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    CHAPTER Structure and Composition of the Ecosphere Oo U T C O M E §& After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 2.4. Explain the driving force behind the functioning of the environmental system (energy). 2.2. Define the thermodynamic laws and the law of matter. c 2.3. Distinguish between the biotic and abiotic elements out of which the environment consists and understand their functioning roles. 2.4 Comprehend that humans are elements within the environment and thus forms an integral part of this system. 13 P R E A M B L _ E Solving of real world problems lie in the comprehension of reality, which is by implication a holistic concept. Yet, to understand the bigger picture in its full complexity i.e, to synthesize, necessitates a prior process of analysis in order to understand the components. The scientific approach of reductionism underlies the supreme ultimate goal of science, which is holism. _] the Earth - our habitat fe as we know it is limited to a small, very thin yyer on the surface of the Earth that includes the oceans and the lower layers of the atmos- phere. For example, if we reduce the Earth to a sphere one meter in diameter, the highest moun- tains would only be about 0.8mm high, and the deepest parts of the ocean only about 1mm deep. More than 95% of the atmosphere would be contained in the 5mm above the surface. ssom § 0 ‘This zone where life is possible is known \as the gcosyy*** biosphere. Great parts of the biosphere are nevertheless unsuitable for normal forms of life and are only occupied by exceptionally hardy life forms. Examples include the polar areas, high ‘mountainous regions, areas of exceptionally warm, water like geysers, and zones of very saline water S TCOME 22i: You need to be able to explain the driving force behind the functioning of the environment. No activity on Earth is possible without energy.” such as the Dead Sea. Those areas of the bios- phere where active life is possible on a large scale are known as the eubiosphere or eco- sphere. ecosther 4 eulores plere Svppork 2 Elements of the ecosphere s mentioned we can divide the vironment into ecosystems of various magnitude. An ecosystem is composed of two main components, namely an abiotic or non-living component and a biotic or living ‘component. TCOME 22 You need to be able to define the thermodynamic laws and the law of matter. 14 oEcoplen Environmental Management 2.2.1 The abiotic or non-living component This is the physical environment in which all life on Earth exists and which exerts a definite in- fluence on all forms of life. Except for humans, other living organisms can do very ittle to change these physical conditions in order to create more favourable living conditions. Living ‘organisms must, from sheer necessity, these conditions, as well as the phys determining the conditions, if they are to sur- vive. The following physical environmental com- ponents play an important role in determining life on Earth (although there are many text- books written on this topic, the reader is recom- mended to use Smith, R.L. 1990, Ecology and field biology, for additional information): 2.2.1.4 Energy Energy can be defined as the ability to work. The amount of work that can be carried out is ex- pressed in terms of joules (J). One joule is the work done when an object with a mass of one kilogram (kg) is moved over a horizontal distance of one meter (m) with an acceleration of one meter per second (5). Thus: J = kg x m - 2 2.2.1.4. Forms of energy Energy can be classified into two types, namely kinetic energy and potential energy. Kinetic energy is the energy that an object possesses as a result ofits mass and movement. It can be expressed as K = Ye mv? where K is the kinetic energy, m the mass and v the speed of the object. Kinetic energy is also expressed in joules, for example an object with a mass of 2kg and which moves at a speed of 3 meters per second has a kinetic energy of 9 joules. Potential ‘energy is the energy that an object possesses as result of its position, composition or condition, It can also be regarded as stored energy. For example, a stone that is held in the hand (position) has potential eneray as a result of gravitation; petrol has potential energy because it can drive an engine when combustion takes place (composition), while a compressed spring (condition) has potential energy, which can propel a pellet from an air gun. In a natural system, kinetic and potential energy ‘can adopt various forms. For example, mechan- Ical energy in the form of wind and waves, chemical energy in the form of biomass, elec trical energy in the form of lightning, radi ation energy (radiant energy) in the form of heat and light from the sun and also nuclear energy as a result of radio-active decay from the centre of the Earth, 2.2.4.4.2 Energy laws @ The first energy law This law is also known as the law of energy con- servation or the first law of thermodynamics. t_postulates that eneray cannot be. created.or__. destroyed,but.can only change from.one form.to.. another, usually in an exchange process between Wworsystems. ‘The application of this law is that we have only a limited amount of energy available on Earth, and because all activity is based on consumption of energy, our production capacity is limited by available energy. If we have had unlimited energy available, we could e.g. desalinise the sea and irrigate all of our country with enormous agricultural production as the result. This topic will be discussed further on, Matter and energy Matter, like energy, cannot be created or destroyed by ordinary processes. During nuclear processes matter can, however, be changed to energy and perhaps the opposite can occur as well. This conversion of matter to energy is described by Einstein's theory of relativity and, can_be_ expressed as follows: E = me? where E = energy, m the mass of the matter involved and c the speed of light. As the speed of light is approximately 300 000km per second, it Is dear that a small amount of matter can produce a tremendous amount of energy. This is what happens in a nuclear explosion or in a nuclear reactor. This law also has environmental implications plainly because of the fact that it tells us that we have limited resources available. That what we have available should be used wisely otherwise ‘we will deplete their availability. It also tells us that once we have produced an article, we cannot dispose of it. Everything stays in the system - either as a useful object or as rubbish. This is the essence of pollution: the compilation Of discarded matter in such quantities that the normal natural processes cannot get rid of it by way of absorption and recycling. Pollution is Chapter 2: Structure and Composition of the Ecosphere 15 much more than defacing the visual environ- ment (see chapter 3). @ The second energy law and the degradation of energy This law is also known as the second law of thermodynamics, and It determines that energy-will always move from a higher. quality (concentrated) to a lower quality (less.con- cefitfated). This is known as the degradation of energy. This law can be illustrated by the working of a motorcar engine. High quality potential energy (chemical) in the form of petrol is converted into mechanical energy, which can propel the motorcar. Low quality energy, in the form of heat, is set free mainly through the ‘cooling system in the car. On a cold day a certain amount of this low quality energy can be Used to perform the useful function of heating the interior of the car but afterwards this eneray cannot be used again as itis dissipated in space. Entropy The second energy law can also be stated as follows: When an isolated system Is subjected to. change, thé level of disorder in the systern.will ificrease. This also means that the degradation of énergy will cause greater disorder in the system. For example: the regulated (chemical) energy in petrol is converted to non-regulated heat eneray ‘when the pressure inside the piston chamber of q S voy 7 oe 2. L the engine increases, which then causes the piston to move. This "degree of disorder" is qualified by the use of the term entropy - the greater the state of disorder the greater the degree of entropy in the system. All physical systems tend towards disorder and therefore towards greater entropy. For example: a severe storm over a brickyard has the abilty to totally disrupt the order that exists (neatly piled bricks), to a state of near chaos. The chance that a building (greater order) will be created by this storm is non-existent. However, should this storm hit a house, the chances are very good that only a heap of rubble will remain (chaos). This places a large question mark after the theory of evo- lution, which is based on the assumption that greater order is being created by chance over long periods of time. It must also be noted that the entropy that exists in the universe will also increase in all natural processes. In most (If not all) natural processes the degradation of energy and the increase in the degree of entropy is therefore irreversible. It is only living organisms that have the ability to convert low quality energy to high quality energy, but during this process a large amount of energy is used and heat is set free. A good example of this is photosynthesis in plants where, over a long period of time, energy from the sun is converted to chemical energy (par. 2.2.1.2). This energy Is then later available for humans and animals in Potential and kinetic energy The following serves as an example: if an object (for example a parachutist in a free fall) is set free at a determined height in the atmosphere (for example, from a stationary helicopter) it will, under the influence of gravity, fall with increasing speed towards Earth. As a result of the increasing speed, air resistance to the object will also increase until a maximum speed of approximately 120km per hour is attained. The following therefore occurs: As soon as the object begins its fall, the potential energy (as a result of its position above the Earth) will be converted to kinetic energy (energy as a result of movement). A part of this kinetic energy, as a result of friction, will be transferred to the surrounding air molecules. It is theoretically possible to measure the increased air temperature as a result of this friction. The amount of kinetic eneray lost by the one system (object) will be precisely the same amount of heat energy gained by the other system (air). If the parachute failed to open, the remaining kinetic energy present when the parachutist hits the Earth, will be converted to mechanical energy (transformed energy) which could cause the death of the parachutist. 16 cEzopien Environmental Management the form of food and wood for making fire. 2.2.4.1.3 Radiation Solar radiation is the source of almost all energy in the ecosystem. This radiant energy reaching the Earth on a clear cloudless day consists of 10% ultra-violet radiation, 45% visible light and 45% infra-red radiation. Visible light is the only source of energy that is used in the process of photosynthesis while infra-red radiation is mainly responsible for heating the environment. Visible light is influenced very slightly by atmospheric conditions like cloud cover and, as a result, photosynthesis can take place even on cloudy days. Plants mainly absorb blue and red light as well as infra-red light of longer wave lengths. Infra-red radiation of shorter wave lengths, which forms the most important source of heat energy, is not absorbed by plants and so over- heating of the green leaves cannot take place. ‘The surface of the Earth receives an enormous amount of solar energy each day. Depending on. latitude and cloud cover this amounts to between 750 and 1200 kd per square meter per day - enough to bring between 40 and 60 litres of water from 20°C to boiling point. In the absence of a mechanism whereby this energy could be lost, the Earth would quickly overheat and all life would be wiped out. Incoming radiation is, however, almost completely balanced by outgoing radiation, and the average temperature remains almost constant. At this point in time however, air pollution and an increase in CO, (carbon dioxide) in the atmosphere upsets this balance and a ‘small but significant increase in average temperature Is experienced. This is called the greenhouse effect (see also par. 7.4.2.1.3). ‘The energy balance of the Earth is shown in Fig. 2.1. oe onsen, Gs a | ; reall ATMOSPHERE ? Hol phtatue — ntti ref nn am wer + Ly Seta rorya de unidenauive Figure, 2.1: Energy balance of the Earth 2.24.16 Eeodynamc laws effectively make use ofthe environment i possibly caused by the fact that people know: ‘The greatest obstacle to human attempts to very little about how Nature actually works, In 7 Chapter 2: Structure and Composition of the Ecosphere the human sciences there is a very good grasp necessarily apply in the real biological world, For of, and Insight into the fact that nothing is this reason It would be well to remember that absolute. Natural scientists - or the so-called the Second Law of Thermodynamics can be "exact sciences" - were rather more prone to questioned from a biological point of view. formulate exact ecological laws; these laws were proved in physics laboratories, but they do not See Insight 2.1 and Goldsmith, 1981. ANSIGHT D 7 , . ‘ Energy balance of the Earth Laws of physics and biological life: = are they compatible? Strong arguments are voiced which question the offhand application of physical laws to logical life on Earth, Organisms such as animals do not react in the same way as inorganic materials to environmental change. The effect of a 4kg hammer on granite can be predicated with mathematical calculations; if we hit a dog, different reactions will be elicited. "... it is precisely because of this insistence on trying to understand the world in terms of physics that scientists have been so unsuccessful in understanding the real problems that face us today" (Passmore, 1978). Goldsmith (1981:188) reckons that if, for example entropy was generally valid - also on the terrain of living organisms - then a shortage or energy in Nature would result. The opposite is also true, For example, solar energy is continually changed from a less concentrated form to amuch more ordered and concentrated form by plants. Ecosystems tend towards a type of climax condition where stability is the dominating characteristic, rather than disorder or chaos, "... our problems, rather than being due to a shortage of eneray, are due to a surplus which we have temporarily created by using the energy locked up in fossil fuels that have previously been stored away in the bowels of the Earth" (Goldsmith, 1981:188). One of the major problems associated with the present environmental crisis is the waste of energy. Western communities especially, have degenerated into disposing or throw-away societies. For the sake of convenience and because of a shortage of time, containers are made of plastic and once they have been used they are thrown away instead of cleaning and using them again and again. A second problem arises because we strive towards maximum production instead of optimal production. In the latter case we would strive towards the optimal use of resources, where all aspects relating to input and output would be weighed up against each other and other advantages besides the monetary aspect would also be considered to be important.” 18 o Ecoplen Environmental Management 2.2.1.2 Light ‘Al plants need light to maintain their life processes. By means of the process of photosynthesis (which takes place in the presence of light) and enzymatic action, inorganic elements and compounds such as carbon dioxide, water and nitrogen are transformed into organic compounds such as carbohydrates, oils, and amino acids (par. 3.2.1. AS a result of the absence of light no green plants are found in the ocean depths or in caves). These organic compounds then form the basic food sources for all animals. Moderate ultra-violet radiation can be absorbed through the skin of many animals and is involved in vitamin D synthesis. Another important influence of light on living organisms is known as photoperiodism. This will be discussed in greater detail in par. 3.12. (See also Smith, 1990:124-150) as well as the related aspect of light pollution in par. 7.4.2.7. 2.2.1.3 Water All forms of life are dependent on water for their life processes. It is therefore, not difficult to detect a close relationship between the occur- rence and distribution of plants and animals in an ecosystem and the availability of water. Water covers about 70% of the Earth's surface but is very unevenly distributed. Approximately 97% of the world's supply of water is found in the oceans, 2% as ice in the polar regions and on high mountains, 0,2% as fresh water in rivers and lakes and 0,5% as ground water, the rest is found in the soil, atmosphere and living organ- isms (par. 6.3.3.1 and 2). Less than 1% of the world's supply of water is involved in the hydrological cycle - evapor- ation, precipitation and run-off (par. 3.3.1). ‘The water involved in the hydrological cycle is of cardinal importance for all forms of life outside the oceans and is mainly responsible for the present day distribution patterns of all forms of life, Water is the medium in which freshwater as well {as marine communities exist. One of the largest problems facing terrestrial communities is the preservation and replenishment of the water supply in the body. Many plants and animals have made special adaptations in order to pre- serve and store water. For example, a watertight integument (skin) composed of scales in TCOME 2.3 You need to be able to distinguish between the role of the biotic and abiotic elements out of which the environment consists and explain their roles in the functioning of the environment as a system. reptiles, keratin in insects, or leathery leaves with few stoma in plants (par. 4.4.1.1.1). The humidity of the air is also important for some forms of life. If the air is very dry, evapo- ration from the skin can be so great that the organism can die of dehydration. Many animals, like frogs, which are prone to dehy- dration, only come out at night when the relative humidity of the air is usually fairly high. Sweating is a method to control the body temperature. If relative humidity is high, with a simultaneously high air temperature, evaporation from the skin can be greatly reduced. The body temperature can then rise to @ level that could lead to death (see Smith, 1990:74-95), Aspects of degradation of water as a resource are given in par. 7.4.2.2 and its management in par. 9.7.2.1. 2.2.4.4 Temperature Most plants and animals have a very low tol- erance for temperature change as well as temperature extremes. The temperature of the air and the soil therefore exert a-definite in- fluence on the distribution of life on Earth. The warm and temperate climatic areas have the largest variety and numbers of piant and animal species. Ordinary life forms are limited mainly to temperature zones of between 1°C and 50°C, that is the temperature variation between water in the polar areas and the temperature of some hot water springs, where some life forms can. exist. On land the temperature variations are greater than those in water - daily as well as annually. Some animals are able to maintain their body temperature at a relatively constant level for example, birds and mammals, and these are called endotherms or homoiotherms, Chapter 2: Structure and Composition of the Ecosphere 19 sometimes also called thermoregulators. The temperature of plants and most other animals ‘changes according to environmental conditions. Such animals are called ectotherms or p kilotherms (non-regulators). If the tem- erature of the environment decreases the metabolism of these animals also slows down, even their speed of movement is influenced. On cold mornings reptiles and insects are very sluggish but by midday their reactions are surprisingly fast, as some herpetologists have found out to their detriment (see also par. 44.1.1.3). 2.2. 5 Atmosphere (air) and wind From the mixture of gases comprising the Earth's atmosphere, living organisms obtain life-giving elements such as oxygen for respiration, carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, nitrogen for protein synthesis and in some cases moisture for their chemical reactions. With the exception of water vapour, the ratio between the gases in the atmosphere is relatively constant and terrestr organisms seldom have any problems in this respect. In aquatic environments, concentra- tions of gases that are either too high or too low, often occur. In environments with high levels of biological activity, for example, pollution as a result of biological waste disposal, dissolved ‘oxygen in the water is often depleted at a very high rate, The result is that those species that have a high oxygen demand tend to die off. For the same reasons the carbon dioxide content of the water can rise to such high levels that it can be detrimental to certain species. For a healthy aquatic community to exist, itis imperative that the oxygen concentration in the water never falls below 5 milligrams per litre, Another important effect of atmospheric change On life is the influence of decreasing air pressure with increasing height above sea level. Approx- imately one third of the total amount of gases present in the atmosphere is found below the 4000-meter level. This decrease in atmospheric pressure also leads to a decrease in the avail- ability of gases such as carbon dioxide which only constitutes about 0.03% of the atmosphere. This necessitates special adaptations to any life form that is found above 4000m. Both humans and animals can, to a certain extent, overcome short-term changes in air pressure by means of acclimatisation. The influence of a decrease in air pressure on plant life is not very clear, ‘The most important role of wind in the eco- system is the advection of moist air from the ocean to terrestrial environments as well as the mixing of atmospheric gases necessary for the maintenance of the gas balance In the atmos- phere. Wind also has certain physical influences on the environment, such as storm damage, and the occurrence of trees on mountain slopes. Wind from a constant direction may also influ= ence the growth patterns of certain plant types, for example, the bristle cone pines on the moun- tains of California in the USA. Wind is also an important instrument for pollination, distribution of seeds and even of small animals such as spiders, mites, etc. (see Smith, 1990:96-123). ‘Aspects of alr as a resource is discussed in par. 6.3.5, its degradation in par. 7.4.2.1 and its management par. 9.7.2.2. 2.2.1.6 Soil Soil, together with temperature and the avai lability of water, is arguably, one of the most important factors determining the nature of terrestrial ecosystems (see also par. 6.3.6; 7.3.3 and 9.7.2.3). 2.2.1.6. Soil characteristics Soil can be defined as the uppermost weathered layer of the Earth's surface, together with gases, water, dissolved inorganic salts, living organisms and their remains that occur in this layer. Soil is the growth medium that supports almost all terrestrial plant and animal life, Soll is one of the more permanent and less changeable components of the ecosystem. Nevertheless, itis easily damaged through incorrect use, Because of the permanent nature Of soil, it is difficult to restore It to its prior con- dition once it has been damaged. Soil can be described and classified according to the fol lowing characteristics: colour, consistency, tex- ture, structure, depth, nutrient status, acidity levels (pH), and other. For further study, refer to the following sources in this specific order: ‘Smith, 1990; Foth and Turk, 1972; Money, 1978. 2.2.1.6.2 Soil genesis Soils begin with the weathering of rocks and their minerals. Exposed to the combined action of water, wind and temperature, rock surfaces peel and flake away. Water seeps into crevices, freezes, expands, and cracks the rock into smaller pieces. Accompanying this disintegration and continuing long afterward is the decom= position of the minerals themselves. Water and 20 cE copan Environmental Management carbon dioxide combine to form carbonic acid, which reacts with calcium and magnesium in the rock to form carbonates. These either accumu- late deeper in the rock material or are carried away, depending on the amount of water passing through. Primary minerals that contain alu- mminium and silicon, such as feldspar, are con- verted to secondary minerals such as clay. As iron is especially reactive with water and oxygen; iron-bearing minerals are prone to rapid decom- position. Iron either remains oxidised in the red ferric state or may be reduced to the grey ferrous state. Fine particles, especially clays, are shifted of rearranged within the mass by perco- lating water and on the surface by runoff, wind, or ice. Eventually the rock is broken down into loose material; this may remain in place, but frequently much of itis lifted, sorted and carried away. Material transported by wind from one area to another is known as loess. Material transported by water Is known as alluvial (river), lacustrine (iake), and marine (sea) deposits. Material transported by glacial ice Is known as, till, In a few places soll materials come from accumulated organic matter such as peat. Where material accumulates at the foot of a cliff due to gravitational force alone, itis called collovial matter. Materials remaining in the place where they are formed are called residual. This mantle of unconsolidated material is called the regolith. It may consist of slightly weathered material with fresh primary minerals, or it may be intensely weathered and consist of highly resistant mine- rals such as quartz. Because of variation in slope, climate and vegetation, many different soils can develop in the same regolith. Plants eventually grow on this weathered mate~ rial. The thickness of the regolith, the kind of rock from which it was formed, and the degree of weathering affect the fertility and water regime of the soil. Weathering goes on under plant cover, roots penetrate and further break down the regolith. Plants draw nutrients from lower down and add them to the surface and, in doing so, recapture minerals carried deep into the material by weathering and/or leaching processes. Through photosynthesis plants capture the sun's energy and add a portion of it in the form of organic carbon to the soll each year. This energy source, the plant debris, enables bacteria, fungi, earthworms and other soil ‘organisms to colonize the area. The breakdown of organic debris into humus is accomplished by decomposition and, finally, mineralization. Higher organisms - millipedes, centipedes, earthworms, mites, grasshoppers, and others - consume fresh material and leave partially decomposed products in their excreta. ‘This is further decomposed by micro-organisms, the bacteria and fungi, into various compounds’ of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, resins, ash, etc. These compounds are then broken down into simpler products such as carbon dioxide, water, minerals, and salts. The latter process is called mineralization. The organic matter that remains Is called humus. It is not stable, as it represents a stage in the decomposition of soil organic matter. New humus is being formed as old humus is being destroyed by mineralisation. The ratio set up between the formation of new humus and the destruction of the old determines the amount of humus in the soil. The activities of soil organisms, the acids produced by them and the continual addition of organic matter to mineral matter, produce profound changes in the weathered material. Rain falling upon and filtering through the accumulating organic matter picks up acids and minerals in solution, reaches mineral soil, and sets up a chain of complex chemical reactions, This continues in the regolith. Caldum, potassium, sodium, and other mineral elements, soluble salts and carbonates are carried in solution by percolating water deeper into the soil (illuviation) or washed away into streams, rivers, and eventually the sea (eluviation). The greater the rainfall, the more water moves down through the soil and the less moves upward. Thus high precipitation results in heavy leaching and chemical weathering, particularly in regions of high temperatures. ‘These chemical reactions tend to be localized within the regolith, Fine particles, especially days, also move downward. These localized chemical and physical processes in the parent material result in the development of layers in the soil, called horizons, which impart to the soil a distinctive profile. 2. 6.3 Soil properties Soil properties include soil texture, structure, air, moisture, biotic content and chemical com- position, Soil texture Is determined by the size Of the rock particles within the soil. The largest soil particles are gravel, which consists of frag- ‘ments larger than 2,0 millimetres in diameter. Particles between 0,05 and 2,0 millimetres are classified as sand. Silt particles range from 0,002 to 0,05 millimetres in diameter, and the smallest Chapter 2: Structure and Composition of the Ecosphere 21 particles are clay particles, which are less than 0,002 millimetres in diameter. Large particles, such as sand and gravel, have many tiny spaces between them, which allow both air and water to fiow through the soil. Water drains from this kind Of soil very rapidly, often carrying valuable nutrients Out of the soil or to lower soil layers, where they are beyond the reach of plant roots. Clay particles tend to be fiat and are easily packed together to form waterproof layers. Soils with high clay content do not drain well and are poorly aerated. Because water does not flow through clay easly, clay soils tend to stay moist for longer periods of time and do not easily lose minerals to infiltrating water. They are thus nutrient-rich. Soils rarely consist of a single size of particle. Various particles are mixed in many different combinations, resulting in many diffe~ rent soil classifications like sitty clay, sit loam, sandy loam, etc. see Enger & Smith, 1995, Fig. 13.3). An ideal soil is a loam, which combines the good aeration and drainage properties of large parties with the nutrient-retention ability of clay particles. Soil structure refers to the way various soil particles clump together. Sand particles do not ‘clump, and therefore, sandy soils lack structure, whereas clay soils tend to stick together in large clumps. A good soil forms small clumps that crumble easily. This ability to crumble is known as the soll's friability. A good soil will crumble and has spaces to allow air and water to mix with the soil. In fact, the air and water content of the soil depends upon the presence of these spaces. In good soil, about two-thirds of the spaces contain air after the excess water has drained. The air in these spaces provides oxygen for plant roots. Water occupies the remaining soil space, The relations between the amount of air and water are not fixed. After heavy rain, all spaces may be filled with water. If some of the excess water does not drain from the soil, plant roots may die from lack of oxygen. They are literally drowned. Also, if there is not enough soil moisture, plants wilt from lack of water. Soll moisture and air are also important in deter- mining the numbers and kinds of organisms present in the soil. Protozoa, nematodes, earth- worms, insects, bacteria, and fungi are typical inhabitants of soll. The protozoa act as para~ sites on other forms of soil organisms and, therefore, help to regulate the population size of other soll organisms. Nematodes, which are often called roundworms, may aid in the re~ cycling of dead organic matter. Even though insects contribute to soil properties by forming burrows and recycling organic materials, some are also major crop pests that feed on plant roots. Bacteria and fungi are particularly important in the decay and recycling of mate- rials, Their chemical activities change complex organic materials into nutrients that can be used by plants. For example, these micro-organisms can convert the nitrogen contained in the protein component of organic matter into ammonia or nitrate, nitrogen compounds that can be utilized by plants. Colour is an indication of useful and important characteristics and qualities which cannot be measured directly. Colour is usually identified according to the Munsell colour chart. A red colour normally implies good draining, whereas a yellow colour may indicate limited draining. Yellow grey, greyish and whitish colours normally indicate that the soil may be subjected to peri- ‘odic water logging. Black (and associated dark colours) indicate the possibility of a high organic or clay content and the presence of large ‘amounts of calcium and magnesium. This however is an over simplification and the reader Is referred to references at the end of chapter 2. 2.2:1.6.4 Soil profile ‘The soil profile comprises a series of horizontal layers of different chemical composition, struc ture, texture, or particle size, porosity, acidity, colour and amount of organic matter. Each re- cognisable layer is known as @ horizon (Fig. 2.2) ‘The uppermost layer of the soll contains more organic matter than the deeper layers. This layer is known as the A-horizon or topsoil. The thickness of the A-horizon may vary from less than a centimetre on steep mountain slopes to over a meter in rich grasslands. The majority of the living organisms and nutrients are found near the top of the A-horizon. The lower portions of the A-horizon often contain few nutrients because water flowing from the top to deeper layers dissolves and transports nutrients to the next horizon, This process is known as leaching. ‘The B-horizon, which is often called the subsoil, contains less organic material, fewer organisms and a higher accumulation of nutrients leached from higher levels. Because of this, the B-horizon in many soils is a valuable source of nutrients for plants. Such subsoils support a well-developed root system. Because the amount of leaching is dependent on the available rainfall, areas where rainfall is low may have a poorly developed B-horizon. 22 © Ecoplan Environmental Management Fogel eey (22081) enon ot ‘Orpen party econpoes 2. 5, trarenontonrtonc c (as rm Egsr Sen 1996 Figure. 2.2: Soil profile ‘The layer below the subsoil is known as the C-horizon, and it consists of partly weathered parent material. This parent material contains no organic mate- rials, but it does contribute to some of the soil's properties. The chemical composition of the C- horizon helps to determine the pH of the soll. ‘The Chorizon may also influence the soil's rate of water absorption and retention. In some soils, clay or other minerals may accumulate and form an impermeable "hardpan layer that limits the growth of roots and may prevent water from reaching the soil's deeper layers. Calcium and iron compounds called calcretes and ferri- ccretes are also often deposited in layers in the soil due to evaporation. Desert soils have very poorly developed horizons since there Is little rainfall to leach ‘materials from upper layers to lower layers. In addition, the low rate of plant growth con- tributes little organic matter to the soil. In cold wet climates there is an accumulation of organic material due to reduced decompo- sition as well as the acidity of the soil. Hot, humid climates also tend to have poorty devel- ‘oped soll horizons since the organic matter decays very rapidly, and soluble substances are carried away by the abundant rainfall. 2.2.1.7. Topography and landforms. Although topography does not seem to have a direct influence on the composition and function- ing of an ecosystem, indirect influences may however, result. For example, the angle at which the sun strikes a slope may influence the vege- tation cover on that slope. There is also a 1°C decrease in temperature with every 100-meter Increase in height above sea level. The orien- tation of slopes has certain definite microclima- tological influences on the distribution of plant and animal species while certain orographic fac- tors result in the formation of rainfall zones and rainfall shadow areas. The study of landforms (geomorphology) Is a field of study in its own right. Far from being a stagnant component of the environment, Iand- forms form part of a dynamic system (Cooks, 1992). Slope elements like crests, cliffs, kranzes, valleys and floodplains are all directly or indirectly the results of the interaction between crustal movements, rock types and climate over time. Each of these landforms has a direct influence on the soil, vegetation, animal life and human occu- pation; and in tur is also influenced by these factors. There is thus a continuous reciprocal interaction between landforms and all other environmental factors. Chapter 2: Structure and Composition of the Ecosphere 23 2.2.1.8 Fire ire caused by natural factors such as lightning, is not necessarily harmful to a stable ecosystem. Many ecosystems have adapted to seasonal fires, such as those that occur in the savannah regions of the world. Fire is actually a very important ecological factor in most terrestrial ecosystems. ‘Three conditions are necessary for fire to assume ecological importance: (1) sufficient accumulation of organic matter; (2) dry weather conditions to render the material combustible and (3) a source of ignition. Tropical rain forests and the Arctic tundra are the only two ecosystems where fire caused by natural factors is rare. As a selection mechanism, fire has a pronounced impact on the ecosystem. It reduces dead and dry organic matter to soluble compounds, there- by releasing phosphorus, calcium, potassium, and other elements for rapid recycling, stimu- lating new growth. Considerable nitrogen may be lost to the atmosphere, but unless combustion produces white ash, some nitrogen will remain, thus increasing the total nitrogen content of the surface soll Plants that are resistant to fire are characterized by properties such as underground stems and buds, aerial parts that die off annually, dormant Underground buds at the soil surface or thick fire-resistant bark. Fire-tolerant species are also characterized by an intolerance of shade and the requirement of a mineral soil and full sunlight for the germination of seeds and growth of seedlings. Other plant species, while not fire~ resistant as individual plants, require fire in their life cycle to release seeds from cones or provide a seedbed of mineral soil, The seeds of some Acacia species are very hard and do not germi- nate easily; in these cases, fire may be an advantage to the germination process. The fire liy of the fynbos does not flower effectively without periodic veld fires. The fynbos seems to require fire every 10-15 years in order to reach its climax. If fires are controlled, an ecosystem can change over time until it eventually differs completely from the original. Fire can, for example, protect grass from woody competition and maintain it as dominant vegetation thereby increasing its forage value. A change in the composition of the plant species present in an area will also undoubtedly hrave an influence on the composition of the animal life present. Plants that have become adapted to a fire ecology are called pyrophytes. When humans appeared on the scene, fire became an even more powerful influence on vegetation, for they added a new dimension. ‘Whereas lightning fires are random and often Periodic, humans often set fires deliberately to modify or change the environment for their own ends. Fires became more numerous over the years, and their pattern was and is adjusted accordingly to the season, agricultural calendars, or even religious beliefs. Fires were set to clear ground for agricultural use, improve conditions for hunting, develop grass and shrubby vege- tation attractive to game, Improve forage for grazing, open up the countryside, reduce sur- prise attacks from enemies, develop areas for Wild frut, berries and other desirable plants, and to make travel easier. Some fires were set simply for excitement or revenge; others escaped from ‘camp and trash fires. Whatever the reason, most fires set by people burn in the non-grawing season of fall and spring when damage can be much more severe. AS humans spread from the fire-evolved grasslands and savannas to the more humid forested areas, they introduced fire into less fire-resistant vege- tation types, such as hardwood forests. Because of the destructiveness of induced fires in some localities, the other extreme has occurred, namely the exclusion of all fire. Such exclusion can have as deleterious an effect on the eco- system as too frequent or too hot fires. The lack of periodic fires allows organic material to accu- mulate. Then, when fires do start, they are much hotter and more destructive than more frequent cool fires. Carefully used, fire can be an important tool in the regulation and manipulation of vegetation. Tt can be used to improve pasture and increase the net productivity of grasslands. It can reduce the hazard of destructive forest fires by removing litter before it accumulates extensively and it can improve the seed bed for regeneration of cer- tain forest types and tree species. It can be used to improve wildlife habitats, to maintain certain fire-controlled ecosystems, to maintain the naturalness of wilderness areas, and even to improve the aesthetics of the natural landscape. If fires are started "out of season" in fire resis- tant ecosystems or in ecosystems that are not adapted to fire, tremendous damage may be caused. Plant populations that may be hundreds or even thousands of years old can be irrepara- bly damaged within a few hours. This is espe- cially true in the case of crown fires where branches and leaves of very large trees are 24 obcopan Environmental Management destroyed. In contrast a surface fire only burns away dry grass, leaves and shrubs. Nutrients are not lost as indicated by the light colour of the smoke. In the case of crown fires a thick, black smoke indicates a large loss of nutrients. 2.2.1.9 Salinity of water ‘The salinity of water is very important in aquatic ecosystems, especially in the contact zones between fresh and salt water ecosystems such as lagoons, river mouths, estuaries and inland salt lakes. In order to survive in saline or fresh water conditions, organisms must possess certain phys- [ological adaptations. The aim of these adap- tations are mainly to ensure that osmotic pressure inside the body is kept constant The difference between the two environments is of such a nature, that very few organisms can survive in both freshwater and saline water; especially for long periods of time. In freshwater organisms there is a higher ‘concentration of dissolved substances, but a lower concentration of water inside the body of the organism compared to the surrounding water. As a result of diffusion dissolved substances will always move from a higher to a lower concen- tration. Substances inside the body of the organism will tend to move to the outside, while water will move into the body. This movement takes place mainly on those surfaces adapted to the exchange of material such as the gills and digestive system of fish as well as the naked skin area of other animals like amphibians. In the case of salt water organisms the problem is just the opposite. The salts in the surrounding medium are approximately one third greater than those present in the body of the organism while the concentration of water is much lower. By means of diffusion, salts will enter the body while water will in turn leave the body and cause dehydration. The kidneys (or similar organs) are responsible for maintaining the osmotic balance in the body. Both freshwater and marine animals ingest water with their food. In the case of fresh water animals the kidneys are adapted to excrete large quantities of diluted (or hypo-osmotic) urine while at the same time life maintaining salts are retained in the body. On the other hand the kidneys of salt water animals can secrete a very concentrated (or iso-osmotic) urine in very small quantities in ‘order to get rid of superfluous salts which enter the body, while the essential water is retained. Marine birds have special tear or nose glands which can secrete highly concentrated saline solutions. In most cases the osmotic pressure of invertebrates and sea plants is equal to that of the surrounding water and consequently they do not have the same problems with osmo- regulation. 2.2.1.10 Nutrients Organisms are dependent on the nutrients that ‘can be obtained from the environment (compare Liebig’s Law of the Minimum, as well as the Tolerance concept - par. 3.1.3). Elements such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, calcium and phosphorous are needed in very large quantities, and are known as macro-nutrients, while iron, ‘manganese, copper, sodium, potassium and others are needed in much smaller quantities and are known as micro-nutrients or trace elements. ‘A total of about 35 elements are needed for the healthy functioning of the ecosystem. Plants obtain their nutrients mainly via their roots (inorganic salts), or by means of the leaves (gases) while single celled- and some other plants can obtain their nutrients directly from the surrounding medium. Animals obtain their food either directly (herbi- vores) or indirectly (predators, parasites, decomposers) from plants. Both plant and animal tissue consists mainly of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils. Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen are the most important elements in these compounds, and are needed in very large quantities by plants. Many animals have special requirements such as calcium and phosphorous for bone formation, iron for the formation of haemoglobin which is, the oxygen carrier in the blood as well as sodium and potassium for the electrical functioning of nerves and muscles. If these nutrients cannot be ‘obtained from normal food sources then they have to be supplemented, usually in very special ways. ‘The salt and calcium licks in brackish ground are places where herbivores can obtain additional elements from the soil. In the case of farm animals the farmer will make these elements available by supplying special feed blocks in addition to the normal food rations, Chapter 2: Structure and Composition of the Ecosphere 25 2.2.2 The biotic or living component Besides the non-living or abiotic environmental elements, the ecosystem also consists of a living o biotic component as well as a non-living compo- nent, but of living origin. The position and influ- fence of humans on the ecosystem has grown to such an extent over the last few thousand years and reached such dimensions that it is justifiable to study the human impact on the ecosystem sepa~ rately (par. 2.2.2.4 and chapter 5), See also par. 5.2.2.1; 6.3.4/5; 7.2.2; 7.3.1 and 9.7.2.4/5 for ‘additional aspects of plants and animals as resources. 2.2.2.1 Vegetation ‘The most important function of plants in the eco~ system is the production of nutrients upon which all life in the ensuing trophic levels (par. 3.2.1) depends. As a result green plants are known as primary producers and all ecosystems are pri- marily dependent on green plants. Humans are also dependent on plants both directly and indi- rectly for their food requirements. Photosynthesis, which occurs in green plants, is the only process ‘on Earth capable of providing solar energy in a Useful form to ecosystems. ‘The nature, occurrence and distribution of plants also influences to a great extent the occurrence and distribution of animal life. Plants influence the formation and organic content of soil too. The. ‘foots of plants bind the soil and protect it from. “erosion by floodwater, while on the surface of the ‘oil the plant cover minimizes the effects of heavy rain on the soil. Plants are also responsible for the recycling of necessary nutrients in the soil. Trees remove important nutrients from deeper soil layers ‘and, especially through the leaves, redeposit these nutrients on the surface of the soil where the process of decay will, through time, make these Rutrients available to plants with a shallower root system. Plants have a moderating effect on the surface temperature of the soil as they influence the amount of solar radiation that ultimately reaches the surface. The micro-climate is changed in such ‘a way that the micro-organisms that break down ‘organic matter are favourably influenced. Plants also influence air movement which in turn influ- ences evaporation, humidity and temperature. AS plants are most often the dominant visual compo nent in a landscape this will also affect many human activities. Two forms of plant life can be larly distinguished, namely green plants and non-green plants. 2.2.2.1.1 Green plants Green plants are well adapted to the environment in which they occur although these environments can differ drastically from one another. On the basis of adaptation, green plants can be classified into four general groups, namely, tundra, forest,

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