms of its potential to produce meat. The amount of meat that can be producec in many instances not of primary importance. It is frequently more economical for a farmer to keep game rather ‘than livestock, as the income from hunting is greater than that from commercial meat produc- tion. For the hunter, the meat or biltong obtained Is. ay a bonus; the g my, — is to hunt ( uvy ae 8.1 income is preferable to a high income that dries up soon, Most biological resources are renew- able. Through is possible to wise management of resources Such as forests, the sea, fish, agricultural crops and livestock as well as natural seat implies that in the forestry industry for instance, the assurance should be given that for every tree that is chopped down at least another one will be planted. In the case of agriculture the condition Of the soll should receive attention so that its carrying capacity is not exceeded and optimal production can be sustained over the long term. ‘The decline in sardine catches in South Africa ‘over the past years, is an example of the conse- quences of aver-utilization. ‘The financial value of Nature per se in urban context can be illustrated by means of the example of Boulder, Colorado. It was decided in 1967 to use 0,4% of sales tax to purchase land for a green belt project. Within 10 years 32 000 hectares of land were purchased. Land values bordering on the green belt were soon found to be 32% higher than values for land half a kilometre away. The raised land taxes of these valuable plots resulted in the recollection of money inifially spent, within a period of three years. ‘The idea of using the Kruger National Park for agricultural purposes has already been raised. Such a scheme, however, would not be able to compensate for the annual income (R190 milion, 2003) eamed through tourism. Industrial growth is also dependent on a healthy environment. Some 20 000 natural compounds have been identified from Nature including ‘common items such as starches, inks, cosmetics, rubber, timber, beverages. Conservation thus makes good fiscal sense if we think in terms of food, building materials, construction, working animals, fuel for energy, provision of water and ‘water purification etc. to build a sustainable (Eagles, 198428) economy, 2. (egeatvawey [-) ‘The value of a resource is not necessarily always directly measurable by itself in monetary terms but can ng inite val because my is th my a discussion of the need for preserving biodiver- sity, see 8.4.2. 202 eEcopian Environmental ManagementBecerra eestor e used to rel fe erosion-ravaged areas since their methods of growth, hardiness and ease of establishment make them more suitable than other species. The Port Jackson tree (Acacia saligna), proved to be most suitable for stabilizing moving sand dunes in the Cape Peninsula and adding valuable or- ganic material to the soil. ‘The conservation of a good vegetation cover results in the effective retention of rainfall and the abatement of soil erosion which in turn leads to higher production: a positive cycle of eco- logical sustainability. Ground water is also depen- dent on the wise management of catchments and sponge areas, On the other hand, large scale deforestation leads to accumulation of carbon dioxide and the green house effect, which adds to global warming. Biological research on pests is as important as the research on species that might be used in controlling those pests. The potential of the ‘world's animals for combating and controling pests and disease has hardly been used at all but there are many good examples. The vineyards of Wester Europe were saved from destruction by an insect pest when it was found that the native North American grape vine possessed natural resistance to attack, German and French vines are now grafted to North American root stocks, already been stressed that ints can clean the alr, known for their purification value of etc, This aspect is al biodiversity, addressed in ps 3. Scientific value Ts necessary m which or the to retain the original genetic po present varieties of cultivated pl original races fror in the case of plants e original varieties are naturally ues that tend to in particular, resistant to many pests and attack the modern 2 ese cross-fertilization this' can be (GeEstee> new varieties, Came s also more resistant than cattle to endemic parasites and diseases, Furthermore, a variety of animal Q species utilizes a greater diversity of plants than cattle. Game is often more profitable than cattle in terms of meat production. Conservation of a wide variety of species can also make a signifi- cant contribution to animal products. ‘According to certain estimates (which sometimes appear to be highly speculative) there are at this stage between 10 and 100 millon species on Earth of which only 1,4 million have been de- scribed (anon, 1991:2), Extinction takes place at a rate of at least 18 500 species per annum. Statements like those of Harlan, a geneticist from jepends on these (genetic) materials” (anon. 1991:2) emphasize how important it is to conserve the diversity of species. In order to. man; ively, the! Humanity stil has a dearth of knowledge concerning the way in which eco- systems fur portunities for ting 5 RMR sy are pity decreasing. Numerous resources rhe American armadillo for instance, is one of the few animal species that is suscep- tible to leprosy, Through research on armadillos, ‘methods of treatment were invented to treat people with this disease. In addition, practically ing_on Earth has a, It is even possible for municipal waste, which poses serious problems at present, to be devel oped into an important resource in future if a Use for it (for example the generation of biogas) Chapter 8: Environmental Conservation 203can be found. The sient researdba) tute iological control of invader species is also based on the conservation of biological diversity (par. 8.4.2). 4, Cultural value ‘The fact that countries, provinces and even certain towns, take plants and animals as their i Relates kawa ( have a city insect besides their city tree, flower and bird, The well-known ‘oaks lining the avenues of towns such as Stel- lenbosch and Potchefstroom cannot be regarded in functional terms as ideal street trees. In the first place they are too lapgay they are deciduous and their roots damage pludments and other ‘municipal installafiaus. No one would dare to replace the old avenues (which have become a safety risk as a result of disease and ageing) with more effective street trees. The reason lies purely in the cultural-historical value of the avenues that have already been declared national monuments, ‘The same argument goes for the Jacaranda trees of Pretoria that are creating dangerous traffic situations when the fallen flowers become soggy and slippery after rain (see Case Study 5.4 and Photo 26 - insert). National Parks are examples of ecosystems, which have attained their own significance as a resource. They are more than an economic asset. They are a heritage of the unspoilt South Africa before the Europeans "tamed" the country. It is unthinkable for these areas to ever be used by stock farmers for meat production, Should there be a change in the value Shdemsloowrmet however, It could well happen that nomadic stock farmers be given the go-ahead to use the game reserves, as has been the case in the Serengeti Game Reserve in Kenya and recently Zimbabwe. as . The prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) is an example of a plant with a high nutritional value but which is not being used sufficiently at present to maf=ize its potential, Besides the fruit, which le, the young leaves can also be eaten. In Mexico this plant constitutes an portant part of the population's diet. Young leaves are picked when they are stil smaller than 15cm in length, the thoms are stripped off and the leaves are chopped and boiled. The result is. 2 vegetable rich in protelns and vitamins A and C that resembles green beans in taste. An example from South Africa is the fruit of the maroela tree (Sclerocarya birrea). A notable portion of the diet of the rural people of the country consists of veld fruit, insects, birds and animals. ‘About 12 000 plant species have been used ‘world-wide for food but only 150 species have been cultivated. Ninety percent of the world's food comes from only 20 species indicating the ‘an example, a salt tolerant tomato species dis- covered in the Galopolos may prove to be a revo- lutionary crop for the expansive arid areas of the world. which ‘are becoming more and more important, also for (see par. 5.3.2 an have possibilities that have not yet been Investigated. Forty per cent of medicines currently used are derived from plants, and only 1% of the plant species on Earth and less of the animal species, have been utilized for their medicinal value, or have even been tested. ‘There is the possibilty for instance, that the seeds from an Australian rain forest tree could play a role in the treatment of HIV/AIDS. Marine organisms, however, have hardly been touched in this regard. ‘The use of plants and animals (or parts thereof) by traditional healers is so prevalent that this has become seus hen toate cern parts of South Africa. With growing recognition amongst the general community and in govern- ment circles, the regulation of their activities is, eiving more attention. In South Africa the first idicinal plant nursery was established in the Silverglen Nature Reserve in Chatsworth (Dur- ban). Inyangas (herbalists) from the environment. are encouraged to buy their medicine from the nursery thereby relieving pressure on the veld, Herbalists are and helped to Sart tre ov OMIM ‘The use otis so-called muti is particularly popular amongst Zulu traditional healers. 204 6 Ecopian Environmental ManagementEthno-botany is the study of veld plants that are Useful to humans for many purposes that have cultural connotations. The growing demand, however leads to practices such as the ring barking of trees and the catch of animals (in snares) to get their body parts, which threaten the survival of many of these species. Besides medicine, the wood of many indigenous trees is used for carving and for making household items such as bowls and spoons, ). Consequentty, in the United Nations General Assembly World Charter for Nature, 1982, The United Nations Endangered Species Act also includes statements cconceming the rights of organisms to exist. Thus ‘a moral justification for the conservation of endangered species is part of the intent of the law. This view also places a Individuals supporting nature conservation, often do so on the basis of their conscience. They have ‘a conviction of ethical or moral responsibility on. behalf of the vulnerable animals and plants that cannot defend or assert themsel humanity and manifest a type of lism". This is possibly a tothe blind destruction of Nature in the past by hun ters, town developers and others. Ethical values come to the fore particularly when decisions must be taken in favour of either This is particularly ‘appropriate if areas of exceptional scenic beauty ‘or ecological vulnerability are endowed with resources that could be exploited for economic ‘on an emo- ugh opposition was express tional level, ethical and moral values came to the fore very strongly - nature conservation on behalf of our descendants being top priority. Animal rights groups often campaign for moral support for defenseless animals. Sometimes however it extends to the extreme when terrorist attacks on scientists and scientific installations are made. Its believed by them that aaah case aa are arias Ogre wees ers. Sola! aap ear aaran MPa ercecone beauty. Many organisms - birds, large land mammals, and flowering plants, as well as mai insects and ocean animals ~ areG@pBSeRegISEO For the "imprisoned" city dweller, Nature in Its unspoilt state has a particularly unique ee orn CRE Te tan ov ronment is artificial and ers Rats Dongs, ‘The enjoyment and experience of Nature takes on different forms and varies from person to person, and is therefore essentially subjective. "Aesthetically many of these wild areas, parti- culariy in mountains and along sea shores, fo measure in terms of money, but are nevertheless real” (Hough, 1984). The aesthetic value of nature conservation can there- fore become of In this 9. Recreational and tourist value o 3 It is normally impossible to attach a value to such activities and areas, yet no one will dispute their ‘awareness or the yearning of humans for a Nature-orientated experience for relaxation, mention can be made of a farm in the Magalies- berg that had an agricultural value of R200 000 (1991), but was sold for R2 million on account of the presence of a gorge with pools for swimming. The new owner envisaged a sectional title scheme where each plot will be sold for R100 000 - a higher price than often paid for Chapter 8: Environmental Conservation 205some suburban developments. One can add to this the large number of people actively engaged in sports like hunting and angling which is dependent on a natural environment. Although the real estate of a park such as Central Park in New York probably runs into the billions, nobody will ever even think of selling it to developers. ‘Surveys in South Africa show that animal life, the ‘sun, beaches, natural beauty and cultural sites, are the most Important tourist attractions for both overseas and domestic tourists. The socio- ‘coniomic valUe of tourism 1s Well-known (Ah important resource for tourism is ensured through conservation of the environment. This ‘applies tr particular to hunting and fishing, but is also important in the preservation of indigenous plants and animals and landscapes for scenic purposes (Photo 23). 10. Educational value Our present society generally experiences little or rho contact with Nature. Ufbaiiizatiomhas evoked in humans a very real need to have contact with Nature. Natural ecosystems can have an important educational value with regard to Nature and people's place in it. For an outdoor experience one must @FVE\GFeat Gisteinces from the city to find suitable natural environments. Alternatively, artificial interpretation centres must be erected at great cost in order to teach the general public the principles of environmental education, Contact with Nature also fosters the socialization jprocessiofitherchild. Within such an experience the most Important value system of any nation has its origins, namely @lj6velforyone’sGWn {GOURFYD Without it, a nation will deteriorate into ‘Groups of people who, according to Darwin's philosophy of “survival of the fittest", merely exist. Humankind therefore leams not only to appreciate and understand Nature but also to ‘experience human existence to the full HUmans must realize that they @f@iimerelyiailinigin a large system of mutual co-operation, Dynamic equillb- ium)applies to humanity just as it does to any plant and animal, irrespective of scientific and technological achievement. 8.4.2 Conservation value of biodiversity It is clear that conservation is not about saving a beautiful animal but on retaining the complete environmental system Preserving plant and ‘animal species is important in terms of its utilitarian value but its ecological value is not always fully appreciated. The cornerstone of conservation is not the species but fie tots habitat of the species. The health or stability in an ecosystem (habitat) is normally directly related to the optimal number of species and to the composition of the associated populations. As has been indicated (chapter 7), the creation of the huge monocultural basis of our agricultural systems is in fact a.greatdanger in terms of attacks by pests (if through human or any otier ‘external Influence, there Is a disturbance in the ecological balance, this could lead to the damage or even destruction of the ecosystem, Even apparently minor disturbances could result in unforeseen chain reactions (Ummiaremade, ‘The world is an independent win icompare the (Geo Earth depends onthe ninegded limits within which humans must work are not limits to human endeavour; instead they give direction and guidance as to how we can sustain environmental stability. is not: should we preserve certain species like 206 © Ecoplan Environmental Managementthe black rhino? The issue is to preserve life- giving ecosystems; and in this sense a rhino is no More important than an Cte aie a cers play just as an imy nt foe ecoystem dynamics and are thus just as impor- tant, to human welfare as is 'e "big five" or spectacular and hairy” species. Due to the importance as well as the extent of conservation rmursery Thy this aspect, the reader is referred to the Green Paper on the Conservation and Sustainable use of South Africa's Biological Diversity (South Africa, 1996) where the thres Policy guidelines presented. For more information contact: bgeath@deat.gov.za. 8 Boos state of environmental world survey has shown that order to pay for lent projects, mar great is the burden of external debt that many developing nations see little option but to ‘overexploit their natural resource base, cutting down forests to sell the wood. redeemed at a premium, in local currency, for Use in conservation and sustainable development projects. Although there are many ways in which this system can function, an example may be as follows. Suppose Brazil owe the World Bank US$10 million but cannot repay It. A worid wide conservation body like the WWF can agree to take over the loan for the amount of US$8 million; in which case the Bank is at least getting some return. The WWF then negotiates a deal with the Brazilian government to institute a conservation area in the Amazon forest to the equivalent of 8 million in local currency. The Brazilian government is being let of the hook and TCOME 8.2 After studying this section, you should be able to reflect on the state of nature conservation in general, but-more specific in South Africa, conservation is gaining a huge benefit for a relatively small investment, Oniy in large game reserves can provision be made for the ecological requirements of differ ig nature reserves offer protection to a wide variety of ecosystems and habitat types with their related plant and animal life. Such reserves, however, cannot be estab- lished overnight. Even an extended and "ideal" system of nature reserves cok habitats and for this reason! has been mentioned (see chapter 1) that the cliché NIMBY (NOT-IN-MY-BACKYARD) referring to the concept that conservation is good as long as it does not cost "me" something, should now Chapter 8: Environmental Conservation 207be changed to NIMBI (NOW-I-MUST-BECOME- INVOLVED). On this smaller scale land owners and particularly local authorities, can support conservation in a significant way. Avenues, road reserves, swamps, marshes, bush thickets, rivers, clifs, hills and ridges, coastal dunes, ravines, gorges and many similar types of terrain, usually regarded as "worthless" from a developmental viewpoint, are the habitats of a variety of plant and animal species. Supplementing these different habitats are various types of artificial habitats ranging from domestic gardens to ‘municipal parks. In the minds and hearts of people conservation is something that is carried out by a government department in a nature reserve is hoped that ‘eventually this system will include so much land that it will form natural links or corridors between nature reserves (see par. 8.6.3). Although humans cannot re-create a destroyed habitat, much can be done to rectify “the sins of ‘our ancestors". An example is former President Bush's campaign to plant a thousand million trees over ten years in the USA. According to esti ‘mates, the Jewish National Fund has already planted 200 million trees in Israel, perceived by many as effectively pushing the desert back. Whether this is really conserving Nature, is debatable. In South Africa various organizations have joined forces with the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism to plant five million trees in five years. This campaign is known as ). For updated information on the South Aftican state of the snvironment, see www. environment gov.za. ‘The role of 200s is a contro versial issue, however. Nature-conscious people have traditionally objected to the keeping of wild 6 conservation 8.6.1 Historical overview animals in captivity. Modem developments in this area attempt to create semi-natural habitats for the animals in captivity. Great efforts are being made in larger cer ical gardens and zoos. iy eo ric ee ers also believe that 2005 will become the last resort for many animals which could become extinct as a result of destructive human activities. Potential opportunities for scientific and particularly zo0s are also considerabl . Surveys at the Pretoria Zoo ave shown that children and school groups constitute the largest category of visitors to the 200. In addition, we can consider the value of 77008 for recreation, The urban dweller has little ‘opportunity to enjoy and experience Nature, an aspect that is regarded by psychologists and secs as essential for cial group formation is an essential element in the behaviour of many animals, which cannot always be realized in zoos. The en) fo capture rey is another natural ‘disappears in captivity. Food is provided at given times of the day - and never alive. Animals are therefore no longer developing hunting instincts in captivity. In the Johannesburg zoo much trouble is taken to cal layout of the cages so as in South Africa Before European settlement in the southern parts of Africa, the indigenous people lived very much In harmony with Nature as nomadic pasturalists. Ina certain sense, conservation and destruction 208 oe Ecopian Environmental Managementof wildlife in South Africa can be dated back to 1652 when Jan van Riebeeck arrived at the Cape. ‘The indigenous people lived in harmony with es. With his coming, RE 15. te oon hunting laws, and at a later stage hunting per- mits were issued. In 1677 governor van der Stel was the first to declare certain types of antelope protected game. Historical documents show that South Africa, in those days, abounded with game. The stories of springbuck trekking in herds by the millions are well known. In this hunter's paradise, hunting rapidly took its toll on game. In 1702, only 50 years after the arrival of the first . It is reported that on one day five lions were shot in what is today known as The Fountains, in Pretoria. An aware- ; the ‘Sable Game Reserve was established. The legal status of this reserve was changed through the enthusiasm of Colonel James Stevenson-Hamilton so that it becam park, namely the At present 5.4% of South Africa's total area is officially declared conservation areas. A further 8.6.2 @figallGoneeNatiomarees- (IUCN), South Africa's position of almost 9% does not appear to be cause for concem. It has been calculated that if 10% of a habi Closer investigations, however, have shown that of Acocks’ 72 Veld Types there are 14 that do not fall in conser-vation areas. For a detailed analysis, see Wahl & Naude, 1996 as well as Low & Rebelo, 1996. One should how- ‘ever remember that "pristine" is a somewhat relative concept. The only relative pristine areas left are nature reserves. Many other land uses however are as good as pristine. Game farming and even cattle ranching in the savannahs and grasslands can be sustainable as an agricul tural enterprise and still conserve plant spe- cies. However cattle ranching is not sustainable in, nor compatible with, conservation in the fynbos. The extent of conservation areas is therefore not an accurate reflection of the conservation of the South African flora. Where an area is converted to grain, sugar cane or plantations, It is forever lost - should we someday decide that we could extract a bigger value from it for example for larger water yield. 8.6.2.1 National Parks* yThere Is therefore a serious need for greater diversification in the size and distri- bution of national parks. The list of parks and their sizes appears in Table 8.1 (next page). The location of the 22 parks is indicated in Fig. 8.1. For a description of the parks see Custos, 1991, vol. 20, no. 4 and www.sanparks.co.za. 8.6.2.2 Agreement (or contractual) national parks | With the proclamation of the Richtersveld and the West Coas pt of the so-called was Introduced. This makes it possible to retain the current land use of the present inhabitants while placing the p: promoted in the man- agement plans of the other national parks, which ing activel were traditionally run without any people living Inside the fences. Time alone will tell if this sort of cooperation will work in practice. Little con- structive progress seems to have been made in the Richtersveld. At the time of writing is seems as if the very promising five-day hiking trail can- not even become effectively operational. As a result of the alarming population explosion, the associated intensification of agricultural activities and the expansion of cities and industries, the 1 Contributions by Mr. Calle Naude of DEAT and Ms. Christa Strydom of SANP is greatfully acknowledged. Chapter 8: Environmental Conservation 209National parks of RSA (2004) Parke Proclamation date ‘Area (hectares) Kruger Game 1926 1 962 361 ‘Addo Elephant 1931 74 339 Kgalagadi (Kalahari) 1931 959 103, Mountain Zebra 1937 24 663 Bontebok 1961 2786 Golden Gate Highlands 1963 11.633 TBsitsikamma 1964 63 942 Augrabies Waterfall 1966 14.745 Groenkloof 1968 4 Wilderness 1977 10 600 (to be increased) Keroo 1977 77094 West Coast 1985 36 273 Knysna Lake 1985 15.000 “Tankwa-Karoo 1986 43 899 Vealbos 1986 22.697 Richtersveld 1991 162 445 Marakele 1992 50 726 Augulhas 1999 10.800 Namaqua 2001 21 800 Cape Peninsula 1998 14.500 Vhembe-Dongola 1998 5 356 Total 3584 766 ‘Source: SANP |: Surface areas of national parks of South Africa National Parks 1 edd fw 2 Khon Cesta 2 Agee v 2 Maer 3 Kk ao LumtPoro t ternt “$ 7 Baw ‘Sena oae 2 Nore ¢ 2 Ms Al 10 Tatonma 1 itikonma Coal > MPUMALANGA 12 Aap N 1 Iastey ~ - — Mil fie | Lay 7 a 15 Galen Gein y : re - 4 Sie f FREE STATE 2" KWAZULUI 1 Stn \ / NATAL 1B Pray \ NORTHERN CAPE 2) Gewlod 2 Modi (ras \? a 4 gy CX \ WESTERN CAPE ¢ a We (Source: Adopted tom Sout Ata 1909 Figure 8.1: Location of national parks of South Africa 210 Srp Environmental ManagementCEN Voreve, ince 1937 the number of national parks in South Africa has increased from 4 to 22 but the area has in- creased by only 25%, In 2001 for the first time the Dept. of Environ- mental Affaits and Tourism budgeted for the purchase of new parks. An amount of R8 million was set aside for this purpose. At the moment there are at least 5 new parks envisaged. These INSIGHT 8.1 are in the area of the old Qua-Qua National Park, the Blyde River Valley, the Highveld Park, the Pondoland Park and the combining of the Tsitsikamma, Knysna and Wilderness Parks. The issue of national parks is somewhat confusing in the sense that KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife is not under the jurisdiction of SANP. Parks such as the Royal National Park is therefore not officially a national park. There is however strong pressure being exerted to have all the parks incorpo- rated into one central body, being the SANP Board. Conservation vs. human rights The past decade has been one in which the rights of the individual in South Africa have been elevated to enormous heights. If the constitutional rights of the individual citizen however are being perceived by them as being above the good of the community at large, anarchy driven by selfishness, overrides development and ensures a downward spiral for all. The "Tragedy of the Commons’ comes into play. (Insight 6.1), One of the boldest and most exciting cross- border initiatives currently unfolding in Southern Africa is the establishment, development and management of transfrontier parks and trans- frontier conservation areas. - Although fences or other forms arriers may separate the various parts, these areas are jointly managed. Equally important to the tourist value, is that these transfrontier parks and transfrontier to a management plan. The authorities also undertake to remove all man made/human barriers within the transfrontier park so that animals, and to some extent humans, can roam freely. ‘There are six identified transfrontier conservation areas which SA is involved with. Limpopo-Shashe ‘Transfrontier Conservation Area is on the horizon and is currently (2004) being negotiated. 211 Chapter 8: Environmental Conservation1. !APAis!/Richtersveld Transfrontier Conservation Park. 6,222km? in extent with 1,902km* (31%) in South Africa, and the remainder (69%) in Namibia. 2. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP). 37,991km? in extent, with 9,591km? (27%) ln South Africa and the remainder in Botswana. 3. Limpopo-Shashe Transfrontier Conservation Area, 4,872km? in extent, 2,561km? (53%) in South Africa, 1,350km? (28%) in Botswana, and 960km* (19%) in Zim- babwe. 4. Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, (Formerly Gaza-kruger-Gonarezhou Transfrontier Park) 35,000km* in extent of which 10,000km* is in Mozambique, 20,000km’ in South Africa and 5,000km? in Zimbabwe. 5. Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation and Resource Area. 4,195km* in extent, of which 317km? (8%) is in Swaziland, 2,783km: (66%) is in Mozambique, and 1,095km* (26%) is in South Africa, 6, Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Conservation and Development Area, 8,113km? in extent of which 5,170km? (64%) is in Lesotho and 2,943km: (36%) is In South Arica, 9.6.2.4 (Biosphere reserve A recent development is the Biosphere Reserve concept known as the Biosphere Programme. iosphere Reserves are designated by ional Co-ordinating Council of the MAB Programme at the request of the State concerned, Individual Biosphere Reserves remain under the sovereign jurisdiction of the State Where they are situated. Collectively, all bios- phere reserves form a World Network in which participation by States is voluntary. Each Biosphere Reserve is intended to fulfil three basic functions (as indicated in Fig. 8.2), which are complementary and mutually reinforcing: establishing a biosphere reserve obviously poses ‘an enormous challenge, namely to set up an appropriate mechanism, for instance a Commit- tee, to plan and co-ordinate all the activities that will take place there. This human dimension of biosphere reserves makes them special, since the ‘management essentially becomes a "pact" be- tween the local community and society as a whole. Management needs to be open, evolving and adaptive. Such an approach requires perse- verance, patience and imagination. But It will allow the local community to be better placed to respond to external political, economic and social pressures, which would affect the ecological and cultural values of the area. The structure of a Biosphere reserve is shown in Fig. 8.3. ‘CONSERVATION T Conservation of | DEVELOPMENT Assecation of cenvronment th devetoment blochversty and ecosystems BIOSPHERE RESERVE ~t- Losistics Internationa network Tor research and montering are 52 Gia TE core area (5D ater zone Tension area Human settlements. | Research station Monitoring Edueationtaicing “Tourirahecreation Four 8.3 CORTEZ 8.6.2.4.1 South Africa's involvement in the man and biosphere programme South Africa has been actively involved in the programme since 212 oe Ecoplan Environmental ManagementThe fur biosphere reserves in South fice are: 1. The Kogelberg biosphere reserve (listed 1998) ‘The Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve is comprised of all the critical components of a functional bios- phere reserve. The Reserve comprises an area of ‘90 000ha of which 67000ha is terrestrial and 23 000ha is marine, The area is of outstanding importance as a predominantly natural area with a core wilderness area (18 000ha) only 50km to centre of Cape Town. The core area may be re- garded as the floristic heart of the globally Unique Cape Floral Kingdom with an estimated 11600 plant species of which 150 taxa are esti- mated to be locally endemic. The buffer zones ‘are comprised of proclaimed Mountain Catchment areas, the Harold Porter Botanical garden, local authority nature reserves, other demarcated state forest land and the Bot River Lagoon and marine areas. The transitional zone includes environm- ents consisting of natural areas, agricultural lands consisting of orchards and pastures, plantations and six coastal villages and towns. 2. The Cape West coast biosphere reserve (listed 2000) ‘The proposed Cape West Coast Biosphere Reserve extends from Diep River near Milnerton in the south, to the Berg River in the north, and inland to the western watershed of the Koeberg-Dassen- berg-Swartberg-Karringberg ranges, covering a total area of about 376 900ha. The proposed area falls within the Cape Floral Kingdom and would Important areas such as the Langebaan Lagoon, the Berg River, the Rietviel Wetland Reserve and coastal areas are included within the boundaries of the proposed area. ‘The development function of this Biosphere Reserve, would promote and ensure the sustain- able use of natural resources within the area such as the cape rock lobster. For previously dis- advantaged rural communities, the establishment of the Biosphere Reserve would mean the effec- tive re-appreciation of their traditional culture, knowledge and skills of sustainable living with the environment. The restoration or rehabilitation of the land through programmes of eradication of alien plants could create job opportunities as well {as generate income from wood products. 3. The Waterberg biosphere reserve (listed 2001) ‘The Waterberg biosphere reserve is situated within the Bushveld district in the Northern Province of South Africa (the province is divided into six districts). The predominant activities in the district are cattle and game farming. The north-western parts of the bushveld district are known for their rich platinum mines and coal- fields. The eastern parts are the more densely populated areas consisting mostly of rural communities. The central area of the Waterberg Mountain is well known for its tourism related activities due to the large game farming industry. The proposed Waterberg biosphere reserve has, therefore, been zoned accordingly and includes the central area of the bushveld district. This biosphere reserve presently includes a conservancy (within the buffer zone) comprising twenty-two private landowners who are protect ing an area in excess of 140 000 hectares. In addition, there are five proposed core areas consisting of 103 571 hectares. These core areas are protected according to legislation due to their importance to conservation. The fact that there are virtually no development, industries and exotic plantations as well as low levels of human populations has enabled the area to remain relatively pristine. 4. Kruger to canyons biosphere reserve The biosphere reserve Is situated in a region in South Africa where there Is a complex interaction of socio-economic, political and ecological factors. ‘Two of South Africa's provinces are bridged by this initiative, namely the Limpopo (formerly Northern Province) and Mpumalanga Provinces. ‘The reserve comprises a total area of over 3.3, million ha. The core area consists of thirteen declared protected areas with a major portion of the Kruger National Park as the biggest core area, The biggest portion of the buffer zone is, privately owned conservation land with eco- tourism as the major activity. Game farming as well as tribal activities also takes place in the buffer. Within the transitional zone a number of community development projects are found that is directly related to tourism activities and the development of small industries 56.2.5 (Widerieiare) Various Wilderness areas exist. Some of these are the Boosmansbos/Baviaanskloof, near Heidelberg in the Eastern Cape, the Cedarberg (Porterville), Doringrivier (near George) and the Groot Winterhoek (near Ceres) in the Western Cape and Wolkberg (near Polokwane/Pietersburg) Chapter 8: Envitonmental Conservation 213in Limpopo. They are extensive areas, uninha~ bited and undeveloped. It is rigorously managed with no vehicle access. Initiatives are currently under way to draft management strategies for these areas, National and cultural monuments form part of the official conservation plan of government. They include botanical gardens, zoological gardens, and natural heritage sites. UNESCO declared a number of World Heritage Sites: Robben Island, the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park, and the Hominid sites at Swartkrans, Sterkfontein and Kromdraai. ‘South Africa has nominated a number of other sites, There is still much confusion as to the different categories and other information con- cerning conservation areas in South Africa. A publication by Wahl & Naude (1996), sheds more light on the state of official conservation in South Africa. Recently the development of nature conser- vation and the establishment and management of protected areas has moved away from the tradi tional concept that they are sacrosanct wildlife sanctuaries. The accommodation of the lifestyles, aspirations and needs of local communities as part of the overall conservation ethic has become a globally accepted principle. ‘The protected area system in South Africa present- ly consists of a variety of types of protected areas, managed for a variety of purposes. To provide for the classification of protected areas on the basis of management requirements, and in keeping with international trends, the following system (see Table 8.2) is applied (Wahl & Naude, 1996). In the same publication a complete list of protected areas in South Africa Is given. "Categories Description 1. Scientific reserves and wilderness areas ‘An area of land or sea possessing some out standing ecosystems, natural features, species of flora, fauna and/or cultural resources of scientific importance. A wildemess area is @ large area of unmodified land or water retaining its natural character and influence without per- manent physical structures or significant habita- tion, which is protected and managed to pre- serve its natural conditions. 2. National parks and equivalent reserves ‘A relatively large, outstanding natural area of land or sea designated to protect the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems; to exclude exploitation or intensive occupation and to pro- Vide spiritual, scientific, educational, recrea~ tional and cultural opportunities for visitors. 3. _ National monuments and areas of cultural significance ‘A natural or cultural feature or an area of out- standing scenic, scientific, educational or in- spirational value, 4. Habitat and wildlife management areas ‘reas subject to human intervention, based on research into the requirements of specific spe- cies for nesting, feeding and survival 5. Protected land and seascapes ‘Areas that are a product of the harmonious interaction of people and Nature, often aesthe- tically unique patterns of human settlement. Traditional practices associated with agriculture, grazing or fishing are evident. 6. Sustainable use areas ‘An area managed to ensure the long-term protection and maintenance of its biological diversity, while providing a sustainable flow of natural products. (Source: Wahl & Naude, 1996) Table 8.2: Classification of terrestrial and marine protected areas in South Africa 214 © Ecopion Environmental Management8.6.3 Other conservation areas Besides the national parks and similar official conservation areas, a large area of the country is devoted to other types of conservation practices. Fig. 8.4 and 8.5 shows some of the other nature reserves conservation areas, which include wetlands, private game and nature reserves. ‘There are approximately 460 private nature reserves in South Africa. ae in. oe 1 dea foe Comen r Leip Den asd Wine: Oo Stlerstond 11 Ban Albee Wine 1 Reh en 5 s 1 Pet 17 Feary 7 Hester 49 angen 50 York 81 Hotel Hens tndom Dor) 1 dah 14 Neck 15 Koo 16 Beery 1 Blane 18 Dees 8 ea 1 Gate 6 Liber 20 Hila 65 Soest 21 Moun Taser 6 Ruse 2H Ovon © teense 3 Covepltoedsk Vowel Dan) 8 Kipweadom 24 Kalra i ermine | 25 Soaaerng 70 Baws 26 Rasen en 27 fens Oom 28 Sans 2 oro 43t Wolagestop 3 Serdnebdam 2 Hated, £E avn--bgela 3 mah 3 Ungen Vey 3 Kanon 3 loin 5 Himevle i Gud 4 Of Cage 2 42 Varnes Costes 4 Ket tank i“ 4 Etone 45 Unies (Source: Adapted om South Aca, 1995) 3 Qe “3 8 ae BS FREE STATE 5 Pits eG soto. se? “ * KWAZULU-NATA et fra, ~ cx “law EASTERN | CAPE gi “ * ap Hot 2 Bava 44m arsely 5 Th Downer Kare hod 58 Tinbs 9 ea 90 Sabi send Pre 1 Sadrghon rene 0, 150 km Figure 8.4: Nature reserves of South Africa 8.6.3.1 Wetlands and dunes Wetlands include a wide variety of inland and coastal habitats, from mountain bog and fens and midland marshes to swamp forests and estuaries. They were previously regarded as unproductive wastelands. Today itis realized they are essential in meeting the needs of a growing population and form vital ingredients of the ecosystems they serve - especially concer- ning the perennial supply of water and habitats for wildife and birds. Various treaties and gov- ernment decrees protect these and other very sensitive areas (see chapter 9). Increasingly larger budgets are being allocated for rehabilita- tion and conservation of wetlands (Photo 14). that (Chapter 8: Environmental Conservation 215Wl veh: Hasta Wi oer Rear a Carmi ae Gare ase Gave Reve one er ae | 11 Mk Fee Rae Un Gore et Wid Fare Nom Gon ene ik Gane Rare Phd esa Rene fle Game ene pete Pa Rear el Garde onan Genel odie Gane Rx Ds Widths Edy Sion (Source: Apt tom South Ai 1998) wort O) cadens West O SABES rua a on sk wi ae sor awh ree state 0 Pa VAZOLU py fot jam oe 36 Mabulo Lodge 5 fei EASTERN 3 ci oe ”, 10 Tene Gone ade et E tonsiore — ~— 44 Kiremonis Camp 4 Latettect tame A {eines oe O Wels {Wot toe Figure 8. 8.6.3.2 Ramsar sites A special type of conservation area is the so- called Ramsar sites. These are wetland areas of particular significance which have been desig- nated under the "Convention of Wetlands of Intemational Importance", adopted in 197 Ramsar, Iran (wwnw.ramsarorg). South Africa has 16 sites declared under this convention. These are: Nylsvley Nature Reserve, Blesbokspruit, Barberspan, Seekoeiviei, uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park, Ndumo Game Reserve, Kosi Bay System, Lake Sibaya, Turtle Beaches and Coral Reefs of Tongo-land, St Lucia System, Wilderness Lakes, De Hoop Viel, De Mond State Forest, Langebaan, Verlorenviei, Orange River Mouth Wetland and Verloren Vallel. However, of importance is the notable exclusion of hundreds of marshy areas and other sponge areas that fulfil such an immensely important role in the water provision process in South Africa. ‘The implication of these not being Ramsar sites is that they are not deemed “important”. Nothing could be further from the truth. The decrease in surface flow of our rivers can be attributed to the mismanagement of catchment areas of which the Wetlands and other conservation areas in South Africa wetlands are a most important element (par. 9.7.3.2). 8.6.3.3 Conservancies The necessity of initiatives by private individuals, companies, city councils, etc. has already been mentioned. The establishment of the so-called "Conservancies" ("Bewareas") Is a promising development of conservation on private land, that has gained considerable momentum particularly in the Free State, KwaZulu-Natal and recently Gauteng. Since the inception of the idea in 1978, KwaZulu-Natal has registered more than 200 conservancies (incorporating 3 000 land-owners) and recently Gauteng has registered their 33rd ‘out of the total of nearly 400 in the country; covering an area twice as large as that of the areas managed by official conservation bodies. A National Conservancy Association has been formed in 2003; its mouthpiece being called Karee Chronicle (see www.conservancies.org). ‘According to this scheme, farmers are encour- aged to co-ordinate their farming activities with regional conservation campaigns. In KwaZulu- Natal there are already more than one million hectares of agricultural land that have been 216 © Ecopian Environmental Managementplaced under some form of conservation in this Way. This represents 10% of the province's area. ‘Through these combined actions itis possible to control poaching more effectively. Larger herds of ‘game encourage predators to adopt more natural predatory habits so that the livestock on the farms is safeguarded against predatory attacks. Trained game rangers can also be afforded, and co-ordinated tourism projects, such as hiking trails and bridle paths, could supplement the income of farmers. Environmental education, including that of farm labourers and their families in particular, forms an important part of the concept. Catchment man- ‘agement (for example through combined pro- grammes of eradicating alien vegetation) can only be done on an agreement basis between all landowners. Opposition to. actions like indiscrimi- nate hunting and poisoning of vermin is another terrain on which the conservancies do excellent work, According to the KwaZulu-Natal conser- vancy's newsletter, Guineafow/, game counts on all the conservancies are showing notable in- ‘creases in numbers, The urban conservancy con- cept is also growing with leaps and bounds and more than 35 have been established in Durban and Pietermaritzburg. Conservancies can also be urban, marine, industrial, township or peri-urban. It isin fact, any area where the management of that piece of land decide to manage the land. within a set of environmental principles. 8.6.3.4 Natural heritage programme ‘The South African Natural Heritage Programme (SANHP) has been designed to offer protection to areas and features that require conservation man- agement, The programme gives South African, citizens a chance to participate actively in the nation’s conservation effort; a chance to safeguard the country's natural ecosystems, biological com- ‘munities and individual species for the enrichment of future generations. The programme aims to en- courage the conservation of important natural sites, large and small, in private and public ownership. By informing the landowners of the special attributes of a particular site, registration reduces the chance that sites of significant natural value may unwittingly be degraded or destroyed, To {qualify for registration an area must contain one of these natural values: stands of special plant communities; good examples of aquatic habitats; sensitive catchment areas; habitats of threatened species; outstanding natural features. eeoce The programme is completely voluntary. The owner only agrees to see to the conservation of the resource and it may be cancelled at any time. It does not give free access to the public. The Department of the Environmental Affairs and Tourism gives management advice but no financial assistance is available. A "Heritage Plaque" and a certificate, signed by the presl- dent, are given to each site identified as of national importance. At the moment there are 307 sites, covering 384 646ha, under this type of management (Wahl, Naude and du Preez, 2000) (see Table 8.3). Province Area(ha) | No. of sites ‘Gauteng 13001.0 6 Western Cape 26016.88 44 Eastern Cape 19696.8 25 Northern Cape | 73556. i Limpopo Province | 89105.0 39 North West 3360.0 4 Mpumalanga: | 48523.1 62 Free State 15526.5 9 KwaZulu-Natal | 52462.1 100 Total 348646 | 307 Table 8.3a: South Africa's natural heritage programme, January 2000 { Biome Area No. of sites Fynbos 26065.88 38 Grassland 75464.3 82 Savanna 1693117 110 Namib 69965.5 it Forest 150.0 1 Succulent Karoo| 290.0 2 Total 341247.38 244 Table 8.3b: Distribution of SANHP sites in terms of South Africa's biomes 8.6.3.5 Zoological and botanical gardens ‘These institutions play a major role in conserving endangered species. South Africa is well known for its breeding programmes and other scientific research on species conservation. Of all the z00- logical gardens the one in Pretoria is perhaps the most well-known and has an excellent interna tional reputation. It is regarded as one of the 10, best in the world, extending over 80ha with a visitor number of approximately half a million per year, Much is done to enrich the lives of animals in captivity. Examples are the constant changing of the "furniture" in the cages, the placing of Chapter 8: Environmental Conservation 217food so that the animals must search for it and doing away with wire fencing (caging) in favour of open areas surrounded by ditches to contain animals’ movement. ‘There are 10 national botanical gardens con- trolled by the National Botanical Institute (NBI) Kirstenbosch (Cape Town), Karoo (Worcester), Harold Porter (Betty's bay), Free State (Bloem- fontein), KwaZulu-Natal (Pietermaritzbura), Lowveld (Nelspruit), Witwatersrand (Roode- poort), Pretoria (Pretoria), Edith Stephen (Western Cape) and Tienie Versveld (Western Cape) Botanical gardens. Research, conservation, environmental education, recreation and tourism 8.6.4 Conservation legislation value are some of their advantages. 8.6.3.6 Aquaria ‘Aquaria may also be grouped under this kind of protection. There are famous aquaria in Pretoria, Port Elizabeth, Durban and the Two Oceans ‘Aquarium at the Cape Town Waterfront with its more than 3 000 specimens. 8.6.3.7 Snake parks Snake and reptile parks also assist in the con- servation drive for fauna, The best known being the snake parks at the Hartebeespoort Dam, Midrand and Durban's Fitzsimons Snake Park. and other directives ‘The functioning of the environment is not con- tained or segmented into units by means of political boundaries. Many of the Earth's resour- ces are shared and can only be conserved through international action. Successful conser- vation of the global "commons" such as the ‘oceans and the atmosphere will only succeed if every country exercises restraint on it controlling trade in endangered species Is covered by the Convention on Trade ere Species of fauna and fore (CITES). “The Comvention on Migratory spedes (Sonn Convention, 1991), looks after birds as well as whales. - South Africa was one of the 12 parties tarctic Other conventions to rica has subscribed include: The International Whaling Convention, Convention on Biological Diversity (www. biodlv.org), Convention on Desertification, Law of Sea Convention (1982), Antarctic Marine Living Resources, Prevention of Marine Pollution, Kyoto Protocol (on global warm- ing), Protection of World Cuttural and Natural Heritage (1997) (www.unesco.org/whc), and on Climate Change (www.unfece.de), With respect to environmental matters, the 1970's was an important decade, On the Signed in the USA on 1st January 1970. The United Nation's Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholm in 1972, In the same year the Club of Rome's Limits to Growth as well as The Ecologists' Blue- print for Survival was published. although not being legislation, these were truly watershed landmarks concerning conservation in world context. 1e promulgation of Mountain Catchment Act 63 of 1970 heralded the environmental era as far as environmental During this decade various universities took up the challenge by creating chairs in conservation research and teaching. In 1972 the Habitat Council was established and in 1974 the Environmental Planning Professions Interdisciplinary Committee (ePPIC). Serious governmental concern for the issue of conservation was demonstrated when, in 1972, a pollution subsidiary committee of the Prime Minister's Planning Advisory Council brought out a report under the title "Pollution in South Africa". Furthermore, the Department of Planning was renamed the Department of Planning and the Environment in 1973 and in 1975 the Physi- cal Planning Act 88 of 1967 was amended and renamed the Environmental Planning Act to make provision for the consideration of environmental 218 oe Exoplon Environmental Managementfactors during land use planning. Soon afterwards the Department of Environmental Affairs was formalized. Another important development at national level was the White Paper on a national policy regar- ding environmental conservation (1980). A direct ‘outcome of this was the Conservation Act 100 of 1982. The control of soll erosion and noxious weeds was addressed by the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act 43 of 1983. Sea birds and other aspects of our sea and coast also received attention during these years, as was the question of noise pollution (1983) and solid waste, mainly by means of provincial ordinances. Litter and waste management are issues that have been addressed extensively in the Environ- mental Conservation Act of 1989. Historically speaking, the most significant legislative devel- ‘opment related to holistic environmental con- cems has been the Environmental Conservation Act 73 of 1989. Many governmental policies and legislation have appeared since then. In the first half of 2003 ten new pieces of environmental legislation appeared. Some of the more recent developments include the Natural Environmental Management: Biodiversity Bill, Protected Areas Bill, The Marine Living Resources Act, White paper on Fisheries, Marine Fisheries Policy for South Africa, Water Services Act, National Water Act, White Paper on Energy, White paper on ‘Tourism, Air quality Bill, and many others. An. updated report on legislation can be viewed on. the website www.environment.gov.za. Official publications play a major role in the conservation effort. publica- tion: Management of the Water Sources of the Republic of South Africa (1986), has been an epic report. Others such as the Integrated Environ- mental Management in South Africa (1992), An Approach to a National Environmental Policy and Strategy for South Africa (1989), A Policy for Coastal Zone Management (Part 1, 1989 and Part 2, 1991), Managing South Africa's Environmental Resources: a Possible New Approach (1993), and ‘Towards @ National Policy for the Use of Envi- ronmental Resource Economics in Environmental Impact Management (1994), Draft White Paper ‘on Conservation and the Sustainable use of SA's Biological Diversity (1997), World Heritage Con- servation draft Bill (1999), Coastal Areas man- agement Bill (2002), White Paper on Sustainable Coastal Development (1999) and many other papers all played important roles. h regard to conservation Speculation wi 8.7 in a future South Africa ‘The following should be read in conjunction with the section on environmental management in chapter 9. ‘As has been comprehensively presented else- where (par. 5.1.1), people's relation to the envi- ronment can be divided into particular stages, namely traditional agriculture, the agrarian and industrial revolutions and the post-industrial phase. In each of these stages conservation has occupied a particular position. @ Initially there was the stage of harmony between humans and the environment. People knew their limitations as determined by the environment and adapted accordingly to it. They did not overplay their hand, and lived within the limitations of what Nature ‘could offer or allow. This state of harmony TCOME 8.3 You should be able to give your speculative ideas on a future scenario for conservation in South Affica. was not always an idyllic "paradise-tike" condition, however, but more often a struggle for survival ofa ‘Chapter 8: Environmental Conservation 219