ENGINE PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

An increase in thermal efficiency of a spark-ignition engine occurs if the combustion time is

decreased – a greater temperature can be achieved before expansion and more work
accomplished for the same energy supplied. One method is to increase the flame velocity. As the
flame velocity increases, however, the engine begins to run roughly, because of unbalanced
pressure waves moving across the piston top. The rapidly burning fuel in one region causes a
localized pressure increase. The unbalanced pressure causes a pressure wave to move across the
cylinder trying to achieve equilibrium. If localized self-ignition of the mixture occurs, severe
pressure rises will be created. The pressure produced may be supersonic and move across the
cylinder very quickly, producing a knocking noise. The combined effects of auto-ignition and the
noise are called detonation. This obviously is not good for the engine surfaces. Pitting may occur
on the metal surfaces, and cracks may develop from high-speed, cyclic knocking. The formation
and movements of shock waves is an irreversible process. The energy thus spent cannot be used
for work and has a deleterious effect on engine efficiency. There are fuel additives that resists
detonation. The octane rating of fuel is a measure of its resistance to detonation. The greater the
octane number, the more resistant the fuel is to detonation.
In compression-ignition engines a spark plug is not needed to ignite the fuel; the temperature of
the compressed air is sufficiently high to accomplish this. Fuel is sprayed into the cylinder at the
proper instant, and the hot air causes the fuel oil droplets to vaporize. Then, as ignition
temperature is reached, combustion occurs. The delay between the injection and the combustion
is called ignition delay. The fuel droplets are a cool liquid when they enter and must be broken
into a fine spray so vaporization and combustion can occur. As in the spark-ignition engine, a
discontinuous combustion process can cause knocking. One means of preventing auto-ignition is
use of a fuel with a low ignition temperature. The fuel will ignite as it is injected into the cylinder,
and the flame will sustain the combustion as more fuel is injected. The ignitability of the fuel is
rated by its octane number – the greater the ignitability, the higher the rating. Considerably, excess
air must also be provided in the diesel engine to ensure combustion of the liquid fuel droplets. If
the fuel is heated to a high temperature in the absence of oxygen, cracking occurs, and carbon is
formed. This is manifested as a sooty exhaust.
At reduced power the compression-ignition engine is more efficient than the spark-ignition
engine. This is due, in part, to the combustion process. at a reduced load less fuel is needed. In the
spark-ignition engine the air flow must be restricted to maintain the correct fuel/air ratio. The
throttling loss is irreversible, and the loss of available energy reduces the thermal efficiency of the
engine. In the compression-ignition engine, on the other hand, the fuel and air systems are
separate, and the fuel can be decreased independently of the air with no resulting throttling
losses. The fuel/air ratio mat be smaller than 0.01, and, as the ratio decreases, the engine
efficiency approaches that of the air-standard Diesel engine.

ENGINE EFFICIENCIES
Similar to gas compressor, the function of the intake stroke of the engine is to draw air into the
cylinder. The term volumetric efficiency describes how efficient air is drawn into the engine. The
ideal volumetric efficiency, 𝜂 v, is the ratio of the volume (mass) of air actually drawn in divided by
the maximum possible amount of air that could be drawn in, the displacement volume (mass).
Either mass or volume may be used in defining volumetric efficiency, though volume is used more
frequently.

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝜂𝜐 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (1)

Figure 1 illustrates the intake stroke of a four-stroke cycle internal combustion engine. Notice that
at the top dead center some unburned gas remains and expands as the piston moves downward,
until the pressure in the cylinder is less than the intake manifold pressure and air flows into the
cylinder. Thus, the volume of the new air charge for each intake stroke is V1 – V4, while the piston
displacement, VPD, is V1 – V3. The volumetric efficiency is

𝑉1 −𝑉4
𝜂𝜐 = (2)
𝑉𝑃𝐷

From the definition of percentage of clearance, V3 = cVPD, noting that V1 = VPD + cVPD. Substituting
into equation (2) yields
1
𝑝 𝑛
𝜂𝜐 = 1 + 𝑐 − 𝑐 (𝑝3) (3)
1

p
pexh 3

pVn = C

pin 4 1

VPD

piston displacement

V3 V1 V
TDC BDC

Figure 1 – Intake stroke of a four-stroke cycle internal combustion engine.

In analyzing equation (2), it should be noted that the volumetric efficiency decreases as the
clearance increases and as the pressure at the top dead center increases. An increase of either
effect will cause the mass of air entering to be less because of a greater mass of trapped air at top
dead center.
In an actual engine, additional effects cause the volumetric efficiency to decrease. The air in the
intake manifold must be at a higher pressure than that in the cylinder in order for the air to flow.
There are frictional effects to overcome in flowing around intake valves, as well as flow
irreversibilities in the cylinder itself. In addition, the cylinder walls are hot, which raises the
temperature of the incoming air. These combined effects serve to reduce the mass, hence, the
volume, of surrounding air that can be drawn into the engine. To account for these effects, the
volumetric efficiency is reduced because the pressure inside the cylinder at state 1, the beginning
of compression, is less than the pressure of the surrounding air; and the heating-effect term is the
ratio of the temperature of the surrounding air, To, to the temperature of the gas at state 1. Thus,

𝑇
𝜂𝜐(𝑎𝑐𝑡) = 𝜂𝜐 (𝑇𝑜) (4)
1

There are basic measurements and indications of an engine’s performance. From the
measurements, an indication of how well the engine is producing power can be obtained. As a
fluid passes through an engine, it performs work on the engine; for example, it moves a piston or
turns a turbine wheel. This is indicated work, or Wi, the work the fluid indicates it has
accomplished. This is usually expressed in power, the time rate of doing work, as the indicated
power 𝑊̇𝑖 , expressed in kilowatts. Not all the work produced by the fluid is delivered to the engine
shaft, however; some of it must overcome the friction in the engine, and it must be noted the
pumping losses in the exhaust and intake processes. This is the frictional work, Wf and the power
is the friction power, 𝑊̇𝑓 . The remaining portion of the indicated work can be used to drive an
automobile, propel a ship, or accomplish whatever purpose the engine may have. The work is
called the shaft or brake work, Wb, and the associated power is the brake power, 𝑊̇𝑏 .

Indicated work – friction work = brake work

Wi - Wf = Wb

Several efficiencies may be determined for an engine: two engine efficiencies are the brake engine
efficiency 𝜂𝑏 ; and the indicated engine efficiency 𝜂𝑖 . All efficiencies are the desired effect divided
by the expense of producing the effect.

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

𝜂𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 (5)

Thus,
𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊𝑏
𝜂𝑏 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = (6)
𝑊

𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊𝑖
𝜂𝑖 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = (7)
𝑊

The mechanical efficiency of an engine 𝜂𝑚 , is an indication of how well the engine could convert
the indicated work into brake work, or
 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊𝑏
𝜂𝑚 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = (8)
𝑊𝑖

There are thermal efficiencies for the engine also. The thermal efficiency is defined as

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

and since there are two work terms, there are two thermal efficiencies. The brake thermal
efficiency 𝜂𝑡𝑏 , is

𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊̇𝑏

𝜂𝑡𝑏 = = 𝑚̇ (9)
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑓 ℎ𝑅𝑃

and the indicated thermal efficiency 𝜂𝑡𝑖 , is

𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊̇𝑖

𝜂𝑡𝑖 = = 𝑚̇ (10)
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑓 ℎ𝑅𝑃

The higher heating value of the fuel is typically used. There are many ways to relate the various
efficiencies by algebraic manipulation, which is best left for the individual problem.

POWER MEASUREMENT
Various work forms and engine efficiencies have been discussed. How are these work terms
measured experimentally? The brake work may be measured by determining the power generated
by the rotating shaft. For low-speed, low-power engines, this may be accomplished with the use
of a prony brake (Figure 2). For higher powers and speeds, a hydraulic or electric dynamometer is
used, and the output is typically measured electrically. Consider the prony brake, as this is the
simplest case.

Engine
drive shaft scale
flywheel friction band
adjusting screw F

r moment arm
friction f f

Figure 2 – A schematic diagram of a prony brake.

The brake work is dissipated as friction on a water-cooled friction band, similar to a brake shoe
on an automobile. Work is defined as a force acting through a distance. For one revolution of the
engine, a point on the perimeter of the flywheel will move a distance 2πr. A uniform friction f
acts against the flywheel throughout the revolution; thus, the work dissipated as friction during
the revolution is
work during one revolution = force x distance = 2πrf

The turning moment rf, produced by the drive shaft is balanced by an equal and opposite moment,
which is the product of the length of the moment arm R, and the force on the scale F. Thus,
rf = RF
work during one revolution = 2πRF
If the number of revolutions per unit time n is known, then the time rate of doing work, or power
maybe calculated.

𝑊̇𝒃 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐹𝑛 (11)

The product of the moment arm R and the force F, is called the torque 𝜏 (tau), of the engine. The
torque is the turning moment exerted by the tangential force acting at a distance from the axis of
rotation. Thus, equation (11) could be written as

𝑊̇𝑏 = 2𝜋𝜏𝑛 (12)

Since the torque of an engine is frequently referred to and is sometimes confused with power, the
following example should help keep the two distinct. Torque is the capacity to do work, whereas,
power is the rate at which the work may be done. Consider a truck pulling a load - the torque will
determine whether or not the truck is able to pull the load; the power will determine how fast the
load may be pulled.
If a test is being run on the prony brake, the brake arm will exert an initial force, or tare. This must
be subtracted from the scale reading to find the force exerted by the engine.
The indicated work is found by determining the pV diagram of the engine. An indicator card of the
cycle is taken either mechanically or with an oscilloscope. The work is the net area enclosed by the
cycle processes. This area divided by the length of stroke will give the mean effective pressure.
The indicated mean effective pressure 𝑝𝑚𝑖 , is determined by knowing the indicated work.

𝑊̇𝑖
𝑝𝑚𝑖 = (13)
𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

The brake mean effective pressure 𝑝𝑚𝑏 , is

𝑊̇
𝑏
𝑝𝑚𝑏 = 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (14)

The power may be determined in terms of the mean effective pressure.

piston displacement = LA
where L is the length of stroke and A is the area of the piston.

𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝑝𝑚𝑖 𝐿𝐴 = 𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝑛( )
𝑠

𝑝𝑚𝑖 𝐿𝐴𝑛 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

∴ 𝑊̇𝑖 = 𝑝𝑚𝑖 𝐿𝐴𝑛 (15)

Similarly,
𝑊̇𝑏 = 𝑝𝑚𝑏 𝐿𝐴𝑛 (16)

The important concept to remember about mean effective pressure is that it is an artificial
pressure based on the work of the cycle.

Examples:
13.34/478 – Burghardt
A Diesel engine with a compression ratio of 14.5 starts the compression stroke with air at 101 kPaa
and 312 K. Fuel with a heating value of 43 260 kJ/kg is used with a ratio of 0.033 3 kg fuel/kg air.
The airflow to the engine is measured to be 0.10 m 3/s. Use the ideal gas law for air and determine
(a) the maximum temperature; (b) the mean effective pressure; (c) the maximum power.
Given: Diesel engine
r = 14.5
p1 = 101 kPaa
T1 = 312 K
hRP = 43 260 kJ/kg (heating value of fuel)
rf/a = 0.033 3 kg fuel/kg air
𝑉1̇ = 0.10 m3/s
Required:
(a) T3 = ?
(b) pm = ?
(c) 𝑊̇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ?
Solution:
(a) Consider the process 1 – 2: S =C
𝑇2 𝑉 𝑘−1
= ( 1) = (𝑟)𝑘−1
𝑇1 𝑉2

𝑇2 = (312 𝐾)(14.5)1.4−1 = 909 𝐾

The mass flow rate of air into the engine is

𝑘𝑁 𝑚3
𝑝1 𝑉̇1 (101 2 )(0.10 𝑠 ) 𝑘𝑔
𝑚
𝑚̇1 = = 𝑘𝑁−𝑚 = 0.112 8
𝑅𝑇1 (0.287 08 𝑘𝑔−𝐾 )(312 𝐾) 𝑠
For the mass flow rate of the fuel,
𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑚̇𝑓 = 𝑟𝑓/𝑎 (𝑚̇1 ) = (0.033 3 ) (0.112 8 )
𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠
𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇𝑓 = 0.003 76 𝑠
The heat added is therefore,
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑓 ℎ𝑅𝑃 = (0.003 76 𝑠 ) (43 260 𝑘𝑔)
𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 = 162.7 𝑘𝑊

Assuming that the properties of the products of combustion is the same as that of air,
𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑝 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) = (𝑚̇1 + 𝑚̇𝑓 )𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
𝑘𝐽
𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 162.7 𝑠
𝑇3 = 𝑐 + 𝑇2 = 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔 + 909 𝐾
𝑝 (𝑚̇1 +𝑚̇𝑓 ) (1.004 7𝑘𝑔−𝐾)(0.112 8+0.003 76) 𝑠

𝑇3 = 2 298 𝐾

(b) For the mean effective pressure,

𝑊̇𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑝𝑚 =
𝑉̇𝐷

Determine the net power by solving for the heat rejected Q out.
Process 3 – 4: s = C
𝑇4 𝑉3 𝑘−1 𝑉3 𝑘−1 𝑉3 𝑉2 𝑘−1 𝑟𝑒 𝑘−1
=( ) =( ) = [( ) ( )] =( )
𝑇3 𝑉4 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉1 𝑟
since
𝑉 𝑇
𝑟𝑒 = 𝑉3 = 𝑇3
2 2
2 298 1 1.4−1
𝑇4 = (2 298 𝐾) [( ) (14.5)] = 1 143 𝐾
909

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝑄̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑝 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇1 − 𝑇4 ) = (0.116 56 𝑠 ) (0.717 6 𝑘𝑔−𝐾) (312 − 1 143)𝐾
𝑄̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −69.5 𝑘𝑊
The net power is then,
𝑊̇𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∑ 𝑄̇ = 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 + 𝑄̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (162.7 − 69.5)𝑘𝑊

𝑊̇𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 93.2 𝑘𝑊
and
0.10 𝑚3
𝑉̇𝐷 = 𝑉1̇ − 𝑉̇2 = (0.10 − 14.5) = 0.093 𝑠
𝑘𝑁−𝑚
93.2 𝑠
∴ 𝑝𝑚 = 𝑚3
= 1 002 𝑘𝑃𝑎𝑎
0.093
𝑠

(c) The maximum power is

𝑊̇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑊̇𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 93.2 𝑘𝑊
Using the Air Tables:
Process 1 – 2: s = C
At T1 = 312 K, interpolate,
310 K 1.554 6 221.27 kJ/kg 132.96
312 K 𝑝𝑟1 𝑢1 𝑣𝑟1
320 K 1.737 5 228.45 kJ/kg 122.82
𝑝𝑟1 = 1.591 2
𝑘𝐽
𝑢1 = 222.71
𝑘𝑔
𝑣𝑟1 = 130.93

𝑣𝑟2 𝑣2 1
= =
𝑣𝑟1 𝑣1 𝑟
130.93
𝑣𝑟2 = = 9.03
14.5
Interpolate:
9.090 860 K 888.28 kJ/kg 63.09
9.030 𝑇2 ℎ2 𝑝𝑟2
8.792 870 K 899.42 kJ/kg 65.98
𝑇2 = 862 𝐾
𝑘𝐽
ℎ2 = 890.52 𝑘𝑔
𝑝𝑟2 = 63.67
since the heat added is 162.7 kW, then,
𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑝 (ℎ3 − ℎ2 )
𝑘𝐽
𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 162.7 𝑘𝐽
𝑠
ℎ3 = + ℎ2 = 𝑘𝑔 + 890.52 𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇𝑓 0.116 56 𝑠
𝑘𝐽
ℎ3 = 2 286.37 𝑘𝑔
Interpolate:
2 252.06 kJ/kg 2 000 K 2 067.9 0.644 9
2 286.37 kJ/kg 𝑇3 𝑝𝑟3 𝑣𝑟3
2 883.91 kJ/kg 2 500 K 5 521 0.301 9
𝑇3 = 2 027 𝐾
𝑝𝑟3 = 2 255.4
𝑣𝑟3 = 0.626 3

Process 3 – 4: s = C
𝑣𝑟4 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 1
= 𝑣4 = 𝑣1 = (𝑣1) (𝑣2) = (𝑟) (𝑟 )
𝑣𝑟3 3 3 2 3 𝑒
but
𝑣 𝑇
𝑟𝑒 = 𝑣3 = 𝑇3
2 2
𝑇 862
∴ 𝑣𝑟4 = 𝑣𝑟3 (𝑟) (𝑇2) = (0.626 3)(14.5) (2 027)
3

𝑣𝑟4 = 3.862
Interpolate:
3.937 1 140 K 880.37 kJ/kg
3.862 𝑇4 𝑢4
3.732 1 160 K 897.98 kJ/kg
𝑇4 = 1 147 𝐾
𝑘𝐽
𝑢4 = 886.81 𝑘𝑔

After the different values of the properties were obtained, the required can now be determined.

(a) For maximum temperature,

𝑇3 = 2 027 𝐾

(b) For the mean effective pressure,

𝑊̇𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑝𝑚 = 𝑉̇𝐷
where
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝑊̇𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∑ 𝑄̇ = 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 + 𝑄̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 162.7 𝑘𝑊 + (0.116 56 𝑠 ) (222.71 − 886.81) 𝑘𝑔
𝑊̇𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 85.3 𝑘𝑊

𝑘𝐽−𝑚
85.3 𝑠
∴ 𝑝𝑚 = 𝑚3
= 917 𝑘𝑃𝑎𝑎
0.093 𝑠

(c) For maximum work,

𝑊̇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑊̇𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 85.3 𝑘𝑊