Types of Water Heaters

1. Tankless Water Heater

The “tankless” water heater comes with a modern technology feature which gives your home an endless amount of hot
water.

How does the Tankless Water Heater function?

As the name suggests, the “Tankless” water heater comes without any tank. It has coils which get super-heated when
filled with water. This helps to heat the water in an instant, no wonder it’s called the on-demand water heater. If you
have a large family, then this product will be perfect for water heating purposes. It can heat a large amount of water
quite efficiently.

The “Tankless” water heater is available in different sizes. So, you should be careful about selecting the appropriate size
as per the needs of your family. For instance, if you choose a small water heater and the demand from it is huge, then
you can expect to get cold or lukewarm water.

With the smaller water heater, you have the option to use natural gas to power the heater. But, if you’re opting for the
larger size, you’ll need a gas line with a large quantity of gas to help the water heater function right.

However, for the larger models which run on electricity, you’ll need to increase the electrical capacity of your home. This
can get expensive, mainly if the water heater is used frequently.

What type of maintenance is required?

Even your “Tankless” water heater will require some basic maintenance. You should get it cleaned at least once a year to
avoid corrosion by removing the mineral scale deposits. You might find the parts of this heater to be pretty small that
makes it more challenging to clean. If you can maintain this heater correctly, it will last you anywhere between 8 to 10
years.

What are the positive aspects of this water heater when compared to the other models?

If you’re looking to reduce your energy consumption, we advise you to get the “Tankless” water heater. The main reason
people usually opt for this “tankless” model, is due to its on-demand feature, that gives you warm water in a flash when
you need it.

And, if you get one of the large “Tankless” models for your home, you have the privilege of getting hot water throughout
the day.

What are the negative aspects of the Tankless Water Heater?

The down payment for this model is much higher than the other conventional style water heaters. Few of these models
also require larger electricity capacity and gas lines that will be an additional cost for the entire renovation.

2. Traditional Storage Tank Water Heater

In most homes, you’ll find this conventional style water heater, that makes you quite familiar with the model
we’re about to describe. However, let’s look at the details of this product!
How does the conventional storage tank water heater function?
In this style of water heater, you’ll get the storage tank feature, for storing water that needs to be heated. This
indicates that the size of the water tank helps to determine the quantity of hot water available for you at once.
The tanks come with proper insulation for keeping the water warm after you have turned on the heater. 
The heater comes with a two-valve feature; one is for controlling the temperature while the other is for pressure
control. The pressure control valve opens only when it needs to release heat and for moderating the
temperature level after the water records 120 degrees Fahrenheit. And, the valve for pressure control opens
for reducing the pressure after it reaches around 150 Psi.

This is the most popular type of water heater that is available in almost every household. But, it does have
limitations for the amount of water that it can hold. You might face some challenges if you’re purchasing a
small tank for a household that generally requires a large quantity of water. For instance, you’ll have to wait for
another new tank to be heated each time you run out of hot water.
What kind of maintenance is required for the traditional storage tank water heater?
This water heater tends to work continuously for storing water, which makes it essential for you to clean the
tank quite often. It will not just prevent corrosion but also enhance the lifespan of the water heater. You need to
ensure that the tank is cleaned at least twice a year to remove the mineral scale deposits and other sediments.
If you don’t focus on the maintenance aspects, then the water heater will not last for an extended period.
However, the Traditional Storage Water Tank Heater usually comes with a lifespan for around 10 to 12 years.
What are the advantages of this type of water heater?
This traditional Storage Tank Water Heater is one of the most affordable styles that you can find along with a
simple installation process.  
What are drawbacks to purchasing a Traditional Storage Tank Water Heater?
In this model of water heater, it has a fixed amount of water that it can store. For instance, a tank with 50-
gallon water capacity will offer you the same quantity of constant water flow until the tank is empty. After you
run out of hot water, it may take around an hour or more to refill the tank and to heat another 40 gallons of
water. 
3. Condensing Water Heater
This water heater has a smart solution, which makes it energy efficient. It utilizes the extra gas fumes in your
home by capturing it for heating the water.
How does the Condensing Water Heater function?
This is also known as the condensing boiler. If you’re using natural gas as a primary source of energy at home,
then the Condensing Water Heater is one of the best options available. This water heater is energy efficient as
it can extract energy out of the flue gas then stores this heat for pre-heating the water which enters the boiler.

It has a tank just like other traditional storage-tank water heaters. But, it captures the hot exhaust gas that is
generally expelled from the house through the flue. These gases are then blown from the coil which is placed
at the base of the heater. It is located at the bottom, to heat the incoming cold water. This design of the water
heater is suitable for a household that requires around 55 gallons of hot water or more.
This Condensing Water Heater requires quite a less amount of energy when compared to other styles of water
heaters. But, you should purchase the appropriate size with a large capacity according to the needs of your
family.
What are the types of maintenance required for this style of water heater?
This model also comes with a tank, just like the other water heaters. So, you should ensure that you get the
tank cleaned at least once a year. And, the same goes for the gas import valves that should be maintained
well.
What are the advantages of using this kind of water heater?
For households that use natural gas, this style of water heater is indeed the most energy-efficient option. You’ll
get plenty of hot water as this model comes with a big tank, so there is no fear of the water running out anytime
soon.
What are the disadvantages to this style of water heater?
You’ll not find a small size tank for this model, but it works perfectly fine for families that require a quantity of 55
gallons of water or more. However, this style of water heater is not a great alternative when compared to the
Conventional Style Storage Tank Water Heaters. Especially for homes that don’t require natural gas for other
purposes.
4. Heat Pump Water Heaters
The Heat Pump Water Heaters are also known as the Hybrid Electric Water Heater. You’ll not be spending
much money on your electricity bills since it doesn’t generate heat directly leading to lower consumption of
power.
How does the Heat Pump Water Heater function?
This style of water heater comes with a unique mechanism. It captures heat from either the ground or air, and
then gradually transfers the heat to the water. This shows that the electricity is in use only when the heat
moves from the air or ground to the water tank. It’s unlike the other models, where the machine depends
entirely on electricity to operate. 

It consumes around 60% less energy when compared to the conventional styles of a water heater. However,
the heat pump is placed on top of the water heater so you’ll need around 8-feet open space from the floor to
your ceiling.
What kind of maintenance is involved in this water heater?
Just like the traditional storage tank water heaters, this model also comes with a tank, which means that it
should be cleaned regularly. And, when you get the general inspection and cleaning done at least twice a year,
it helps the water heater to function efficiently.
What are the positive aspects behind the usage of hybrid/pump water heaters?
This model of water heater is extremely energy efficient, which means you can expect a return on investment
with lower utility bills. 
What are the pitfalls to this type of water heater?
The Hybrid Electric Water Heater doesn’t function efficiently in places with extremely low temperature. This is
because it depends mainly on drawing heat from the air or ground that is around it. We don’t advise you to
place this heater in your basement or in places where it’s freezing throughout the year. Finally, this model of
water heater is one of the most expensive pieces available.

5. Solar Powered Water Heater 

A water heater that is solar powered draws its energy from the sun. If you’re considering to add solar panels, or
you already have them installed at home than this style will be the absolute best option for you.
How does the Solar Powered Water Heater function?
If you’re looking for a highly energy-efficient model of water heater,  the Solar Powered Water Heater will be
suitable for you amongst all the other styles. It relies on the solar panels for energy source which are usually
mounted on the roof. 

The solar energy trapped in the cells of the solar panels is slowly transferred to the closed-loop system, which
contains the heat-conductive material (antifreeze-like fluid). This antifreeze-like fluid then runs to heat the water
in your tank. 
The Solar Powered Water Heater works great for people who are living in the warm, sunny climates, as it can
save a ton of money from electricity bills. Overall, you’ll also require to have an alternative energy source, such
as electricity or natural gas, to operate the water heater during the cold and rainy season.
What kind of maintenance is required?
This system also comes with a tank, that should be cleaned at least twice a year to remove the mineral
deposits and for preventing corrosion. You also need to maintain the solar panels, which might require an
annual professional inspection.
What are the benefits of using a Solar Powered Water Heater?
It is an environmentally friendly water heater as you’ll be reducing the hot water carbon footprint. This is an
incredibly energy-efficient style of water heater which turns around 80% of the radiation into heat energy. And,
by installing the solar-powered heater, you can save money from the electricity bills every month. You can get
an unlimited amount of hot water during the sunny days.
In some countries, the government also gives financial incentives if you start using solar-powered water heater
which includes- federal and state tax credits, along with utility rebates.
What are the drawbacks to this style of water heater?
The entire set that comes along with this water heater can get pretty expensive in some regions. It might take
around 20 to 30 years or more to yield a good return on your investment. 
It is not suitable for all weather conditions as you need to depend on the sun to heat the water. However, when
you have to get an alternative energy source, it just adds on to the overall budget. Also, the annual
maintenance of the various parts of the solar water heater can be a hassle.

6. Combined Space and Water Heating System

The Combined Space and Water Heating are appropriate
for homes with lower heating requirements. This is due to
lowered air leakage, more insulation, and efficient use of
the space. With these systems, you need a single heating
unit for your domestic water heating and space; this helps
to save a significant amount of energy.
What is Combined Space and Water Heating System?
It is also known as the “combi” system, that can easily replace the existing water heater and the forced-air
furnace. This system consists of an optimized hydronic air handler and high-efficiency boiler or water heater.
The air handlers have been designed with large coils that help with heat transfer for an efficient method of
space heating.  

The fan coil is generally installed with the ductwork, while the small pump helps to circulate water from your
water heater along with the fan coil. If you want floor or radiant heating, you can distribute the hot water
through the in-floor piping.
When you’re purchasing the water heater, you should be careful about the size to ensure that it can serve the
combined heating purposes. The functions of this system are different when it’s used for heating water in
addition to space heating. Similarly, the performance rating of the space heater should not be used to measure
its performance as a water heater. 
How to maintain this heating system?
With preventive maintenance of the entire heating system, there are several benefits such as- longer
equipment life, fewer repairs, lower energy bills, few chances of catastrophic breakdown and safer equipment
operation. You should hire a professional at least twice a year for general inspection and cleaning purposes.
What are the benefits of using Combined Space and Water Heating System?
The “combi” system has the same gas consumption level when compared with separate high-efficiency water
heaters and natural gas furnace. It saves a good amount of energy and money from not having to purchase
separate space and water heating devices. Moreover, this system eliminates spillage issues from the natural
draft appliance with the use of direct or powered combustion vent. 
What are the negative aspects of this space-water heating system?
The initial investment for this product can get relatively expensive. And the installation process is quite
challenging, as many installers are not familiar with this system. Therefore, we cannot compare this heating
system with the standard installation methods for power vent or condensing furnace water heater.

7. Combined Space and Water Heating System with a Hydronic Boiler

This combination space-water heating device has a hydronic boiler instead of a water heater. It’s a compact,
energy-efficient option for a household that is aiming to save energy and reduce the number of necessary
appliances. These systems come in different models for some, you can heat your space and water
simultaneously, while for the others heating space-water can be done one at a time.
What is Combined Space-Water Heating System with a Hydronic Boiler?
This type of water heating device is also known as the segregated heating system or combi-boiler. It uses a
hydronic boiler, from which the heat is generally transferred to the water through a heat exchanger. In some
countries, there are rules which state the use of double-wall heat exchanger for such heating applications. It
helps to avoid the contamination of potable water from your boiler heating loops.
You can find new combination boiler designs which have full-energy saving power along with a tankless
feature. This helps to ensure that there isn’t any unnecessary water heating when you’re not around. 
Moreover, it also comes with a flow control valve which ensures a constant temperature level irrespective of
your incoming water temperature. You can, therefore, enjoy a good quantity of hot water flow with accurate
water stability.
What maintenance is required for this heating system?
Again, you have to get annual cleaning and general inspection done for the boiler to work efficiently. The
auxiliary pump connections and flow control valve should be maintained correctly to prevent it from mineral
deposits and corrosion.
What are the benefits?
The life span for this heating system is around 10 to 15 years, depending on the maintenance and usage. It
has a compact design with built-in parts for outdoor reset control, auxiliary pump connections, and the
recirculation capability. Therefore, it minimizes the number of products that you need to purchase separately
for each function.
When you have this heating, the compact size also helps to free up the loft or roof space that is otherwise used
for cold water storage in traditional heaters. This is because the combi-boilers get their water supply directly
from the mains without the use of any tank. It’s a highly efficient heating system, and you’ll have around 90%
savings from your monthly electricity bills.
Are there any negative aspects to this style?
It has a complicated installation procedure as it requires various electronic devices for its functions. You should
ensure that a professional does the set up correctly because the repairing cost of a boiler is quite expensive. 
This heating system might not be suitable for larger households with a high demand for hot water. As these
boilers directly get their water supply from the mains, and it doesn’t have any back-up of a water tank.
Therefore, it requires more time to heat the water, and big families should instead opt for the traditional boiler
that comes along with a water tank.
Basic Plumbing System
1. 1. PLUMBING• The art and science of creating and maintaining sanitary conditions in building used by
humans.• It is also defined as the art and science of installing, repairing and servicing the pipes, fixtures and
appurtenances necessary for bringing in water supply and removing liquid and water-borne wastes;
2. 2. PLUMBING• the art and science of installing in buildings the pipes, fixtures and other appurtenances for
bringing in the water supply and removing liquid and waterborne wastes. It includes the fixtures and fixture
traps; the soil and waste pipes; vent pipes; the building drain and building sewer; and the storm drainage
pipes; with their devices, appurtenances and connections to all within or adjacent to the building.
3. 3. Historical Background• Since the dawn of civilization plumbing and sanitation has been part of human
lives. All human beings, regardless of culture and race had been practicing the act of disposing waste since
time immemorial.• Historians, in their attempt to trace the history of plumbing, events which had brought
about changes that led towards the plumbing system that we know today, had painstakingly devised records
of chronological events.
4. 4. Historical Background• The first artifact to have been unearthed was a copper pipe used in a water
system in the ancient palace ruins in the Indus Valley. It was estimated to be 5,500 years old. Such
discovery established the earliest known knowledge on plumbing systems.• Around 2,500 BC, the Egyptians
used copper pipes in their irrigation and sewerage systems. In the ancient Babylon, the science of
hydraulics had been established as evidenced by their skillful planning in their network of canals. The
inhabitants of Crete to collect water for drinking, washing, bathing and cooking purposes, constructed
freshwater cisterns.
5. 5. Historical Background• During the Roman Empire (500BC - 455AD), enormous concerns on the field of
sanitation and plumbing had been observed those times. Aqueducts were built to convey water from sources
to houses. Extensive underground sewer systems were constructed. Notable among these developments is
the construction of underground public water supply system made of cast lead sections.• Public baths had
proliferated; one particular example is the Bath of Diocletian, a bath that could accommodate 3,200 bathers
at one time. These baths were lines with ceramic tiles. In addition. Roman bathhouses also include large
public latrines, sometimes with marble seats.• The quality of plumbing declined after the fall of the Roman
Empire in AD.. 476. During the middle ages, people disposed of waste materials by throwing them into the
streets. !n 1500s, a type of water closet was developed. Septic tanks were introduced in the mid-1800s, and
a modern sewerage system began operating in London in the 1860s.
6. 6. Roman Aqueducts
7. 7. Roman Bathhouse (Thermae)
8. 8. Roman lead pipe with a folded seam
9. 9. Definitions and Basic Plumbing Principles Plumbing System• The plumbing system of a building includes
the water supply distributing pipes; the fixture and fixture traps; the soil, waste and vent pipes; the building
drain and building sewer; the storm water drainage, with their devices, appurtenances and connections
within the building and outside the building within the property line.
10. 10. Water Supply System• A system in plumbing which provides and distributes water to the different parts
of the building or structure, for purposes such as drinking, cleaning, washing, culinary use, etc.; it includes
the water distributing pipes, control devices, equipment, and other appurtenances.
11. 11. Water Supply System
12. 12. Drainage System• All the piping within a public or private premises which conveys sewage, rainwater or
other liquid wastes to a point of disposal. A drainage system does not include the mains of public sewer
systems or a private or a public sewage treatment or disposal plant.
13. 13. Drainage System
14. 14. Sanitary Drainage and Vent Piping System• The sanitary drainage and vent piping system are installed
by the plumber to remove wastewater and water-borne wastes from the plumbing fixtures and appliances,
and to provide circulation of air within the drainage piping.
15. 15. Sanitary Drainage
16. 16. Vent Piping System
17. 17. Sanitary Drainage Pipes• Pipes installed to remove the wastewater and water-borne wastes from
plumbing fixtures and convey these to the sanitary sewer and other point of disposal.
18. 18. SANITARY DRAINAGE SYSTEM • BUILDING/HOUSE SEWERThat part of the drainage system
thatextends from the end of the building drainand conveys its discharge to the publicsewer, private sewer,
individual sewagedisposal system, or other appropriatepoint of disposal.
19. 19. Privy– The oldest form of disposal oforganic waste– It consists of a water tight vaultconstructed of
concrete for thecollection of raw sewage and awooden shelter.– It must be 50’ to 150’ (15m to45 m) away
from the water supply– The vault should be suppliedwith ventilation– It should be screened andprotected
from vermin and flies.
20. 20. Septic Tank and Seepage Pit– In this type of sewage disposal, the cycle is completed below ground
andwithin the property. Liquid wastes are purified due to the action ofanaerobic bacteria through
precipitation in the digestion chamber andeffluent is discharged in the leaching chamber by natural
percolation.- Effluent –liquid discharge- Scum- non-soluble organic matter that floats on the surface of the
sewage- Sludge- organic matter that settles at the base of the septic tank - Size of tank: Residence - 6
persons min capacity of 50 cu ft, and for larger household 5-6 cu. ft/person Commercial, industrial and
institutional - 2-3 cu ft/person - Location must be near the structure served: (5’) 1.50 m - water-tight and gas-
tight and 50’ –150’ (15m-45m) away from water sources
21. 21. Parts of a Sanitary House SewerDrainage – It extends from the public sewer to the private sewage-
disposal tank to the wall of theSystem structure and is entirely outside the buildingSPECIAL DEVICES: •
Glazed vitrified clay –– Interceptors min. 6” –36 “ Ø, 2’-3’ long– Sumps and Ejectors • Cast-iron min. 4” Ø, 5’
to10’ long– Backwater Valves • Copper – 12’ to 20’ long– Roof and Floor Drains • Plastic pipe –10’ to 20’
longESSENTIAL – 12” deep with concrete pavementCOMPONENTS: – 18” deep without concrete covering–
House Sewer – Slope at 1/8” or ¼” to the foot– House Drain– House Trap– Fresh-air inlet– Soil and Waste
Stacks– Fixture Branches– Traps– Vents
22. 22. House Drain Fresh-air inlet– The horizontal main into which the – It is intended to admit fresh air
tovertical soil and waste stacks the drainage system so that theredischarge. It connects directly to the will be
a free circulation withouthouse sewer. compression– Sanitary drain throughout the house drain and– Leader
drain stacks discharging above the roof• Copper – A necessary adjunct to the house• Plastic trap• Extra
heavy cast-iron– Slope at 1/8” or ¼” per foot– A cleanout at the cellar/basementwall is recommended to
clearobstructions– A cleanout at the foot of each wasteand soil stack should be installed
23. 23. Soil and Waste Stacks– The soil and waste stacks collectthe sewage from the fixtures throughtheir
branches.• Should rest solidly at the bottom onmasonry piers or heavy posts• The upper ends should
extendthrough the roof for ventilation• Made of heavy cast-iron, copper,plastic• Supported at intervals of 10’
withstout wall hangers or brackets or onbeams• Min 4” Ø 1’ below the roof• It should be straight free of
bendsand turns
24. 24. Fixture Branches– Connect the fixtureswith the stacks– Waste or soilbranches areconnected to the
trapof eachfixture– 1/8” – ½” per foot– Horizontal branch should not bemore than 5’ (from the vertical inlet
ofthe trap to the vent opening– Cast-iron, plastic, copper orgalvanized steel
25. 25. Traps– Traps catches water after each discharge from afixture so as not to allow unpleasant ad
obnoxiousgases in a sanitary drainage system to escapethrough the fixture– All fixtures are to be provided
with its own trap except forthree laundry and kitchen sinks connected to a single trap
26. 26. – Trap seal must have a min depthof 2” and max of 4” depth– Placed within 2’ of the fixtureaccessible for
cleaning through itsbottom with a plug– Made of steel, cast-iron, copper,plastic and brass except those
inurinals and water closets whichare made of vitreous china castintegrally with the fixture
27. 27. Vents– Vents are the extension of soil andwaste stacks through the roof and asystem of pipes largely
paralleling thedrainage system for the admission ofair and discharging of gases.
28. 28. Interceptors– device designed and installed so asto separate and retain deleterious,hazardous, or
undesirable matterfrom normal waste and permit normalsewage or liquid waste to dischargeinto the disposal
terminal by gravity
29. 29. Sump and Ejectors– A sump is a tank or a pit whichreceives sewage or liquid waste,located below the
normal gradeof the gravity system and must beemptied by a mechanical means– Sewage ejectors may be
motor-driven centrifugal pumps or they maybe operated by compressed air.Ejector pump for submersible
systemEjector for Vertical lift submerge pump
30. 30. Backwater valves/check valve– A backwater valve closes to prevent reverseflow from a sewer to low
facilities when thereis a heavy drainage load for short periods thatcan cause building up and over flow of
wastes.Roof Drain– Is a receptacle designed to collectsurface or rain water from an openarea and discharge
to a catch basinFloor Drain– Is any pipe which carries water orwaterborne wastes in a buildingdrainage
system
31. 31. Is that portion of the drainage installationdesigned to maintain atmospheric pressurewithin it• and
prevent at least three major difficulties:– Retardation of flow– Material deterioration– Trap seal
lossRetardation of flow.• The result of improper atmospheric conditions, because ofinsufficient ventilation or
incorrect installation of fittings.• Increased pressure causes retarded flow in the vertical stackand also affects
the discharge capacity of its branches– Material deterioration.• Wastes create chemical compounds of an
acid nature whichdeteriorates the piping system. Objectionable gases should beeliminated by proper
ventilation.– Trap seal loss.• Attributed to inadequate ventilation of the trap and thesubsequent minus and
plus pressure which occur
32. 32. • Five ways in which trap seal is lost: – Siphonage (direct or indirect) – Back Pressure – Capillary
Attraction – Evaporation – Wind Effect SiphonageSiphonage is the result – Indirect siphonage orof a minus
pressure in siphonage by momentumthe drainage system is the result of a minus– Direct
siphonage/selfsiphonage pressure in the waste pipingis common caused by discharge ofin unventilated
traps water from a fixturewhich serve oval-shaped installed on a line whichfixtures serves a fixture placed at
a(lavatories, small slop lower elevation.sink) – No possibility of re-seal.
33. 33. Back-pressure is causedby a plus pressure in Capillary attraction,large plumbing trap seal is caused
byinstallations suspension of foreign– The fixtures in which it object (rag, string, lint,occurs are usually
located at hair) into the trap sealthe base of a soil stack or extending over the outletwhere soil pipe changes
its arm of the trap.direction. – The object serves as an– Ventilate the base of the absorbing siphon.soil pipe
to correct thiscondition
34. 34. Evaporation of the trap Wind effectsseal is a phenomenon of – Wind of high velocitynature. passing over
the top of the– The atmosphere absorbs soil pipe roof terminalmoisture and varies affects trap seal.inversely
with temperature – Downdrafts tends to ripple– It requires weeks to the liquid content of the trapevaporate
trap seal and spill quantity of it over– Deep seal traps are its outlet leg into therecommended when air is
system.not saturated with moisture – Soil vent terminals should be away from valleys, gables, abrupt
projections of the roof where wind can strike and be directed to the terminal
35. 35. Main Soil and Waste Main VentVent – Is that portion of the vent– Is that portion of the soil pipe pipe
system which serves asstack above the highest a terminal for the smaller,installed fixture branch tributary
forms ofextending through the roof . individual and group fixture– The same diameter as the trap ventilation
(collectingwater-carrying portion of vent line)the soil or waste pipe – It begins at the base of the• (2”-4” Ø )
soil-pipe stack to relieve it from back pressure and terminates in the soil –pipe stack 3’ above the highest
fixture branch
36. 36. Wet Vent Looped Vent– a wet vent is a method of – used on fixtures which are locatedventilation used
rather extensively in the room away from partitions thatfor small groups of bathroom might be utilized to
conceal the wastefixtures and vent– A portion of the vent system – A bleeder or drip connection
mustthrough which liquid wastes flow be made between the waste pipe and the lowest point of the vent line
to avoid accumulation of water in the loop vent
37. 37. Local Vent– a vent without connection with the plumbing system– It terminates at the roof and connected
to thefixture at point below the seatUtility vent– Used for undergroundpublic restrooms
38. 38. Ventilation System• A system of pipes, fittings and other devices installed for the purpose of providing
circulation of air and creating balanced atmospheric condition within the system thereby preventing
siphonage and backpressure.
39. 39. Soil Pipe• A pipe that conveys the discharge of water closets or similar fixtures containing fecal matter,
with or without the discharge of other fixtures to the building drain or building sewer.
40. 40. Waste Pipe• A pipe that conveys only liquid waste free of fecal matter. A waste pipe is generally smaller
than a soil pipe because of the nature of matter being discharged into the system. A waste pipe may be
connected directly or indirectly depending on the type of fixture.
41. 41. Plumbing System Components• Water Supply and Distribution System Cold Water Supply System Hot
Water Supply System• Sanitary Piping System• Soil Piping System• Waste Piping System Direct Waste
Piping System Indirect Waste Piping System• Ventilation System• House Drain House Sewer Drainage
Cleanout Plumbing Traps• Plumbing Valves• Storm Drainage Systems• Sewage Disposal Systems•
Plumbing Fixtures
Flow Rate Formula
The flow rate of a liquid is a measure of the volume of liquid that moves in a certain amount of time.
The flow rate depends on the area of the pipe or channel that the liquid is moving through, and the velocity of
the liquid. If the liquid is flowing through a pipe, the area is A = πr2, where r is the radius of the pipe. For a
rectangle, the area is A = wh where w is the width, and h is the height. The flow rate can be measured in
meters cubed per second (m3/s), or in liters per second (L/s). Liters are more common for measures of liquid
volume, and 1 m3/s = 1000 L/s.

fluid flow rate = area of the pipe or channel×velocity of the liquid

Q = Av
Q = liquid flow rate (m3/s or L/s)
A = area of the pipe or channel (m2)
v = velocity of the liquid (m/s)

Flow Rate Formula Questions:

1) Water is flowing through a circular pipe that has a radius of 0.0800 m. The velocity of the water is 3.30 m/s.
What is the flow rate of the water in liters per second (L/s)?

Answer: The flow rate depends on the area of the circular pipe:

A = πr2
A = π(0.0800 m)2
A = π(0.00640 m2)
A = 0.0201 m2
The area of the pipe is 0.0201 m2. The flow rate can be found in m3/s using the formula:
Q = Av
Q = (0.0201 m2)(3.30 m/s)
Q = 0.0663 m3/s
The flow rate can be converted to liters per second using: 1 m3/s = 1000 L/s.

Q = 66.3 L/s
The flow rate of the water through the circular pipe is 66.3 L/s.
2) Water is flowing down an open rectangular chute. The chute is 1.20 m wide, and the depth of water flowing
in it is 0.200 m. The velocity of the water is through a circular pipe that has a radius of 0.0800 m. The velocity
of the water is 5.00 m/s. What is the flow rate of the water through the chute in liters per second (L/s)?

Answer: The flow rate depends on the area of the chute the water is flowing through:
A = wh
A = (1.20 m)(0.200 m)
A = 0.240 m2
The area of the water as it flows through the chute is 0.240 m2. The flow rate can be found in m3/s using the
formula:
Q = Av
Q = (0.240 m2)(5.00 m/s)
Q = 1.20 m3/s

The flow rate can be converted to liters per second using: 1 m3/s = 1000 L/s.

Q = 1200 L/s
The flow rate of the water in the chute is 1200 L/s.
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Engine Performance refers to how your engine performs. Tune-ups are designed to check your engine to see if
it’s performing at optimal settings for power and efficiency as recommended by the manufacturer. Although
many tasks on newer cars are automated by your car’s computer, tune-ups ensure that things like idle speed,
fuel-air mixture, spark plugs and the carburetor are properly calibrated and working at maximum capacity.
Horsepower (hp) is a unit of measurement of power, or the rate at which work is done, usually in reference to
the output of engines or motors. There are many different standards and types of horsepower. Two common
definitions used today are the mechanical horsepower (or imperial horsepower), which is about 745.7 watts,
and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts.
The performance of an engine is expressed in terms of power, speed, and fuel economy. The three quantities
are evaluated with a dynamometer, a laboratory device that applies a controllable load in the form of resistance
to the turning of the crankshaft and also measures the torque exerted at the shaft coupling. The resistance
imposed by a dynamometer may be adjusted so that the desired engine speed is established at any throttle
position. It is thus possible to run the engine at various speeds throughout its operating range, to continuously
maintain these operating conditions, and to measure the precise load and speed at which each run is made.
Additional test equipment permits measurement of the exact quantity of fuel consumed, as well as the duration
of the runs. From these data the power-speed-economy relationships can be calculated and performance
plotted.
Brake horsepower (BHP) is the measure of an engine's horsepower (HP) before the loss in power caused by
the gearbox, alternator, differential, water pump, and other auxiliary components such as power steering pump,
muffled exhaust system
Indicated horsepower (IHP) - Theoretical capability of the engine [ PLAN/ 33000] minus frictional losses
within the engine (bearing drag, rod and crankshaft windage losses, oil film drag, etc.), equals
The IHP stands for indicated horse power while BHP stands for brake horse power of an engine.
The difference between the two is that while IHP is the total power produced by the engine measured at the
crankshaft in horsepower, the BHP is the actual power delivered to the final element of the drive (for ex.
wheels).
The IHP is measured from the indicator diagram of any engine obtained from a mechanical mechanism which
draws the actual pressure volume chart of the engine cycle the area of which gives work produced. Thus the
IHP is the total power generated at the crankshaft of the engine under working conditions without considering
friction in transmission elements.
The BHP of an engine can be measured by a dynamometer which can be of absorption or transmission type. It
gives the power produced by the engine which is achieved at the end of transmission after considering friction
in elements.
Building Water Flow Rate
Definition of Volume Flow Rate
The volume flow rate Q, given by the equation below, is the volume of liquid that can pass through the cross-sectional area of
a pipe over a given time interval.
The volume flow rate equation relates the cross-sectional area of the pipe (area of a circle of a given diameter if the pipe is
round) and the time over which the flow occurs expressed usually as a velocity in feet per second
Flow Rate Q = A x V or V = Q/A
Flow Rate Q = Volume / Time

Where:
Flow Rate Q = flow rate in ft3 / second or cubic feet per second or if we are using S.I. units, Q = flow rate in M3 / second or
cubic meters per second
Area A = cross sectional area flow in sq. ft. of the pipe is given by two equivalent formulas:
Using the diameter of the pipe:
A = π x D2/4
where pi or π = 3.1416
D = Diameter or D2 = diameter squared
Using the traditional formula for area of a circle we use the radius of the circle.
From algebra we learned that the area of a circle
A = π r2 where r is the radius (half the diameter) of the circle
Because 2 x radius or 2r is exactly equal to D or diameter, both formulas are equivalent.
V = velocity in ft/sec - for systems where V varies use the average fluid velocity in the pipe either in feet per second or in
meters per second.
If we use feet per second then the volume flow rate will be in cubic feet per second
If we use meters per second then the volume flow rate will be in cubic meters per second. Or if you want cubic liters per second just
divide meters/second by 1000.

Examples of Pipe Volume Flow Rates

Q = A x V for 1 meter per second through a 1-meter pipe
A = 1 square meter cross sectional area of pipe
V = 1 meter per second flow rate
V = A x V or 1 x 1 = M3 / second
The flow of a fluid traveling at an average velocity of a 1 meter per second through a pipe with a 1 square meter cross-sectional area is
1 cubic meter per second - volumetric flow rate before considering fluid density.
Q = A x V for 1 foot per second through a 1-inch diameter pipe
A = π x D2/4
 A = 3.1416 x 1 / 4
A = 3.1416
V = 1 ft. per second
Q = 3.1416 x 1
Q = 3.14 = ft3 / second or 3.14 cubic feet per second of volume flow rate

For building water supply systems and many other applications the above flow rate calculation is sufficient, but it is not
accurate for all types of fluids of various densities.