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Actuation Systems
Actuation Systems
Introduction
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems
Mechanical Actuation Systems
Electrical Actuation Systems
Introduction
• Actuation systems are the elements of control systems
which are responsible for transforming the output of a
microprocessor or control system into a controlling action
on a machine or device.
Sensor
Signal conditioning
Mechanical Actuation Systems
Mechanical Aspects of Motor Selection: Moment of Inertia and Torque
Fall
Rise
Cam
Dwell
Gear Trains
Gear trains are mechanisms which are widely used to transfer and
transform rotational motion. They are used when a change in speed or
torque of a rotating device is needed. For example, the care gearbox
enables the driver to match the speed and torque requirements of the
terrain with the engine power available.
ω A number of teeth on B d B
= =
ω B number of teeth on A d A
ω angular velocity
A
d diameter
B
Belt and Chain Drives
Belt drives are just a pair of rolling cylinders with the motion of one
cylinder being transferred to the other by a belt. Belt drives use the
friction that develops between the pulleys attached to the shafts and
the belt around the arc of contact in order to transmit a torque.
T1
B
A
T2
T A = (T1 − T2 ) rA
TB = (T1 − T2 ) rB
Bearings
Whenever there is relative motion of one surface in contact with
another, either by rotating or sliding, the resulting frictional forces
generate heat which wastes energy and results in wear. The function of
a bearing is to guide with minimum friction and maximum accuracy the
movement of one part relative to another.
IF ra ia
rr La
uf rf ua
Ea = Laf if ωr
LF
TL
ωr, Te
Load
u a − Ea
ia =
ra
dψ a dia
u a − Laf i f ω r = ra ia + = ra ia + La
dt dt
dψ f di f
u f = rf i f + = rf i f + L f
dt dt
Separately-Excited DC Generator: Differential Equations of Motion
IF ra ia
La
rr
uf rf ua
Ea = Laf if ωr
LF
Tpm
Prime
ωr, ωpm
Mover
dia
u a − Laf i f ω r = −ra ia − La
dt
di f
u f = rf i f + L f
dt
The steady - state operating conditions for a generator are
u a − Laf i f ω r = − ra ia ; u f = r f i f
The Steady-State Quantities
1 1
WC (ia , i f , θ r ) = La ia2 + Lsr (θ r )ia i f + L f i 2f
2 2
∂WC (ia , i f , θ r )
Te = = − Laf ia i f sin θ r
∂θ r
Na N f
Laf = LM = Lsr max =
ℜ m (90 0 )
E a ia
Te = Laf ia i f ; Pem = E a ia ; Pmec = Teω r ; Te =
ωr
u a − ra ia u ra
ωr = = a − Te (Steady state relation)
Laf i f Laf i f (
Laf i f )
2
Modeling Separately Excited DC Motor
dia
u a − Laf i f ω r = (ra + rar ) ia + La
dt
di f
( )
u f = r f + r fr i f + L f
dt
ua ra + rar
ωr = − T
Laf i f ( )
Laf i f 2 e
dω r 1
= (Te − Bmω r − TL )
dt J
dia ra Laf 1
=− ia − i f ωr + ua
dt La La La
di f rf 1
=− if + uf
dt Lf Lf
dω r Laf Bm 1
= ia i f − ω r − TL
dt J J J
Modeling Separately Excited DC Generator
dω r
− Te − Bmω r + T pm =J
dt
dia ra Laf 1
=− ia − i f ωr + ua
dt La La La
di f rf 1
=− if + uf
dt Lf Lf
dω r Laf Bm 1
= ia i f − ω r − T pm
dt J J J
Shunt-Connected Direct-Current Machines
ra
La if
rf
TL Ea=Laf if ωr ua
ωr, Te
Lf
Load
dia
u a − Laf i f ω r = ra ia + La
dt
di f
u f = rf i f + L f
dt
Use Kirchhoff' s equations for circuits and apply Newton' s second law
to generate the following differential equations
dia ra Laf 1
=− ia − i f ωr + ua
dt La La La
di f rf 1
=− if + ua ; ua = u f
dt Lf Lf
dω r Laf B 1
= ia i f − m ω r − TL
dt J J J
u a − Laf i f ω r u
ia = ;i f = a
ra rf
Laf Laf ω r 2
Te = Laf ia i f = 1 − u a
ra r f rf
Series-Connected DC Machines
ia rf ra Ia La
Lf
TL Ea=Laf ia ωr
ua
ωr, Te
Load ( )
u a − Laf iaω r = ra + r f ia + La + L f( ) didta
ua
ia =
Laf ω r + ra + r f
Laf
Te = Laf ia2 = u a2
(Laf ωr + ra + r f )2
dia ra + r f Laf 1
=− ia − ia ω r + ua
dt La + L f La + L f La + L f
dω r Laf 2 Bm 1
= ia − ω r − TL
dt J j j
Electronic Control of Direct Current Motors
Based on Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power Systems, Fifth Edition
by Theodore Wildi: Prentice Hall
E d = 1.35E cos α
Armature Torque and Speed Control of a DC Motor using a Thyristor Converter
Limits
G1 G2 G3 Ra
La If
3-phase Ed
line D4 D1
G4 G5 G6 vS
Eo
D2 D3
Single-phase source
Example: A 750 hp, 250 V, 1200 r/min DC motor is connected to a 208 V, 3-
phase, 60 Hz line using a 3-phase bridge converter as shown. The full-load
armature current is 2500 A and the armature resistance is 2500 A and the
armature resistance is 4 mΩ.
Gate
Triggering
processor
2500 A If
α=27o 4 mΩ
3-phase E
208 V Ed = 250 V Eo
60 Hz
Converter
560 kW
1200 r/min
Find the required firing angle α under rated full - load conditions.
Find the firing angle required so that the motor develops its rated torque at 400 r/min
(a) At full load the converter must develop a DC output of 250 V
E d = 1.35 E cos α
250 = 1.35 × 208 cos α
α = 27 o
Armature IR drop at rated current = 2500 A × 0.004 Ω = 10V
Counter - emf at 1200 r/min ( Eo ) = 250 - 10 = 240 V
(b) To develop rated torque at 400 r/min, the armature current must still be
400
be 2500 A. The emf at 400 r/min is : Eo = × 240 = 80 V
1200
Armature terminal voltage is E d = 80 + 10 = 90 V
The converter must generator 90 V. To determine the firing angle, we have
E d = 1.35 E cos α = 1.35 × 208 cos α
α = 71o (see the Figure in the next page)
For the same example, calculate the reactive power absorbed by the
converter when the motor develops full torque at 400 r/min.
Id
If
α=71o 10 V
208 3-phase 90 V 80 V
Converter
400 r/min
• Single phase
• Polyphase
• Induction
• Synchronous
Electronic Control of Alternating Current Motors
Based on Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power Systems, Fifth Edition
by Theodore Wildi: Prentice Hall
Why AC Machines?
AC machines have no commutators and brushes; consequently, they
require less maintenance.
AC machines cost less and weigh less than DC machines
AC machines are more rugged and work better in hostile environments
AC machines can operate at much higher voltages: up to 25 kV. DC
machines are limited to about 1000 V.
AC machines can be build in much larger sizes: up to 50000 kW
machines. DC machines are limited to about 2000 kW.
AC machines can run at speeds up to 100000 r/min, whereas large DC
machines are limited to about 2000 kW.
Types of Electronic AC Drives
Voltage Frequency
Voltage
3-phase Controlled M
DC link Inverter
source Rectifier ~
Current Frequency
Voltage Frequency
Is
If
3-phase EL Es
E1 E2 M
60 Hz
α1 α2
Example: A 3-phase synchronous motor rated at 200 kW, 480 V, 60 Hz, 450 r/min, is
connected to a drive similar to the Figure shown in the previous page. The three-phase
electric utility voltage is 600 V, 60 Hz. The motor runs at a speed of 535 r/min. The
effective terminal voltage is 511 V and the motor draws an effective line current Is of 239
A at a power factor of 95%. The motor has an efficiency of 93%. Calculate (1) the
frequency applied to the rotor, (2) the fundamental component of the stator current Is, (3)
the current I flowing in the DC link, (4) α2, (5) E2, (6) α2, (7) α1, (8) The reactive power
supplied to converter 1, (9) the mechanical power developed by the motor.
535
(1) f = × 60 = 71.3 Hz
450
(2) I F = 0.955 I s = 0.955 × 239 = 228 A
IF 228
(3) I = = = 293A
0.78 0.78
(4) α = -across 0.95 = 180o - 18.2o = 161.80o
(5) E2 = 1.35 Es cosα 2 = 1.35 × 511× cos161.8o = -655 V
(6) E1 = 1.35 E L cosα1; α1 = 36o
(7) P = E1I = 655 × 293 = 192 kW; PF = cos α1 = cos 36o = 0.809 = 80.9%
S = 192 kW/0.809 = 237 kVA
Q = S 2 - P 2 = 237 2 − 192 2 = 139 KVAR
(8) Pm = 192 kW × 0.93 = 179 kW ≈ 240 hp
Stepper Motors
The stepper motor is a device that produces rotation through equal angles
called steps for each digital pulse supplied to its input. The following are some
of the terms commonly used in specifying stepper motors:
Figure
18.9
Basic Components of a Brushless DC Motor
Characteristics
• Brushless DC motors are available only on small sizes, up to 20
W.
• They have relatively high efficiency.
• They have long life and high reliability.
• Little or no maintenance.
• Very low RF noise compared to DC motors with brushes.
• Very high speed (up to 50,000 r/min).
Transistor and SCR Drives for a Brushless DC Motor
Figure
18.3
Universal Motor
The universal motor is a rotating machine
similar to a DC motor but designed to
operate either from DC or single-phase AC.
The stator and rotor windings of the motor
are connected in series through the rotor
commutator. Therefore the universal motor
is also known as an AC series motor or an
AC commutator motor. The universalFigure
motor
can be controlled either as a phase-angle
18.21
drive or as a chopper drive.
The universal motor has a sharply drooping
torque-speed characteristics of a DC series
motor.
Typical applications in vacuum cleaners,
drills, and kitchen appliances.
Motor Selection Criteria