lOMoARcPSD|8230253

Kumar - research methodology

Research and design (Technische Universiteit Delft)

StuDocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

Kumar – Research methodology

Inhoud
1 – A way of thinking ................................................................................................................................. 1
Types of research – different perspectives ........................................................................................... 3
Mixed/multiple methods approach ...................................................................................................... 4
Summary................................................................................................................................................ 6
2 – The research process: a quick glance .................................................................................................. 6
A: Deciding what to research ................................................................................................................ 7
B: Planning how to conduct the study .................................................................................................. 8
C: Conducting a research study ............................................................................................................. 9
Summary................................................................................................................................................ 9
Step 1: Formulating a research problem ....................................................................................................... 9
3 – Reviewing the literature ...................................................................................................................... 9
4 steps of literature review ................................................................................................................. 10
Writing about literature reviewed ...................................................................................................... 11
Summary.............................................................................................................................................. 12
4 – Formulating a research problem ....................................................................................................... 12
Steps in formulating research problem ............................................................................................... 13
Research problem in qualitative research........................................................................................... 14
Summary.............................................................................................................................................. 14
5 – Identifying variables .......................................................................................................................... 14
Types of variables ................................................................................................................................ 15
Types of measurement scale ............................................................................................................... 17
Summary.............................................................................................................................................. 18

1 – A way of thinking
Research is questioning what you do and why and finding answers in a systematic way to become a more
professional practitioner. Serve clients better.
Research techniques can be used for different perspectives to find answers:

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

Research:
• Is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies
• Uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for validity (correct procedures to
find answers to your question) and reliability (quality of procedure: repeatability and accuracy)
• Is unbiased and objective (bias = deliberately conceal or highlight something; subjectivity = way of
thinking conditioned by your educational background etc.)

Research = process for collecting, analysing and interpreting information to answer research questions,
that has some characteristics and requirements:
• Controlled
Many factors affect the outcome. Important to link the cause with the effect: in exploring causality, you
set up your study in such a way that it either minimises or quantifies (impossible to eliminate) the effects
of factors, other than the cause variable, affecting the relationship.
• Rigorous
Procedures to find answers to your question have to be relevant, appropriate and justified.
• Systematic
Procedures follow a certain logical sequence.
• Valid and verifiable
Conclusion is correct and can be vilified by you and others.
• Empirical
Conclusions are based on evidence gathered from information from real-life experiences and
observations.
• Critical
Used procedures must withstand critic.

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

Types of research – different perspectives

Application of the findings of the research study

• Pure research: development and testing theories and hypotheses intellectually challenging to
researcher and development/refinement of research methodology.
• Applied research: collection of information about various aspects of a situation/problem/
phenomenon/…

Objectives of the study

A good study combines all objectives
• Descriptive: describe what is common regarding a group/community/programme/outcome/
situation/phenomenon
• Correlational: discover or establish a relationship or association between two or more aspects of a
situation/… (e.g. impact form something).
• Explanatory: clarify why and how there is a relationship (explain) or why a particular event occurs.
• Exploratory: exploring an area where little is known or investigating the possibilities of undertaking a
particular research study. When purpose is determining feasibility: feasibility/pilot study: small-scale
study to decide if it is worth carrying out a detailed investigation.

Mode of enquiry used in conducting the study

Quantitative Qualitative Mixed method
Underpinning Rationalism: human being Empiricism: knowledge Both
philosophy achieve knowledge because of from sensory experiences
their capacity to reason

Approach Structured/rigid/predetermined Unstructured/flexible/ Structured,

methodology open methodology unstructured or both

Main purpose To quantify extend of variation To describe variation in To quantify and/or

in phenomenon, situation, issue phenomenon, situation, explore to enhance
etc. issue etc. accuracy or yield
What done greater depth
with variables Measurement or classification Description
Both or either
Sample size Big Fewer
Depending on purpose
Focus Narrow Covers multiple issues

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

B or e depending on
methods used
Dominant Explains prevalence, incidence, Explores experiences,
research topic extent, nature of issues, meaning, perceptions and “
opinions and attitude; discovers feelings
regularities and formulates
theories

Analysis of data Subjects variables to statistical Subjects responses,

procedures narratives or “
observations to
identification of themes
and describes these
Research value Reliability, objectivity (value-
free) Authenticity “

Communication Analytical > inferences and Descriptive and narrative “

of findings conclusions, testing magnitude
and strength of relationship

Qualitative/ethnographic/ecological/naturalistic: information gathered through use of variables

measured on nominal or ordinal scales.
Quantitative/systematic/scientific/positivist: information gathered through use of quantitative variables
(quantify, measure magnitude of variation)
Choice depends on:
• Aim of enquiry: exploration, confirmation or quantification
• Use of findings: policy formulation or process understanding

Mixed/multiple methods approach

Best way. Combines strengths of two or more
methods, processes and philosophies to answer
your research question. Mixed: combination of
quantitative and qualitative provides better
understanding of the research problems.
Multiple: different methods from one paradigm
(quantitative or qualitative) are used to enrich
the accuracy, validity and reliability of the
findings.

Sometimes people use different methods

already in one step. E.g. collecting data through
questionnaires or interview schedule
(quantitative) and in-depth interviews
(qualitative).

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

That way you formulate your research problem or subobjective(s) determines the types of method
appropriate for finding their answers.

Why using mixed/multiple method

• Different subobjectives often need methods from different paradigms. Using both paradigms
enhances the accuracy and reliability of your findings.
• Sometimes, a single method doesn’t give a complete, detailed and accurate picture of the situation
or you want to double-check findings with a different method. Qualitative (in depth, few individuals)
and quantitative (generalisations and broad conclusions) research will look at a phenomenon from
different perspectives.
• Almost always to make generalisations you first have to explore different aspects. Everything needed
for a quantitative study is usually developed by an exploratory study. After completing the study, you
take your findings back to the respondents for explanations. Qualitative-quantitative-qualitative
cycle.
• Often in quantitative studies, data collection instruments are developed in consultation with
potential users to ensure their relevance. Ensure validity of questions by exploring whether
respondents interpreted them as intended by researcher.
• Desire to enhance the coverage, depth, reliability and validation of findings through other
method(s). Reasons: aspect of your study cannot be investigated with main research approach; lack
of resources to do whole study by one method (e.g. interviewing > costs much time > also forum);
double check findings.

Typology of mixed/multiple method, depends on:

1.What is mixed
• From both paradigms
• From one paradigm
2.When in the research process
• Sequential studies: use methods after one another for whole research or part
• Simultaneous/parallel studies
3.At what stage of the research process
• Mixing for one or some steps
• Mixing for whole study
4.In what order
• Qualitative followed by quantitative
• Quantitative followed by qualitative
• Qualitative followed by quantitative followed by qualitative
5.To what extend
• Equivalent status studies: use both methodologies equally
• Dominant/less dominant studies: predominantly qualitative or quantitative

Advantages mixed method

• Enhancement of research possibilities: multiple methods to find answers to all your research
questions.
• Better for more complex situations: freedom to use best methods
• Enrichment of data: you need second set of data to look from different perspective (triangulation)
• Collecting additional research evidence: second set of data for comparison, confirmation or
contradiction of findings from first method.

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

Disadvantages/considerations to keep in mind

• More data = more work and resources
• Requires additional and diverse skills (different methods and procedures require different skills for
use of them, suitable data analysis and data triangulation)
• Contacting two study populations
• Resolving disagreements in data
• How will findings of different methods be communicated (triangulated, integrated or communicated
parallel)?

Summary
Research: collecting information and finding answers to your question in a set of philosophies + in a
unbiased and objective way, using methods tested for validity and reliability. To enhance professional
knowledge, you need to have research skills.
Different typologies/points of view of research:
1.Application: applied (use findings in understanding a phenomenon/issue or bring change in a
programme/situation) and pure research (academic, to gain knowledge about phenomena that may or
may not have applications in the future and to develop new techniques and procedures that form the
body of research methodology).
2.Objective: descriptive (describe situation, phenomenon, problem or issue), correlational (establish or
explore relationship between two or more variables), explanatory (explain why certain things happen the
way they do), exploratory (examine feasibility of conducting a study or exploring a subject where
nothing/little is known.
3.Mode of enquiry: quantitative (structured > quantify the variation and diversity), qualitative
(unstructured/flexible > describe variation and diversity in a phenomenon, situation or attitude) and
mixed/multiple method (use best of both paradigms to enhance accuracy, depth and reliability). E.g.
qualitative-quantitative-qualitative cycle.
Purpose of research rather than belief in paradigm should determine mode of enquiry.

2 – The research process: a quick glance

Import decisions in research process:
• What do you want to find out
about: research question
• How finding answers
The sequence of the steps is not fixed. At
each step you choose from methods,
procedures and models which help you best
achieving your research objectives.

Proposed research model

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

Arrows: tasks (operational steps)

Rectangles: topics (required theoretical knowledge needed for steps)
Circles: steps/tasks you need to complete to go from one step to another.

A: Deciding what to research

Step 1: Formulating a research problem
Everything that follows is influenced by the way you formulate your research problem. Evaluate the
research problem in the light of financial resources, time available, your and your supervisor’s expertise

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

and knowledge in the field of study and gaps in knowledge of relevant disciplines (e.g. software,
computers, statistics).

B: Planning how to conduct the study

Step 2: Conceptualising a research design
Strength of what you find depends on how you found it. Use appropriate models for systematic and
rigorous exploration and description of what is not known, establishment of associations and causation
that permit accurate prediction of outcomes under a given set of conditions, identifying gaps in
knowledge, verification and what is known and identification of past errors and limitations.
A research design should include:
• Study design (and know its strengths, weaknesses and limitations) and the logistical arrangements
• Measurement procedures
• Sampling strategy
• Frame of analysis
• Time-frame
Research design has to be valid, workable and manageable (can you get conclusions with it).

Step 3: Constructing an instrument for data collection

Anything to collect data: research tool/instrument. How are you going to collect data.
Primary data: collect data specifically for your study > construct research instrument or select one.
Secondary data: information already collected for other purposes > identify what information is needed
and develop a form to extract the required data
You have to field-test (pre-test) a research tool. Not on the sample of your study, but on a similar
population which you are not studying.

Step 4: Selecting a sample

Accuracy of findings depends on way you select your sample. Minimise the gap between values obtained
from sample and those in study population (sample genuinely represents population > true reflection).
2 key aims of sampling:
1.Avoide bias in selection of sample
2.Attain maximum precision for given outlay of resources

Type of sampling strategy influences ability to generalize and type of statistical test you can apply to the
data. 3 categories of sampling design:
1.Random/probability sampling
2.Non-random/non-probability sampling
3.Mixed sampling

Step 5: Writing a research proposal

Detail plan for obtaining answers to research questions. Must include:
• What you are proposing to do
• How you plan to proceed
• Why you selected the proposed strategy

Therefore following information is needed:

• Objectives
• Hypotheses

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

• Study design
• Setting for study
• Research instrument(s)
• Sample size and sampling design
• Data processing procedures
• Outline of proposed chapters for the report
• Study’s problems and limitations
• Proposed time-frame

C: Conducting a research study

Step 6: Collecting data
Using method you chose. Collecting data involves ethical issues.

Step 7: Processing and displaying data

Way of analysing depends on:
1.Type of information: descriptive, quantitative, qualitative or attitudinal
2.The way you want to communicate your findings to the reader
If your study is pure descriptive, you can write your report in the basis of field notes, manually analyse
the contents or use computer program as NVivo.
For quantitative analysis, you need to identify variables subjected to chosen procedures (frequency
distribution, cross-tabulations, regression analysis, factor analysis, analysis of variance etc.).

Step 8: Writing a research report

Tells what you have done, what you have discovered and your conclusions.

Summary
At each step the research model provides a variety of methods, models, techniques and procedures to
select the one most appropriate for your study.

Step 1: Formulating a research problem

3 – Reviewing the literature
Acquaint yourself with the available knowledge in your area of interest. Function literature review:
• Bring clarity and focus to research problem
You can’t take a literature search without some idea of the problem, and literature search influences
nature of your research problem. Reviewing literature to understand subject area better > clear and
precise research problem, relevant to research field. By reviewing literature you learn what is examined
by others, what gaps they have identified (focus your study on this to complete knowledge > relevance
and usefulness of research) and suggestions they made for further research.
• Improve research methodology
You get to know methods used by others for similar questions as yours: which worked well and what
problems were there. Use problems to choose method capable of providing valid answers to your
research question (and to defend its use).
• Provides a theoretical background to your study/broaden your knowledge base in research area

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

Be expert in research field and understand how your research questions and findings fit into existing
knowledge.
• Helps you establish links between what you want to examine and what has been studied. Enable you
to show how your findings have contributed to existing knowledge in your profession. Integrate
research findings in existing knowledge (contextualise).

Summary of literature = description of significant findings of each source.

Literature review = main findings organised around themes that emerge from literature search. In each
theme findings are compared (similarities and differences) which leads to conclusions about theme.
Integrate sources in a logical way.

Literature review to answer:

• What is already known in the area?
• Gaps in existing knowledge?
• What questions have remained unanswered?
• Are there areas of professional conflict?
• Theories in the area?
• Suggestions made for further research?
• Research strategies used by others undertaking similar research?

4 steps of literature review

1. Searching for existing literature in your area of study
Before searching, you need to know what you want to know about which population (immigrants,
woman, students etc.)
Books
Advantage: good quality and findings are integrated with other research to form coherent body of
knowledge. Disadvantage: not completely up to date.
1.Search in library catalogues for your subject. Use right keywords to narrow the subject.
2.When you have 10-15 books, examine bibliography. Definitely read books referenced by a number of
authors.
3.Make annotated bibliography of read books: contains brief abstract of aspects covered in a book and
own notes about relevance.

Journals
1.Choose journals
• Locate hard copies appropriate for your study
• Look at citation or abstract indices to identify and read the abstracts of such articles
• Electronic databases: indexes of journals (e.g. ERIC), indexes of journals (e.g. Humanities index),
citation indices (e.g. Social Sciences Citation Index)
• There are databases for certain disciplines
2.Look at content for articles for your subject
3.Summary and reference of good articles

Conference papers
Most recent research in area.

Internet

10

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

Many search engines (listed on sites as thesearchenginelist.com) with different strengths in searching
different areas. Use right keywords and narrow search with NOT, AND, OR etc.

2. Reviewing selected literature

Reading critically to:
• Find themes and issues relevant
• Note theories, criticism of these and their basis, methods and their criticisms
• To what extend can findings be generalised
• Notice significant differences of opinion and give your opinion with reasons
• Find knowledge gaps

3. Developing theoretical framework

Consists of theories or issues in which your study is embedded.
You found that your research problem has roots in different theories developed from different
perspectives.
First read a bit literature > define theoretical framework within which you can organise the rest of the
literature.
Start with writing about general/universal information, narrowing down to specific (local trends or a
specific programme).

4. Developing conceptual framework

Conceptual framework is basis of research problem. Focuses on section(s) of theoretical framework that
become the basis of your study. (e.g. fear of non-survival from example fertility/mortality).

Writing about literature reviewed

Literature should reflect its purposes:

11

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

1.Provide theoretical background > identify and describe relevant theories, gaps, recent advances, trends
etc. Can you do now. Show main themes as subheadings in literature review. Under each subheading
record the main findings of the theme, highlight reasons for and against arguments, identify gaps and
issues.
2.Contextualise findings > integrate your results with relevant other findings (add to, confirmation and
contradiction). You have to do this at the end.

Summary
Reviewing literature begins before research problem and continues to end report. Paradox literature
review: you cannot undertake effective literature review unless you formulate a research problem, yet
literature review is important in formulating problem. Literature review brings clarity and focus to
research problem, improves research method and broadens knowledge. Describe main findings in
themes.
Steps for literature review: Searching for existing literature in your area of study (books, journals,
conference papers and internet > several sources which provide info about locating relevant material),
reviewing selected literature, developing theoretical framework and developing conceptual framework.
Two important functions literature review: theoretical background and contextualise findings by
comparing with what others have found (can only be done in process of writing about findings).
You should write about literature review in main themes in logical order, arguments should be
substantiated with specific quotations and citations.

4 – Formulating a research problem

Not all questions can be transferred into research problems and some are extremely difficult to study.
Problem should be able to withstand inspection in terms of procedures required to be undertaken. A
well-defined problem leads to a good study. The way you formulate a problem (most crucial step)
defines every following step.

Studies are based on combinations of the four P’s: people, problems, programmes and phenomena.
Every research has two aspects: people (study population) and problem, programme or phenomenon
about which information is collected (subject area).
Aspects of Information Study of Importance to study
a study about
Study People Individuals, organisations, groups, communities Give required info or you
population collect info from or about
them
Subject Problem Issues and problems facing a group; description
areas of situations, associations, needs, attitudes;
population profiles; service delivery process
etc.
Info you need to find
Programme Contents, services provided, administrative answers to your service
structure, service outcomes, consumer research questions
satisfaction, profile of consumers/service
provider, effectiveness, cost benefit etc.

12

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

Phenomenon Cause and effect, relationship, phenomenon

itself etc.

Examine four P’s in own field to look for something interesting.

Selecting a research problem

• Interesting for you
• Magnitude: narrow topic to something manageable (within time and resources), specific and clear
• Clear indicators (what and how) for measurement of concepts (in quantitative study)
• Fits to your level of expertise
• Relevance: adds to existing knowledge, bridges gaps or is useful in policy formulation
• Availability of data (have you access to it and is it the right form)
• Ethical issues in relation to study population (and how to overcome these)

Study population
Important part of research problem: who belongs to study population (measurable definition) > gender,
age, ethnic backgrounds etc.

Steps in formulating research problem

1. Identify broad field or subject area of interest to you
2. Broad area into subareas (use literature and knowledge of others)
3. Select most interesting for you: delete subareas until you have something manageable (time,
expertise (e.g. technological) and resources (financial and human))
4. Research question: what do you want to know about this subarea
5. Formulate main and subobjectives (goals of study) based on research question.
Main objective relates to overall, main associations and relations you want to discover or establish.
Each subobjective should contain only one aspect of the topic and should be unambiguously. Define
rules or indicators to establish a clear meaning. Defined concepts for research problem and/or
identifying study population: operational/working definitions (apply to one study, don’t follow
dictionary etc.). What is the boundary to be a certain effect or belong to a certain group etc. Give
arguments.

Use action-orientated words (start with ‘to determine’, ‘to find out’, ‘to measure’, ‘to explore’).
The way objectives are worded determines how your research is classified (e.g. descriptive,
correlational or experimental) and so the type of research design. Characteristics objectives:
Descriptive: clearly describe major
focus, mentioning organisation
and location of study.
Correlational also variables
(impact on/compare/…).
Hypothesis-testing also direction
(increases/reduces)

6. Evaluate objectives (feasibility)

7. Double-check: are you really interested and do you have enough resources

13

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

Research problem in qualitative research

In qualitative research the specificity and precision or problem and study population is loose so you can
explore more as you go along (do not bind yourself to constraints to include new ideas and exclude no
longer relevant ones). Quantitative: problem stated before data collection. Qualitative: problem and
data collection strategies are reformulated to acquire totality of a phenomenon or to select certain
aspects for greater in-depth study. Disadvantage: areas of search can become different during
preliminary and final stages of data gathering > make framework of reminders (conceptual framework of
enquiry) to ensure key aspects are covered in interaction with respondents

Summary
Formulating research problem is most important step: foundation on which you build whole study. Any
defects in it will negatively affect validity and reliability of study. 7-step model helps to narrow broad
area of interest to decide what you want to study.
Quantitative: determine research path and outcome by set of clear objectives in advance. Objectives
should be specific, action-orientated, free from ambiguity and each one should relate to only one aspect
of the study. Qualitative: journey is open and free from strict attachment to any path + continue to
modify research problem as you find more about it (but develop conceptual framework for different
aspects of the problem to serve as a backdrop for issues to be discussed with respondents).
Develop operational definitions for concepts in study > enhances clarity about issues you want to find
out (main variables) and study population.

5 – Identifying variables
Research problem quantitative research:
• Are you researching concepts in study? Concepts are subjective, vary from person to person > not
accurately measurable. Concepts should be operationalised in measurable terms so that variation in
respondent’s understanding is reduced/eliminated.
• Are you testing a hypothesis? Hypothesis need to be constructed and their outcome communicated
in a specific manner.
Qualitative: studying perceptions, belief or feeling without wanting to establish uniformity across
respondents (measurement and variables not significant).

Variable =an image, perception or concept capable of measurement on any of the 4 types of
measurement scales (nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio). Its value can vary. To measure feelings,
preferences etc. (subjective), you need a basis of criteria.

Concept Variable
-subjective (no uniformity) -measurable, though degree of precision depends
-cannot be measured (if measured, it would cause on measurement scale and variable.
problems in comparing responses) -each respondent has same understanding of the
concept > data can be classified, compared etc.

So concepts have to be converted into variables (directly or through a set of indicators=set of criteria
reflective for concept) to be measured. E.g.:

14

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

Types of variables

Classification based on:

1. Causal relationship
4 sets of variables in studies with causal relationship/association:
1) Independent: cause responsible for bringing change in phenomenon, situation or circumstance.
2) Dependent: outcomes, effects, impacts or consequences of change variable

15

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

3) Extraneous: factors operating in real-life situation that may affect changes in dependent
variable (decrease/increase strength of relationship). Unmeasured. Can affect relationship,
intervening variables or the cause or effect alone.
4) Intervening/confounding: connects/links independent and dependent variables. When
independent variable will have effect only in presence of an intervening variable.

Examples:

2. Study design
Study that examines association/causation can be:
• Controlled/contrived experiment: independent (cause) variable is introduced/manipulated > in these
case you have two sets of variables:
1.Active variables: can be manipulated, changed or controlled (e.g. teaching models, service etc.)
2.Attribute variables: cannot be manipulated, changed or controlled. Reflect characteristics of
study population (age, gender, education etc.).
• Quasi-experiment
• Ex post facto/non-experimental

3. Unit of measurement
Two ways of categorising variables:
1. Categorical (nominal and ordinal scales) vs. continuous (interval and ratio scales)
2. Qualitative (nominal and ordinal scales) vs. quantitative (interval and ratio scales)

3 types of categorical variables:

1. Constant: has one category or value

16

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

2. Dichotomous: 2 categories
3. Polytomous: more than 2 categories
Continuous variables can take any value on a scale (continuity in measurement).
Examples:

The way a variable is measured (the way a question is asked and response is recorded) determines the
type of analysis, statistical procedures applied to the data, the way data can be interpreted and how
findings can be communicated.

Types of measurement scale

Qualitative research mostly uses descriptive statements to get response, quantitative through scales.
Measurement on scales has two forms:
1. Qualitative categories (nominal and ordinal) > subjective
2. Precise unit of measurement (interval and ratio) > more refined, objective and accurate

4 types of measurement scales:

1. Nominal/classificatory
Classification of individuals, objects or responses based on common/shared property or characteristics.
Sequence in which subgroups are listed makes no difference, there is no order relationship among
subgroups. Number of subcategories depends on variable (gender has female/male, political parties
more).
2. Ordinal/ranking
Classification of individuals, objects or responses based on common/shared property or characteristics
and ranked according to extent to which a subcategory reflects the magnitude of variation in variable.

17

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|8230253

Subcategories are related to one another in terms of magnitude, but the magnitude itself is not
quantifiable > difference between subcategories cannot be ascertained.
E.g. income: above average, average, under average.
3. Interval
=ordinal scale with unit of measurement that enables individuals/responses to be placed at equally
spaced intervals in relation to spread of variable. Scale has start- and endpoint (arbitrary chosen). It plots
the position of individuals/responses in relation to one another with respect to the magnitude of the
measurement variable. No mathematical operation can be performed on the readings (you cannot say x
is 3x b), it can be performed on the difference between the readings (difference between a and b is 3x
difference between c and d).
E.g. degrees.
Attitude measured on Thurstone scale is similar, but Likert scale does not measure absolute intensity
(measures relation to another).
4. Ratio
=interval with starting point fixed at 0 (not arbitrary chosen) > absolute scale. Mathematic operations
possible.

Summary
Concept: mental perception. Variable measurable either subjective or objective on one of the
measurement scales. Concept -> variable = classifying it based on measurement into categories,
minimising inherent variability in understanding (sometimes concept > indicator > variable).
Most significant difference between quantitative and qualitative research: way info is collected:
• Qualitative: descriptive and narrative statements as units of measurement. Sometimes statements
are classified at time of analysis into categories on the basis of main themes they communicate.
Sometimes you prefer verbatim descriptions and narrations to build your logic and arguments.
• Quantitative: measurement scales.

18

Downloaded by farabi nawar (faraobon@gmail.com)