Superheterodyne Radio Receiver

The superhet radio or to give it its full name the superheterodyne receiver is one of the most
popular forms of receiver in use today in a variety of applications from broadcast receivers to two
way radio communications links as well as many mobile radio communications systems.
Although other forms of radio receiver are used, the superheterodyne receiver is one of the most
widely used forms. Although initially developed in the early days of radio, or wireless technology,
the superhet or superheterodyne receiver offers significant advantages in many applications.
Naturally the basic concept has been developed since its early days, and more complicated and
sophisticated versions are used, but the basic concept still remains the same.

Superheterodyne receiver history

This form of receiver is based around the idea of mixing signals in a non-linear fashion. This idea
was first noticed when beats were detected between two signals. R A Fessenden was the first
person to notice this and he patented the idea in 1901.
However the idea lay dormant for some years as most receivers consisted of detectors and
tuned circuits. The diode thermionic valve or vacuum tube was invented by Ambrose Fleming in
1904, and then a third grid was added by Lee de Forest. Although early valves or tubes were in
use, they were very unstable and it was difficult to gain much useful performance from them.
A young engineer named Edwin Armstrong started to utilise the power of the vacuum tube or
thermionic valve, inventing the regenerative receiver around 1910. This provided a considerable
increase in useful gain over what was previously attained.
It was the onset of the Great War in 1914 that gave fresh impetus to radio receiver design. There
was a requirement for sensitive radio receivers for a variety of tasks. The first major step was
taken by a Frenchman named Lucien Levy. At the time the performance of valves was very poor
at frequencies above 100 kHz or so, and he devised a system for reducing the frequency of the
incoming signal using the system of beats - the signal could then be tuned and amplified more
effectively at a lower frequency.
Edwin Armstrong came to the fore again, by developing the superhet or superheterodyne
receiver as we know it today with a fixed frequency intermediate frequency filter and a variable
local oscillator. His idea was developed in 1918, right at the end of the war, and as a result it was
not widely used.
After the war it was discovered that similar receivers were postulated by the Germans, but none
were actually made. As a result, Edwin Armstrong was credited with the invention.
The superheterodyne receiver was not used initially, as it was felt that many valves in the set did
not contribute to providing signal gain, and valves were expensive. However as the number of
broadcast stations increased and selectivity became an issue, along with the falling cost of
thermionic valves, use of the superhet receiver started to grow in the late 1920s and early 1930s.
Since then it has been in widespread use.

Mixing and the superhet receiver

The idea of the superheterodyne receiver revolves around the process of mixing. Here RF mixers
are used to multiply two signals together. (This is not the same as mixers used in audio desks
where the signals are added together). When two signals are multiplied together the output is the
product of the instantaneous level of the signal at one input and the instantaneous level of the
signal at the other input. It is found that the output contains signals at frequencies other than the
two input frequencies. New signals are seen at frequencies that are the sum and difference of
the two input signals, i.e. if the two input frequencies are f1 and f2, then new signals are seen at
frequencies of (f1+f2) and (f1-f2). To take an example, if two signals, one at a frequency of 5
MHz and another at a frequency of 6 MHz are mixed together then new signals at frequencies of
11 MHz and 1 MHz are generated.

Signals generated by mixing or multiplying two signals together

Concept of the superheterodyne receiver

In the superhet radio, the received signal enters one inputs of the mixer. A locally generated
signal (local oscillator signal) is fed into the other. The result is that new signals are generated.
These are applied to a fixed frequency intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier and filter. Any
signals that are converted down and then fall within the pass-band of the IF amplifier will be
amplified and passed on to the next stages. Those that fall outside the pass-band of the IF are
rejected. Tuning is accomplished very simply by varying the frequency of the local oscillator. The
advantage of this process is that very selective fixed frequency filters can be used and these far
out perform any variable frequency ones. They are also normally at a lower frequency than the
incoming signal and again this enables their performance to be better and less costly.
To see how this operates in reality take the example of two signals, one at 6 MHz and another at
6.1 MHz. Also take the example of an IF situated at 1 MHz. If the local oscillator is set to 5 MHz,
then the two signals generated by the mixer as a result of the 6 MHz signal fall at 1 MHz and 11
MHz. Naturally the 11 MHz signal is rejected, but the one at 1 MHz passes through the IF stages.
The signal at 6.1 MHz produces a signal at 1.1 MHz (and 11.1 MHz) and this falls outside
bandwidth of the IF so the only signal to pass through the IF is that from the signal on 6 MHz.

Basic superhet or superheterodyne radio receiver concept

If the local oscillator frequency is moved up by 0.1 MHz to 5.1 MHz then the signal at 6.1 MHz
will give rise to a signal at 1 MHz and this will pass through the IF. The signal at 6 MHz will give
rise to a signal of 0.9 MHz at the IF and will be rejected. In this way the receiver acts as a
variable frequency filter, and tuning is accomplished.

Image responses
The basic concept of the superheterodyne receiver appears to be fine, but there is a problem.
There are two signals that can enter the IF. With the local oscillator set to 5 MHz and with an IF it
has already been seen that a signal at 6 MHz mixes with the local oscillator to produce a signal
at 1 MHz that will pass through the IF filter. However if a signal at 4 MHz enters the mixer it
produces two mix products, namely one at the sum frequency which is 10 MHz, whilst the
difference frequency appears at 1 MHz. This would prove to be a problem because it is perfectly
possible for two signals on completely different frequencies to enter the IF. The unwanted
frequency is known as the image. Fortunately it is possible to place a tuned circuit before the
mixer to prevent the signal entering the mixer, or more correctly reduce its level to an acceptable
value.
Fortunately this tuned circuit does not need to be very sharp. It does not need to reject signals on
adjacent channels, but instead it needs to reject signals on the image frequency. These will be
separated from the wanted channel by a frequency equal to twice the IF. In other words with an
IF at 1 MHz, the image will be 2 MHz away from the wanted frequency.

Using a tuned circuit to remove the image signal

While radio communications technology has advanced enormously since the first introduction of
the superheterodyne radio receiver, it is still very widely used for many radio communications
applications
Having looked at the concepts behind the superheterodyne receiver it is helpful to look at a block
diagram of a basic superhet. The superheterodyne block diagram is relatively straightforward and
builds on the basic functional block used to convert the incoming frequency down to a fixed
intermediate frequency stage.
While there may be some simplified versions for a superheterodyne block diagram, each receiver
will be different as a result of the differing requirements for each receiver. However the basic
principles are the same, and many superheterodyne block diagrams are very similar.

Basic superheterodyne block diagram and functionality

The basic block diagram of a basic superhet receiver is shown below. This details the most basic
form of the receiver and serves to illustrate the basic blocks and their function.
 Block diagram of a basic superheterodyne radio receiver

The way in which the receiver works can be seen by following the signal as is passes through the
receiver.

 Front end amplifier and tuning block: Signals enter the front end circuitry from the
antenna. This circuit block performs two main functions:

o Tuning: Broadband tuning is applied to the RF stage. The purpose of this is to

reject the signals on the image frequency and accept those on the wanted
frequency. It must also be able to track the local oscillator so that as the receiver
is tuned, so the RF tuning remains on the required frequency. Typically the
selectivity provided at this stage is not high. Its main purpose is to reject signals
on the image frequency which is at a frequency equal to twice that of the IF away
from the wanted frequency. As the tuning within this block provides all the
rejection for the image response, it must be at a sufficiently sharp to reduce the
image to an acceptable level. However the RF tuning may also help in preventing
strong off-channel signals from entering the receiver and overloading elements of
the receiver, in particular the mixer or possibly even the RF amplifier.
o Amplification: In terms of amplification, the level is carefully chosen so that it
does not overload the mixer when strong signals are present, but enables the
signals to be amplified sufficiently to ensure a good signal to noise ratio is
achieved. The amplifier must also be a low noise design. Any noise introduced in
this block will be amplified later in the receiver.
 Mixer / frequency translator block: The tuned and amplified signal then enters one
port of the mixer. The local oscillator signal enters the other port. The performance of the
mixer is crucial to many elements of the overall receiver performance. It should eb as
linear as possible. If not, then spurious signals will be generated and these may appear
as 'phantom' received signals.
 Local oscillator: The local oscillator may consist of a variable frequency oscillator that
can be tuned by altering the setting on a variable capacitor. Alternatively it may be a
frequency synthesizer that will enable greater levels of stability and setting accuracy.
 Intermediate frequency amplifier, IF block : Once the signals leave the mixer they
enter the IF stages. These stages contain most of the amplification in the receiver as well
as the filtering that enables signals on one frequency to be separated from those on the
next. Filters may consist simply of LC tuned transformers providing inter-stage coupling,
or they may be much higher performance ceramic or even crystal filters, dependent upon
what is required.
 Detector / demodulator stage: Once the signals have passed through the IF stages of
the superheterodyne receiver, they need to be demodulated. Different demodulators are
required for different types of transmission, and as a result some receivers may have a
variety of demodulators that can be switched in to accommodate the different types of
 transmission that are to be encountered. Different demodulators used may include:

o AM diode detector: This is the most basic form of detector and this circuit block
would simple consist of a diode and possibly a small capacitor to remove any
remaining RF. The detector is cheap and its performance is adequate, requiring a
sufficient voltage to overcome the diode forward drop. It is also not particularly
linear, and finally it is subject to the effects of selective fading that can be
apparent, especially on the HF bands.
o Synchronous AM detector: This form of AM detector block is used in where
improved performance is needed. It mixes the incoming AM signal with another
on the same frequency as the carrier. This second signal can be developed by
passing the whole signal through a squaring amplifier. The advantages of the
synchronous AM detector are that it provides a far more linear demodulation
performance and it is far less subject to the problems of selective fading.
o SSB product detector: The SSB product detector block consists of a mixer and a
local oscillator, often termed a beat frequency oscillator, BFO or carrier insertion
oscillator, CIO. This form of detector is used for Morse code transmissions where
the BFO is used to create an audible tone in line with the on-off keying of the
transmitted carrier. Without this the carrier without modulation is difficult to detect.
For SSB, the CIO re-inserts the carrier to make the modulation comprehensible.
o Basic FM detector: As an FM signal carries no amplitude variations a
demodulator block that senses frequency variations is required. It should also be
insensitive to amplitude variations as these could add extra noise. Simple FM
detectors such as the Foster Seeley or ratio detectors can be made from discrete
components although they do require the use of transformers.
o PLL FM detector: A phase locked loop can be used to make a very good FM
demodulator. The incoming FM signal can be fed into the reference input, and the
VCO drive voltage used to provide the detected audio output.
o Quadrature FM detector: This form of FM detector block is widely used within
ICs. IT is simple to implement and provides a good linear output.
 Audio amplifier: The output from the demodulator is the recovered audio. This is
passed into the audio stages where they are amplified and presented to the headphones
or loudspeaker

Further developments for superheterodyne block diagram

The diagram above shows a very basic version of the superhet or superheterodyne receiver.
Many sets these days are far more complicated. Some superhet radios have more than one
frequency conversion, and other areas of additional circuitry to provide the required levels of
performance. However the basic superheterodyne concept remains the same, using the idea of
mixing the incoming signal with a locally generated oscillation to convert the signals to a new
frequency. ..........

Double Superheterodyne Radio Receiver

Although the basic idea for the superhet or superheterodyne radio receiver works very well, to
ensure the optimum performance under a number of situations, an extension of the principle,
known as the double superhet, or double superheteroyne radio receiver may be used.
The double superheterodyne radio receiver improves the performance in a number of areas
including stability (although synthesizers have largely overcome this problem), image rejection
and adjacent channel filter performance.
The double superheterodyne radio receiver is still widely used, especially at high frequencies
where factors such as image rejection and filter performance are important.

Reason for using double superheterodyne radio receiver

When choosing the intermediate frequency for a superheterodyne radio receiver there is a trade-
off to be made between the advantages of using a low frequency IF or a high frequency one:

 High frequency IF: The use of a high frequency IF means that the difference between
the wanted frequency and the unwanted image is much greater and it is easier to achieve
high levels of performance because the front end filtering is able to provide high levels of
rejection.
 Low frequency IF: The advantage of choosing a lower frequency IF is that the filters
that provide the adjacent channel rejection are lower in frequency. The use of a low
frequency IF enables the performance to be high, while keeping the cost low.
Accordingly there are two conflicting requirements which cannot be easily satisfied using a single
intermediate frequency. The solution is to use a double conversion superheterodyne topology to
provide a means of satisfying both requirements

Basic double superheterodyne receiver concept

The basic concept behind the double superheterodyne radio receiver is the use of a high
intermediate frequency to achieve the high levels of image rejection that are required, and a
further low intermediate frequency to provide the levels of performance required for the adjacent
channel selectivity.
Typically the receiver will convert the incoming signal down to a relatively high first intermediate
frequency (IF) stage. This enables the high levels of image rejection to be achieved. As the
image frequency lies at a frequency twice that of the IF away from the main or wanted signal, the
higher the IF, the further away the image is and the easier it is to reject at the front end.

Basic double conversion superheterodyne receiver concept

Once the signal has passed through the first IF at the higher frequency, it is then passed through
a second mixer to convert it down to a lower intermediate frequency where the narrow band
filtering is accomplished so that the adjacent channel signals can be removed. As the lower
frequency, filters are cheaper and the performance is often higher. (Although it must be said that
filter technology now allows effective filters to be made at much higher frequencies than was
previously possible.)

Double superheterodyne topologies

While the basic concept for the double superheterodyne radio receiver involving two stages of
frequency conversion may remain the same, there are a number of different "styles" that can be
adopted:

 Fixed frequency first oscillator: This style of double conversion superheterodyne

receiver was popular before the days of frequency synthesizers and other very stable
local oscillators. To ensure the frequency stability, a crystal oscillator was used to provide
the local oscillator for the first conversion. A bandpass filter would be used to provide
selectivity and allow a band of frequencies to be passed. The second local oscillator
would allow tuning over the range allowed by the bandpass filter. When further coverage
was required, the first, crystal controlled oscillator, would need to be switched to the next
crystal. In this way continuous coverage could be obtained, albeit with a large number of
crystals.

Double conversion superheterodyne receiver with fixed frequency first LO

Apart from providing high levels of image rejection, this concept gave considerably
improved levels of frequency stability for receivers of the time. Nowadays frequency
synthesizers mean that this topology is rarely needed or used.

 Tuned first oscillator: This is the most usual form of double conversion
superheterodyne receiver. The first conversion uses a variable frequency oscillator which
converts the signal to the first IF.
 Double conversion superheterodyne receiver with variable frequency first LO

Although little selectivity is generally provided in the first IF, often a filter known as a
roofing filter may be used to provide some adjacent channel filtering. This prevents very
strong adjacent channel signals from overloading the later stages of the IF. However the
main selectivity is still provided in the lower frequency IF stages.
Whatever the style of double conversion superheterodyne receiver, the basic concept of
providing two frequency conversion stages applies.