magnesium is not as protective as that formed on aluminum but does provide some protective value and substantially increases protection when used in combination with paint coatings. Purposely Created Oxide Better Than Naturally Formed Oxide. Because of their greater thickness and abrasion resistance, anodic films offer much better protection against corrosion and mechanical injury than do the thin natural films. Aluminum is usually treated in a sulfurie acid electrolyte that slowly dissolves the outside at the same time it is converting the base metal to produce a porous coat: ing. The coating can be impregnated with various materials to improve corrosion resistance. It also serves as a good paint base and can be colored in itself by use of dyes. ‘The usual commercial anodizing methods used on aluminum cause formation of billions per square inch of aluminum oxide cells which grow above the original metal surface and at the same time extend below that original surface. Each of those cells has a pore in its center that extends to a solid barrier layer near the bot- tom of the cell as pictured in Figure 16-6. These numer ous pores permit impregnation of the surface with vari ous desirable materials but they are also a source of problems for penetrant testing of anodized aluminum surfaces. The penetrant can enter the pores to such an extent that an extremely high background is produced. Special care to interpretation of results may be neces: sary. Checking for cracks is often called for because alumi- num oxide is brittle and subject to cracking particular- ly if deformation of the material occurs after anodiz- ing CHROMATE COATINGS Zine Dimensions Increase with Corrosion. Zine is usually considered to have relatively good corrosion resistance. This is true when the exposure is to normal outdoor atmosphere where a relatively thin Surface Finishing: 181 corrosion film forms. Contact with either highly aerated water films or immersion in stagnant water containing little oxygen causes even corrosion and pitting. The corrosion products of zine are less dens than the base material so that heavy corrosion not only destroys the product appearance but also may cause malfunctions by binding moving parts. Chromium Salts Improve Corrosion Resistance and Paintability. Corrosion of zinc can be substantially slowed by the production of chromium salts on its surface. The corrosion resistance of magnesium alloys can be increased by immersion or anodic treatment in acid baths containing dichromates. Chromate treat: ment of both zine and magnesium improves corrosion resistance but is used also to improve adhesion of paint. PHOSPHATE COATINGS Used Mainly as a Paint Base. Phosphate coatings, used mostly on steel, result from a chemical reaction of phosphoric acid with the metal to form a non- metallic coating that is essentially phosphate salts ‘The coating is produced by immersing small items or spraying large items with the phosphating solution. Phosphate surfaces may be used alone for corrosion resistance, but their most common application is as a base for paint coatings. Two of the most common application methods are called parkerizing and bond: erizing. CHEMICAL OXIDE COATINGS A number of proprietary blacking processes, used mainly on steel, produce attractive black oxide coat- ings. Most of the processes involve the immersing of steel in a caustic soda solution, heated to about 150°C (30°F) and made strongly oxidizing by the addition of nitrites or nitrates. Corrosion resistance is rather poor unless improved by application of oil, lacquer, or wax, As in the case of most of the other chemical conversion procedures, this procedgre also finds use as a base for paint finishes.Inspection 17 Inspection is an essential procedure carried on in connection with all manufacturing processes by which usable goods are produced. Inspection work, however, differs from that of all the processes dis- cussed to this point. Unlike them, it does not change the individual product, but instead, by elimination of bad parts improves the average quality of those that remain for distribution and use. In general terms, inspection can be defined as an examination to determine the conformance of parts or assemblies to their specifications. The information gathered from such an examination may be used for several purposes. Because it is frequently impossible to manufacture articles within close enough limits ‘that all can be used interchangeably, the inspection information is frequently used to sort products into groups. The information gathered from inspection is ‘lo used as an indication of need for adjustment of ‘equipment or processes. A third objective of inspec- tion procedures is to provide data for control of quality. Quality Control Uses Inspection Data for Process Improvement. Although the term quality control is occasionally used synonymously with inspection, its meaning is sometimes different, The association be- tween quality control and inspection is close. Quality control is often a second step, making use of inspec- tion data for analysis and decision making for achiev- ing, maintaining, and improving quality of products. In some manufacturing plants, both inspection and quality control are performed by the same depart- ment and personnel. In others, they are completely separated and may even have separate data collecting, facilities.184 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology INSPECTION PROCEDURES Because of their effects on the product function, the selection of dimensions, qualities, and appearance factors for any product is primarily a design problem. In many cases the choices are empirical in nature, being based on past experiences, and in some cases are even arbitrary because of the lack of real infor- mation on which to base the kind of choice. Most di mensions and qualities are subject to wide variability in the manufacturing process and, in some cases, may also be very difficult to measure. ‘The desired life expectancy for a product also will, usually play an important part in the consideration given to dimensions and qualities needed for satis- factory manufacturing. Because of these factors and the close association between processing and quality control, both the manufacturing and inspection divi sions of a manufacturing plant are often consulted before a final determination of quality tolerances. In addition, they are usually the principal decision makers for setting the inspection qualities, quantities, and standards, Inspection Varies with Quality Desired. The dif- ference in the amount and kind of inspection neces- sary for a machine tool as compared to a piece of farm equipment is considerable. In the first case, a machine tool would be expected to be rigid, to be free working with a minimum of friction loss, to have very accurate related surfaces for maintenance of accurate movement, to have long life, and, during that period, to be able to produce parts accurate within a few ten-thousandths of an inch of dimen- sion. These requirements mean that most of the parts of which the machine is constructed must be held within extremely close accuracy limits, and large amounts of inspection are necessary. In the case of the farm machinery, which may be no less important in its own area, the product must. bbe strong, rugged, able to withstand exposure to the elements, and also to function over a long period of time, although the actual hours of use may be rela- tively few. The farm machinery, however, does not require the relationship accuracies that must exist in the machine tool, so that both the quality and quanti- ty of inspection can be reduced. These differenc naturally show up in the cost of the completed equi ment. Inspection Benefits Management and Customer. ‘The meeting of specifications set by the designer is primarily a manufacturing problem. Whether or not the specifications are met is determined by inspec: tion, which may be performed by either operating or specialized personnel. Regardless of his other duties, an inspector at the time he is performing this func. tion may be considered to represent both manage- ‘ment and the customer. Processing Closely Related to Quality. Any Product is always subject to quality variation, the degree of which will vary in wide ranges de, largely upon the relationship between the | design and the process chosen for its manu ‘The materials of the product, the equipmer the personnel operating the equipment, a planned steps by which the manufacturing is on are all influencing factors on the quality va Inspection is for the purpose of finding the ations and, in many cases, aiding in assign causes for their existence. ORGANIZATION OF INSPECTION Inspection Always Present. Although kinds of inspection are limited to certain phas ing the manufacturing processes, inspection 0 type, sometimes as simple as casual observal needed in every stage of manufacturing of ever Of product. It is, however, customary in many to label in general terms’ the inspection proc according to the state of the product being exa as receiving inspection, in-process inspectior final inspection. Receiving Inspection. The term receiving 1 tion denotes all the inspections, regardless of that are given to incoming material, includin; things as raw materials, speciality items, am assemblies manufactured under subcontract. down transportation and handling, companies n use of large quantities of speciality items or st ‘tract work frequently perform this kind of insp in the supplier's plant. In-Process Inspection. Inspection that. is ducted during the time raw material is being con into a finished product is called in-process inspe The place of inspection is dependent largely upe degree of examination and the kind of equip needed. When only a percentage of the part duced are inspected, either periodically or in checks, the work is usually carried on at the ma Particularly in small plants, this inspection m performed by the machine’ operator himself. large quantities of product are to be inspectec when the inspection procedures require speci equipment, the work is most often done in tralized areas, FirstPiece Inspection Part of In-Process Ir tion. Regardless of the amount of other inspe that might be necessary, first-piece inspecti common practice. After any equipment setup, change, or any action that may influence the qt of the product, the first piece is examined to « mine its conformance to specification. This is $ times a very formal procedure, and in many cas in pressworking where the effect of wear and 1 factors is small, this may be the only inspe required.i Final Inspection. Inspection performed at final inspection may include a great variety of work. Visual inspection for appearance (paint, labels, cleanliness) and completeness (all parts, instruction books, parts list) is nearly always part of the job. Tests for fune- tion, which are sometimes necessary on mechanical goods, may involve elaborate testing procedures requiring much time and adding considerable cost to the overall manufacturing operation. Testing of most aircraft in the final stages would fall in this category. When the amount of final inspection is large, re- duced in-process inspection may be permitted, al- though this will depend on a number of factors, including the relation of inspection cost to processing cost and the cost of replacing bad parts in the final assembly. Nondestructive Testing. ‘The vast majority of in- spection performed on manufactured goods is nondes- tructive in nature but most measurements of dimen- sions, geometry, appearance, completeness, and the like do not fit the usual concept of NDT. NDT usually involves indirect tests that are in some way related to qualities and characteristics that cannot be checked di- rectly without destruction. This kind of testing not on- ly fits into all of the described areas of inspection, but, is essential if there is to be assurance of good quality product, QUANTITY OF INSPECTION ‘The percentage of inspection at any phase of manufacturing will vary widely. When lowest inspec tion cost: is the principal interest, the variation can be from 0% to 100%. When greatest reliability is of interest, 0% would be unlikely, but 100% may also be unlikely because 100% inspection does not always mean 100% reliability due to the effects of fatigue and monotony as well as the psychological and hypnotic effects of continuous detailed work. Desired and Experienced Quality Determine Quan- tity Inspected. With a large portion of manufactured goods, the quantity to be inspected is determined by the use of various sampling plans. These may be used only in those cases where something less than 100% perfect quality will be accepted. In general, the lot size being inspected must be large because of the assumption that the inspected quality will vary according to known statistical laws. Mathematical methods are available for designing a number of sampling plans that take into account the product quality level and the willingness to accept a certain, defective part. The necessary sample size is affected by these factors. Randomness of Sample Important, For any sam- pling plan to be effective the sample inspected must be random and truly represent the overall quality of the lot. Before a complete sampling plan can be devised, a decision must be made as to the percentage Inspection 1x of defective parts in a lot that would be willingly accepted. Ideally, a sampling plan would accept all good lots and reject all bad lots of parts. Most Economical Sample Size a Compromise. The ideal, however, can be reached only when the sample size becomes 100% and is, in addition, performed without fault. As shown in Figure 17-1, ideal results are approached when the sample size is increased; consequently the best sample size is always a com: promise based on the relative values of improved reliability versus greater inspection costs. Acceptance sampling plans are essential when inspection cost is, high and the cost for replacing defectives is low, when the sampling plan is more efficient than 100% inspec- tion, and in every case when the inspection procedure is destructive. Always Some Risk of Nonrepresentative Sample. ‘The operating characteristic curve shown in Figure 17-2 is a single sampling plan requiring an attribute (quality that is either wholly present or absent) of i Figure 17-1 Operating characteristic curves for different sample sizes 200 randomly selected parts to be compared with its specification. If four or less defective parts are found in the sample, the entire lot from which it came witl be accepted. If more than four defectives are found, the lot will be rejected and likely be sorted for removal of the defectives. In the plan shown, the dotted line marked P, indicates the so-called producers risk. If the lot being inspected had only 1% defect ives, there would be a 6% chance that this plan would reject the material. The dotted line marked Pine cates the consumer's risk, which in this ease 9 10"186 Materials and Processes for NUIT Technology chance that a lot with 4% defectives might be ac- cepted, Sampling plans of this type therefore must be designed to be acceptable to both the producer and the consumer. PROCESS CONTROL CHARTS Need Variables Instead of Attributes. Another valuable use of statistical mathematics in inspection is for the construction of control charts with limit lines. Inspection values plotted on the chart will rarely fall outside these lines except when an assignable cause exists. In other words, the variation of points inside the control limits can be from chance causes alone. ‘The data collected for construction of process control charts is in the form of variables rather than attri butes. Data collection is therefore more costly, but in most cases considerably more information can be made available from analysis of the data. Assumptions Do Not Destroy Value. In the making of control charts, some assumptions are Figure 172 Operating characteristic curve made, which, although they may not be entirely true, can usually be approximated closely enough that the system will work. One of the important assumptions is that variation of the quality being inspected will follow a known frequency distribution. Most often it is assumed that the frequency distribution follows a normal curve, as shown in Figure 17-3, In a normal distribution, 99.73% of the measured values from an entire population will probably fall within the limits of +30 from the arithmetical mean. (Sigma is the symbol for standard deviation, which is a meast the dispersion of the measured values.) Simi 95.46% of measured values would be expected t within #20 limits, and 68.26% within +19. Chart Constructed from Process History. ‘The struction of a quality control chart usually fo the following kind of procedure. First, the proc examined to ascertain that it is normal and th assignable causes have been eliminated so the operation is stable within the limits of chance + tion. Next, an historical record is made by plot the mean values of a number of samples, the frequency, and selection of which have been care Predetermined after consideration of the pr characteristics. These values are placed on two ct ‘one for averages and one for ranges, and limits culated for each (Figure 17-4). If the limits usec +80, not more than 0.2% of any plotted points w be expected to fall outside these lines. There Figure 17.3 Distribution under a normal curve whenever a point does fall outside, the proces critically examined for an assignable cause. As the process continues, current samples plotted and compared with past history to detern that the process remains in control. In 1 Processes, the mean is controllable by adjustment the process, but the range can be changed only finding and eliminating assignable causes. Charts Best for Long Runs. Although pro: control charts can be useful for short-run operati under some conditions, their greatest value is in ¢ tinuing operations in which a minimum number changes may contribute to variability. The in mation that can be gathered from control charts be useful for several purposes. It may be usedFigure 17-4 Quality control process chart determining the overall quality of a product. The data can be useful for matching mating part dimensions with a minimum of waste. Understanding of the sta- tistical variation in a product usually will permi wider tolerance use. Although all the points within the control limits on the mean chart could be in these positions by chance variation, a gradual shift toward ‘one or the other limit can often be interpreted as a trend caused by an assignable reason. For example, gradual tool wear in a cutting operation would cause the average mean value to change gradually. Process Improved by Identification of Causes. Frequently, the use of process control charts will ‘cause improvement in the processes on which they are used by pointing out possibly correctable varia- tion causes. Analysis of the process itself and cor- rection of faults as they are found will produce gradual improvement in the process history and tend to tighten down on the control limits as they are recalculated. The presence of regularly kept charts in the process area tends to have a rather large psycho- logical effect on the operators. Frequently they do a better job merely because the chart is before them. ‘The data that are collected for construction of the control chart are, of course, useful also for inspection acceptance, and often provide more information than would be available from data collected for inspection alone. PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT ‘This section of inspection is concemed primarily with dimensions, shapes, finishes, dimensional toler- ances, and the dimensional relationships, together with Inspection 187 geometric relationships existing between surfaces. Any quality desired in a manufactured product may require inspection to assure its meeting specifications. In the manufacture of hard goods, the greatest amount of inspection time is spent checking those qualities mentioned in this paragraph. Some impor- tant properties such as hardness and strength, together with their testing procedures, have been dis- cussed in earlier chapters. DIMENSIONAL REFERENCES Use of Common Reference Points Valuable. When dimensional measurements are being made, a reference point and a measured point always exist. In the case of single dimensions, it usually makes no difference which is which, except in those cases in which one surface is more rigid or more easily acces- sible and will serve better as a reference point. When a number of dimensions originate from the same point. or can be measured from a common point, that point, should be used as a reference point. All measurements, should be made from it to reduce the possibilities of accumulation of error. When a series of dimensions are measured, each dependent upon the previous one, the total possible error is the accumulation of all the individual errors. But if, as shown in Figure 17 each measurement is made to a common reference point, the maximum total error can be only two individual errors for any of the dimensions measured. In those cases where the only practical dimension- ing method requires a sequential group of measure- ments, it is good practice to leave the least important, dimension off the drawing and thereby eliminate the argument as to whether the overall dimension or | t | Ancoe § ————-| wanes cay cf = | Figure 17:5 ‘Accumulation of dimensional error