RYAN W.

IWCAAAKEN
FOREWORD BY PAUL A. CANTOR

COMMIE
COWBOYS
TH E BOURGEO 1 SlE.AN[) T PM NATHDN
STAT E l N T HE WW ST ERN GENRE
 COMMIE COWBOYS
The Bourgeoisie andthe Nation­Statein
theWesternGenre

Ryan W. McMaken
Foreword by Paul A. Cantor
 Copyright © 2012 Ryan W. McMaken
All rights reserved.
Cover Art: “Cowboy” by Kevin Walsh. Used with permission via
ISBN­13:
CreativeCommons.
978­1481114189

ISBN­10: 1481114182
For Jessica.
 Table of Contents
Foreword
Preface

I. Introduction
II. The Gunfighter vs. Classical Liberalism
III. Violenceand Money­making on the Frontier
IV. The Gunfighter vs. Capitalism
V. The Classical Western and Nostalgic Primitivism
VI. The Gunfightervs. Bourgeois Life and Ideology
VII. The Gunfightervs.The Victorians
VIII. The Gunfighter vs. Women
IX. The Gunfighter vs. Christianity
X. The Gunfighter vs.ThePeople
XI. The
XII.
XIII. The
TheTransformationof
Riseand
Persistence
Declineofthe
ofTraditional
theWestern
StateintheWestern
Elements

XIV. Deadwood, Spontaneous Order, and Progress

XV. “Something ToDoWithDeath”
XVI. A Victorian Western:Little HouseonthePrairie
XVII. Conclusion

Selected Filmography
Bibliography
 FOREWORD
The Western, having long beenpronounceddead,hasrecently
shown signs of coming back tolifeinAmericanpopularculture.
The HBO television series Deadwood (2004–2006) demonstrated
without question that creative possibilities remain in a genre that
alevel
the
more
such
notice.
had
History
trickle
CoenBrothers’
seemed
of
numbers
testimony toand
Althoughthe
popularity
Channel’s
of films
tobethatTV
exhausted.
itenjoyed
thevitality
Hatfields
remake
Western
TVexecutives
shows
ofthe
Thecritical
in
&
hasnotreturned
of
themiddle
in
McCoys
the
movie
the ofcommercial
throughout
Western.
genre
and
True
(2012)drew
the
seems
tothe
Grit
Most
theindustry
twentieth
(2010)
toextraordinary
recently,the
have
viewersin
successof
century,
offered
turned
took

Western.
the
into most
aAndthat
steady
distinctively
stream.We
shouldnotAmerican
surprise
may well
us.
ofpop
beentering
TheWestern
culturea genres,
has
newalwaysbeen
ageofthe
and has

served Americans wellin their attempts to come to grips with their

social
facilitated
experience
shows
mindless
andpolitical
areexactly
entertainment,
the
as aserious
nation.Tobe
whatpeople
exploration
butitis sure,many
remarkable
have
of insome
mind
how
Western
ofwhen
often
America’s
films
they
the genrehas
speak
and
central
TV
of

problems. In the sharp dramatic confrontations

vs.
can
thatorder,
raise
the Western
such
or theissues
vigilantevs.
invites
astheindividual
andin
thefact
law.demands,a
Studying
vs.the community,
the
film
Western
ora TVshow
freedom
can tell

us
is
political
of understandable
freedomis
a great
Ryancommunity
deal
McMaken’s
being
about
thattheWesternis
debated
in
how
which
Commie
Americans
anewin
they
Cowboys
live.
American
coming
understand
At helps
a moment
backtolife.
political
us
themselves
towhenthe
sort
discourse,
out
and
issue
what
the
it

the Westernhas meant over the years inAmerican popular culture

revival. He providesa
and to understand whythegenre
thoughtfuland
mightbe
wide­ranging
currentlyanalysisof
undergoingthea

Western, principally in films, but with some examples of TV series

and even a few references to fiction. The book goes all the way
back to Western films in the silent era and comes forward almost to
the present day. The heart of the book is an analysis of the classic
One does with
Westerns
the
Peckinpah,
everyrevisionist
one of
ofandClint
John
McMaken’s
workof
Ford,Eastwood.
HowardHawks,
interpretations
such directors of
and
asSergio
individual
not
Anthony
havetofilms
Mann
Leone,
agree
toandof
profit
Sam

individualist
servingly
from
example
politicallyconservative
Academic
hisattempt
of
providing
the
as criticsof
herointhe
to
American
make
ideological
genreand
sense
theWestern
capitalist
Western
ofthe
support
toarguethat
genreas it offersa
entertainment
isoften
have
forcapitalism.
tendedtoview
a viewed
whole.industry
The
in Cultural
rugged
itprime
self­
as a

Studies
sided
McMaken’s
interpretation
as aniconofthe
book isofparticularly
the Western
solo competitor
valuable
as agenre.
forinamarket
challenging
The fact thatthe
economy.
this one­
two

most beenidentified
have
misled
conservative.
famousstars
criticsinto
In fact,
ofthinking
withpolitically
the
Westerns,
American
that
John
the
West
conservative
WayneandClint
genre
has proved
itself
causes
fertile
is Eastwood,
inherently
mayground
have

for liberal and even left­wing storytelling. As McMaken shows,

Westerns haveoften developed anti­capitalist ideological positions.
Westerns.
Crooked andIn particular,
corruptbusinessmen
owning land, peoplethe
especially large
frontier
tractsof
inmany
land,

is often presented as the epitome of evilin Westerns, which tend to

the
takeshopkeeper.
theside ofthe
Often
littleguy—the
some kindofpublic
dirt farmer,the
official—a
sheepherder,or
sheriff, a
ofthe
politically
saloon
the
Kevin
power
they
U.S.
necessary
federal
on
madethe
classic
askhowthe
marshal,ora
many
basis
ofgovernment,
Costnereverhave
landgrants
owner.
tocurb
conservative
New
of
of federal
At
theclassic
Deal
the
West
and
the
frontier
tearjerker,
greed
subsidies.It
by
specifically
thebuilding
same
waswon,
nature?
Western
military
gotten
and
time,
The
selfishness ofingovernment.When
isthefederal
oftentheiranswer
films—John
involved
many
GrapesofWrath.
commander—is
no accident
transcontinental
Westernscelebrate
acattlebaron
Ford—also
that
a genrethat
themanwho
shown
Andwould isa
toorthe
is: railroad
through
made be
 With his perceptive analyses and steady accumulation of
evidence, McMaken makes us take a fresh look at the Western and
re­evaluate its place in American popular culture. Whatever your
ultimate
the samewayafter
take onthereadingthis
Western maybe,you
book. willnever PaulA.
look at itquite
Cantor

Harvard University,
October
Cambridge
2012
 PREFACE
My first job was on a cattle ranchnearElbert,Coloradowhen I
was fourteen years old. I dug postholesandtightenedfences and
cleaned tack and shoveled manure. They gave me an old powder­
blue Ford pickup truck to drive around. The transmission didn’t
work
placeWhileI
where
terriblyIwouldneed
never
well, so to use
thought
I had to
thatI’dbe
make
reverse.
suregetting
Ineverinto
put any
the truck
gunfights
ina

with
job,
any
FewWestern
Ithings
outlaws,
was nevertheless
everhappened
filmthat
or doing featured
anything
struck
that one
byhow
cattle
incredibly
would
ranches
tedious
want
exciting
orto
the
cattle
actually
whenI
work truly
record
tookthat
was.
in

barons. Even
if I had worked on that ranch a hundred years earlier, and had been
largely
or
subject
Indian
the
towars.
all
same,and
the hazards
not ofthe
likelyto
frontier,
bepunctuated
the workbyanyrange
would havebeen
wars

The real story of the Westwas one of tedium and repetitive

agricultural and mining work, ofcourse, and not of showdowns on
really
Main
come
through
They’re
This
Street.
torealize
very
literature.
just
book
fancifulwhen
Most
myths
comesout
that
Thatpoint
people
that
Westerns
use
compared
know
is aoften
aren’t
frontier
onsome
political.
tothe
really
setting
level
real­lifeWest,
aboutthe
that
to make
Westerns
Westbut
apoint
at I’ve
are
all.

of a combined interest in Western films

to
andwonder
the intellectual
whatthehistory of nineteenth­century
political ideologies were ofAmerica.
the people
I began
who

actually rodein covered wagons across the plains, andit gradually

became
world
containedin
North America
view
clearofthatthere
a the
during who
Westernfrom
people
the
wasa
nineteenth
bigdifference
the
actuallysettled
mid­twentieth
century.between
thecentury,
Western
theworld
and
part of
view
the

thingsL.P.Hartley
differently there,”and
wrote that“the
thisispast
certainly
is a foreign
trueofcountry,
America’spast.
theydo

The
defining,
Westerns
classical
of theformofthe
twentieth century
genreare
we’ve
really
cometothink
aboutthetwentieth
of asthe
century, and the nineteenth century can be barely glimpsed in the
background of a Western from 1955 or 1960.
This isn’t a novel observation of course, but I like to think that
some
to howofthe
welookat
observations
Westerns.
in thisbookwill contribute something new

fifteen
Having
years,been
I’ve active
long been
in the
told
libertarianmovement
that Westerns are inherently
for more than
pro­

watch
capitalist
them,I
and found
freedom­loving
that to notbethecase
films. Yet, when I started to really
at all. Westerns, just as
often
explain
The
understand
Westernsasawhole
watch.
aamong
know
kid,TallStranger,
That’snot
as
Imusthave
aboutevery
The
the
not,
why
most
final
why
tendtobe
some
tosay
entertaining
showdown
watched
any
which,
wordof
with in
conservatives
that
anti­capitalist
libertarian
hisownideology.
Westerns
bythe
Silverado
Louis
eight
Theway,
minuteseverput
Good,TheBad,
L’amour’s
would
aren’t
like
and
morethan
wasauthoritarian,which
them,
incredibly
made
everexcitingshort
twenty
intoavery
want
but
and
on
entertaining
it’s
times.
film,
The
toidentify
hardto
Uglyis
andas
might
novel
Ialso
to

boring
movie in 1957.
over
good
site LewRockwell.com
But
This
reason
thingor
fundamentally,
book
and
not.
began
war over
asan
about
thepeace.My
Western
essaypublished
eight years
isreaders
agenrethat
ago. atthe
That
can decideif
essay
favors
libertarian
turned
coercion
that’s
web
out
a

to be guilty of over­generalizing, and was inmany ways

incomplete.
improved version
This bookisa
of greatlyexpanded, updated, revised, and
that essay. Since 2005, newly published
criticism of the Westerngenrehas justified anew look at the old
essay. I have expandedseveralsections and addeda new section on
dozens of Houseon
the Little explanatory
the
and
Prairie series andRose Wilder Lane, plus
bibliographical notes.

Denver,
RyanMcMaken
November
Colorado
2012
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Although Ididn’trealizeitatthetime,Ireceivedapretty
decent education attheUniversityofColorado,inspiteofmybest
efforts to learn nothing. Faculty members Fred Glahe and Thad
Tecza were particularly effective in ensuring that I now continue to
read books evenwhenI don’t have to.
Rockwell
make
Community
Thisbook
Thanks
me awho
better
College
tothe
haswouldalmost
writer
offered
forSocialScience
over
providing
much
thepast
certainlynotexist
encouragement
medecade.
with
Department
a placeanddone much to
to withoutLew
atArapahoe

teach over the

past eight years. Thefear oflooking likea foolinfront of my
students has done much to improve my understanding of many
things.
Thanks to Alison O’Kelly who read and edited themanuscript,
and better yet,didit for cheap.
I’m alsothankful formy friends Derek Johnson and Myles
Kantor
improvewhose
my understanding
correspondence
of popular
and conversation
culture, amongother
have done things.
much to

whom Butmost
Iwouldn’tof all, Iowe thanks to my wifeJessica, without
have accomplished much of anything over the
past thirteen years.
COMMIE COWBOYS
 I. Introduction
In 1916, Charles Goodnight, anagingrancherwhohadlived
the history of the great cattle drives acrosstheplains,madeamovie
about the West. His film, Old Texas, featured no showdowns, no
saloons, and no bandits. It was a tale of the West as remembered by
audience.
afor
final
man
more
showdown
who
than
By1916,
lived
a decade,
were
it.Old
therapidly
Western
and
Texas,
the film
becoming
gunmen,
whichisnowlost,
hadthe
the
already
dominant
hostile
been
Indians,
neverfound
images
takingandthe
of
shape
the
an

Eventually,
culture
that
decades
story
certainty,
Americanfrontier
few
consistedof
As
ofthe
duringthe
amore.
Americans
and
real­life
realWest.They
thethestory
twentieth
fablesfeaturing
violence
frontiersman,
in
of of
film.
thethe
twentieth
of
were
century
The
gunfighter
the
what
interested
primitive
Western
the
and
century
Goodnight
gunfighter
bewould inawild
unequaled
inaversion
dominated
landscape,
wereinterested
dominate
didn’t
incinemas
of
realize
the for
popularity
the
popular
in
moral
West
land.
was
the

by any other genreof film. The Western became the American

gunfighter,
popular
Although
art form
whether
Westernsno
at mid­century.
in the form
longerofdominatethe
a cavalryman,
airwaves,
sheriff, the
or

wandering frontiersman, retains his position as a powerful political

that
and
Western
cultural
thereissomething
genre,
symbol.Many
andthat the
inherently
fans
tamingofa
oftheAmerican
Westernhave
wild land
atthecore
and
long
thecontended
civilizing
ofthe

force
proposes
Tothisday,
of the
todo
gunman
across
politicians,
embodies
the globe.artists,andmilitary
whatthe UnitedStates is and whatit

officers employ
imagery
Many treatmentsof
of theAmerican
the Western
cowboyand
have explored
gunfighterthe
forclose
politicaleffect.
connection

American
great
End
between
of
detail.Tom
VictoryCulture
theWestern
narratives on the American
Engelhardt,forexample,
glorifyingWorld
genreand importance
WarIIand
writes
politics
ofextensivelyin
the
and
justifying
Western
cultureinto
The
the
Cold War.[1]
According to Engelhardt, during the immediate post­war
period especially, the Western repeatedly invoked the image of the
gunfighter as anaffirmation of the proper role of the American state
in
American
theWiththe
establishmentofan
Westonsetofthe
andworldwide.
Second
Americanvaluesystem
World War, andinto
both in
thethe
1950s
old

andgunfighterand
culture
the 60s,millions
that peaceandorderare
hisability to pavetheway
of Americanslearned
not obtainablewithout
through their
theefforts
popular
of

for civilization.
Although the gunfighter is most associated withthe version
gunfighter’s
Wister’s
Unforgiven.[2]
made
influence
popular
1902
feltinboth
place
novel
during
Even
insociety
The
before
literary
theVirginian
1950s
The
have
circles
and
Virginian
toClint
variedover
and
60s,the tomarket
inEastwood’s1992film
the
began
timefrom
mass
nuancesmakeofthe
Owen
for
its

were
popular
earliestalready
silentfilms
middlebrow fiction, All
beingtranslated
made.[3] toofthe
theold big screenwe
theelements
frontier­themed
insome
now
dimenovels
associate
of the

to
with classical Westerns took time develop, however. Early silent
Westerns ofthe 1900s, 10s and 20s, and thenthe Western B­movies
of the 1930s,borrowed much from earlier dime novels,from the
frontier
nineteenth­century
progressed,
works
the genre
of Victorian
James
slowly developed
Fenimore
literature.As
into
Cooper,
what
the twentieth
we
andconsider
evencentury
to
from
be

come
the
“adult”toWestern
By WorldWar
“traditional”
dominatetelevision
II,the
or
programming
“classical”
genrehad
and so completely
Westernsthat
would
developed
film makeinto
arethe
up almost
well­known
form
thatby1959,
one­quarter
thatwould
today.

of
dominantgenre
gunfighter
Americans
allSince
network
oftheclassical
asasymbolofa
thenightly
Vietnam
ofAmerican
offerings.[4]
War,the
Westerns
sexist
popularculture
and
statusof
isnow
racist American
oftenviewed
hasdeclined,
the Western
value
byandthe
system
asmany
the

that is bestleftin the past.[5]At thesame time,many Americans

of
witha
American
who
eye and
lookas
values
withfavoron
a genrethat
arelikely whattheyperceive
to
preservesthe
regard the Western
valuestobe earlier
traditional
nostalgic
and
presumably more virtuous generations.
In the modern political culture wars, this has led to a case in
which the American right wing is likely to look to Westerns as a
laudable genre,while theleft regards is asarelicofa more unjust
age. Film critic Robert Ray, writingon “leftand right” cycles in
Hollywood
“right” cyclemoviemaking,
in films, and points
regardstolater
post­war
films
Westerns
such asDirty
as partHarry,
of the
),
television
whichConservative
classic capitalize
Western
Western
formula.”[6]
onwhat
columnistZachary
Hell on
hecalls
Wheels
the(2011–
“right
Leeman,
wing’s
praised
writingon
loyalty
the to
series
the

claiming “it’s a perfect show for Western lovers and conservatives

service
alike.” Hewent
to God.[7]Spencer
ontopraise its Warren,
portrayal of “manhood,” “faith,” and
writing for the American
Conservative
conservative ofUnion,writes
genres” combating
thatthe
relativism
Westernis
and egalitarianism.[8]
“the most
of
quarterly
Western
made
Warrenduringthe
specifically
Counterpoint,
genre. post­war
Michael
pointsto
states
classical
Talent,
“the
John
Western
writing
period—as
Waynegenre
forthe
Westerns—Westerns
theepitome
filmmaking
conservative
ofthe
...

is already inherently right wing,”[9]

from
the
during
Western
Themilitant
outlaws
thepost­war
genre.
servedanti­communism
Thegunfighter’s
period
asan analogy
helpedtofor
role
ofthe
solidifythis
theinAmerican
defending
American
relationship
state’srole
theinnocent
right wing
with
in

on
defending
States,
poster
a generation
designed
theimagery
the freeworld
by
of Cold­War
wasverypowerful
thePolish
from Americans.
Soviet
Solidarity
domination.
andmovement
Even
was famouslyused
outsidethe
Thiswasnotlost
United
ina

promoting the
1989 election,an electionthat wasa referendum on Communist
rule.[10] ofa
is
who
look
traditionalvalues
1960s,
thesimply
culture
Thepoint
with
look
thetotakenote
favor
back
Western
warsthathave
oftoan
onarenot
bringingupthe
what
has
earlier
ofat
all
they
become
least
political
ariseninthe
America
regard
conservative
one
something
conservatives
as“traditional”
groupof
forinsights
UnitedStates
affinity
Americans
of
lodestar
about
values.
course,butin
forWesterns
sincethe
what
likely
for
Those
are
the
to
proponents of a value system they associate with an earlier
American way of life.
But what are these supposedly traditional values? Generally,
defendersoftheclassical
values ofhardwork, private
Westernhold
property, thatthe
family, genre
community,
embodiesthe
and a

framework.
Christian (sometimes
These are broadened
values historically
to “Judeo­Christian”)
associated withmoral
the

nineteenth­century
after
way
one mightrefer
thatWestern
Westerns ceased
toand
as
American
“traditional”
todominate
frontier middle
iconography
the
American
class,and
airwavesand
and
society.Even
idiom
as such,
movie
hasbeen
with
reels,the
decades
what
used

by politicians such as Ronald Reagan and George W.Bush speaks

perceived to be
the analysisof the with
to theInpowerofthosesymbols
synonymous conservative
inharkening
traditionalAmerican
fans
backto
of the
a civilization.
setof
genre,
values
the

classical Western is promoted as an artistic form providing an

example of virtuous behavior. This is believed tobemost true of
Westerns
living
assumedtoday
thatthe
fromthepost­war
may remember
Western provides
from
classicalperiod,
childhood.
an imitable
Additionally,itis
which
examplethat
many people
points
often

us towardan admittedly romanticized but desirable way of life

involving
values.” familywill
term,ItbuthereI
isdifficult
Thisis aand
topackage
heavily­loaded
refertothis
community.
a complexsetof
setofvalues asvalues
phrase of course,
“bourgeois
and
into
in asingle
Europe
liberal

during
liberal”
still usedtoday
term orvarious
might by Marxists
epithethave
periods,
designed
manyand
todenotea
differentmeanings.
amongMarxists,
andothercorruptor
anti­capitalists
theterm
Indeed,theterm
plutocratic
asaninsultis
“bourgeois
ruling

class. In America, however, bourgeois liberalism (using

“liberalism”inthe historical andclassicalsense) might also be
considered
dominant ideology of the and
in an unbiased American
matter­of­fact
middlewayas
class during
simply the

nineteenth century.
life,
wealth
the nineteenth
religious
Muchlike
accumulation,
devotion,
century,
its counterpart
private
the
andAmerican
anti­authoritarian
property,
inincreasinglyliberal
middle
industrialization,
class
politics.
wasfocused
Britain
It isduring
domestic
during
on
this period that we see the rise of Victorian America, which in many
ways mirrors British Victorian society and its values. Due to the
lack of an anti­liberal aristocracy in the United States, however,
classes,
American isindustrialization,
middle­class
society historically
Victorianism
liberalismmarkedby
thanwas
was
formal
even
education,
thecasein
significantgrowth
more closely
scientific
Britain.[11]
associated
ininquiry,
the
Victorian
middle
with
and

literature
American
The
influenced
growing
that
by the
by thepoliticalideology
revolutionaries,
reiteratedtheassumed
influence
classicalliberalism
ofthis
ofwomen
andwas
periodin
in
ofthe
sustained
cultural
virtues
late
America
and
ofthe
eighteenth­century
throughart
literary
was“Founding
heavily
trends.
and

patricians,
classes.[12]
Fathers.”
Connecting
These
butwere
the
founders
Western
nevertheless
werein
to the
revered
historical
many
bythecases
period
American
very
it purportedly
wealthy
middle

dramatizes,
these nineteenth­century
endorsed bythe
proponents
narratives
oftheclassical
of
valuesare
theWestern
the
Western
film.
valuessupported
Butoften
are they
assumethat
really?
and

will
In thisessay I explore thecultural message of prominent
Westerns ofthe classical period (extending from approximately
1945 to1965)and contrast classical Westerns with later revisionist
Westerns.
how Althoughfew
early silent andwatchthem
B­Westernstoday, I will
differed markedly
alsobriefly
from what
examine
we

from
now consider
thelatetobetraditionalWesterns.
1890s throughthe1930sCertainly,
were important
the filmsinmade
the

development
in modern popular
of theculture
genre, but
and they
political
exertmuch
discourse
lessthanthe
directinfluence
classical

Westerns. When politicians and American film audiencesthink of

WesternsofJohn
archetypal Westernstoday, they arealmost always referringto the
Ford and other Westerns of the 1940s, 1950s and
associated
1960s. It iswiththegenre
thevaluesof as
thea classical
whole. This
Western
valuethatare
system is
still
generally
closely

Bravo
an
ideologies,
supposed
altogetherdifferent
(1959),
tobutanexamination
reflect
and She
bourgeois
Worea
set of values
offilmslike
liberal,andthus
YellowRibbon
is being
HighNoon
(1949),
put
solid
forward
middle­class
suggest
(1952),Rio
by that
the
classical Western.
Ironically, the post­classical revisionist Westerns, such as the
works of Sergio Leone and Clint Eastwood, often derided as being
opposed tothese bourgeois values, are more sympathetic to such
values
classical
themes.than
Westerns
aretheclassical
insome oftheir
Westerns,andthey
pro­Indian andresembleolder
anti­authoritarian
pre­

largely
within
Americanswho
Thestructure
the
incompatible
actuallylived
andwith
content
thebourgeois
during
ofthetheclassical
historical
liberalvalues
Western
perioddepicted
genre
ofthe
is

films themselves. The extent of this incompatibility

varies over time, but is evident in the fact that the most popular
literary
different
Tompkins
in many forms
ways
inform
contends
aofrevolt
themid­
andcontent
inWest
against
ofEverything,
and
thefromthe
late­nineteenth
dominantWestern
the
culture
Western
century
of
genre.As
the
asa
werevery
Victorians
genreis
Jane

and is a rejection of the domesticand religious environment that

of
Feminization
Douglas
accompanied
also therise
explores
American
ofthis
liberalism
Culture.[14]
theme in
andTerrible
In
industrialization.[13]
the works
HonestyandThe
of Tompkins
Ann

twentiethcentury,
and Douglas, we find
theWestern
that the literary
among andthem,
artistic
attempttodo
conventions ofthe
away

with the
Victorian
values of assumptions
the
literature
nineteenth
which
and
century.
characteristics
largely mirrorsofmiddle­class
the nineteenth­century
bourgeois

assumptionthat
Victorian
Centraltothe
bourgeois
thevalues
frontierwas
narrative
wereunsuited
of uncommonly
the classical
tosuchaharsh
violent,
Westernlandscape.
andthat
isthe

In the Western genre’s typical narrative, bourgeois middle­class

after
valuesthegunfighter
would eventually
successfully
be established
tamed theland.
on theTheimagery
frontier, butofonly
the

the inthe
valuing
violent frontier
incapable of sustaining
bourgeois
wouldproveto
itself
lifestyle
without
which
be the
immenselysuccessful
intervention
Western
of a sheriff
genre
in de­
or
is

a cavalryman or a semi­feral gunman.

violence
violent
In recent
American
that existed
decades,
frontier,
onthereal
historians will examine
and frontier
I havechallenged
and how itdiffers
the
thisleveloftrue
viewofthe
from the
image offered by the Western.
Finally, I will look at one form of the Western that actually
does reflect the liberal bourgeois values that all Westerns
supposedly endorse:the Little Houseonthe Prairie (1974–1983)
as
television
series
a central
isnot
series.Itcan
partofthe
character Western
and
beargued,
it isgenre
farhowever,
less
at all.Itlacks
violentthan
thattheany
Little
the
gunfighter
typical
House

Western television showor feature filmof the post­war period.

alittle
the
With
system
seriesin
room.
itsemphasis
of many
valuesways
onfamily,
for rejects
whichthe
schooling,
the conventional
classical
women,and
Western
Western
domestic
narrative
in favorlife,
has
of

from
Richard
and what
Influential
Etulain
setsit havelongsought
apart
scholarsofother
the genres.[15]
Western
tospecifically
likeJohn
Itisdefinethe
notenoughthat
Cawelti
Western
anda

storyline take place ona frontier location to make it a Western.

Willa Cather’snovel O Pioneers!, for example, is rarely considered
to be aWestern although it takes place on the frontier. A similar,
Western
drama
although
Hawks’that
The
or
rarely­asserted,
happens
not,
Furies
the(1950),
toimmensely
take
argument
which
place popular
ina
could
might
frontier
be
be
Little
described
madeabout
setting.
Houseseries,
asafamily
Whethera
Howard
by

offering acontrasting vision, helps illustrate howthe classical

Western embraces amuch different valuesystem than whatmany of
its proponents think it does. in
the
specific
Civil
include
Other
Warand
time
anarid
elements
frame
landscape,asetting
official
restricted
that are
closing
oftenconsidered
to theperiod
of the in“cattle
frontier
between
essentialto
the
country,”
theend
1890s.
the and
of
genre
thea

Historically,
dramas
climates,incattle
illustrate
earlyAny
Westernsalso
and
that
casual
adventure
Westerns
Westernshave
survey
country,orduring
used
stories
have
ofthe
tales
not,
ofincluded
the
early
infact,always
from
early
silent
sucha
ante­bellum
nineteenth
Western
limited
takenplace
century.
wagon
films
timeperiod.
inarid
would
Many
train

James Fenimore Cooper’s

Leatherstocking
century. areas
wooded Oftenand
the
series,which
insettings
riparianoftheseearly
landscapes
took placethat
filmswere
during be in
wouldtheeighteenth
extremely
heavily
rare among the classical Westerns of the post­World War II period.
Indeed, to restrict Westerns to only the deserts and high plains, one
would have to necessarily exclude most Westerns about Jesse James
for example,
The
drives
NakedSpur
Thefact
and desert
orany
that
(1953).
Westerns
landscapes,
films featuring
areso
however,
closely
mountainillustrates
associated
landscapes
the
withcattle
suchas
almost

hegemonic
variations ofthe
influence
genre.ofFromthe
the classical Western over allother
1940s to the 1960s, Westerns
would
Apaches,become
and cattle
nearly
barons.
synonymouswith cactus, tumbleweeds,

Howard
grew
popular
filmsThe
totheheight
ofthreedirectors.
directors
Hawks.
classicalThese
ofWesterns
ofits
Western
men
popularity,
During
themes
helped
were
the threeofthe
John
andsettings
1940s
developthe
Ford,
and Anthony
50s,asthe
most
aretypified
Western
influential
Mann,
film
Western
ininto
and
the

the iconicgenre we know today, andthey dominated Western films

for
Films
Bravo
decades
like
(1957)
Fort
with
areApache
theirepic
considered
(1948),
andinfluential
defining
Winchester
filmsin
big­budget
’73the
(1950),
history
Westerns.
andRio
of the

Western, and in these films and others bythese directors the canon
of
how
Peckinpah,
theLaterrevisionist
the
classical
Western
andWesterntook
Clintcan
Westerns
Eastwood
evolve
shape.
also
revolutionized
over
provide
time.additional
Sergio
the Western
Leone,
insights
inSam
into
the

the with
1960s
disappeared,
questioning
Westerns
andcould
70s.In
manyofthe
Leone
be critical
fact,
andoriginal
before
of Peckinpah
classical
the
themesand
traditional
were
Westerns,
conclusions.
reworkingit
Westernhad
but they,
The even
later
anda

few exceptions, never totally abandoned the themes set out from the
earliest days of thegenre.

[1] Engelhardt, Thomas. The End ofVictory Culture: Cold War

America and the Disillusioning of a Generation.
years,
novel.
[2]TheVirginian
itwasThe
While dime Virginian
novels
is widely
hadbyincluded
Wister
regardedas
Western
andGrey’s
the firsttrueWestern
themesformany
Riders of the

Purple Sagethatset the stage for the Westernas serious adult

literature beyond the comic­book­like world of the dime novels.
The book would prove to be immensely influential on later Western
film and fiction.
[3]Oneof the firstsilent films evermadewasa Western: The
Great
with doing
TrainsoRobbery
muchtoin 1903.The Virginian,thenovel credited
create the genre, had been published only
one year earlier in 1902.
[4] Engelhardt, The End of Victory Culture.
devoted to theWestern
[5]There areat leastdozens
asan inherently
of scholarly
authoritarian,
and popularbooks
racist and

misogynist genre. Some are highly polemical. On the other hand,

books like John Cawelti’s Six Gun Mystique and Six­Gun Mystique
Sequel examine theseelements in a more even­handedway.
1985,
Cinema,
[6]
351.
Ray,
1930–1980.
RobertB.Princeton,NJ:
A Certain Tendencyof
Princeton University
the Hollywood
Press,

http://www.breitbart.com/Big­Hollywood/2012/08/09/AMC­s­Hell­
[7] Breitbart.com. Aug 12, 2012.

on­Wheels­Deserves­a­Hell­of­a­Chance
http://www.conservative.org/wp­content/themes/Conservative/bl­
[8] “John Wayne’s First 100 Years”

archive/Issues/issue87/070707med.php
[9] “Apolitical Grit”
http://counterpoint.uchicago.edu/archives/winter2011/grit.html
[10] The poster encouraged Poles to vote in the upcoming
election, andusedanimageofGaryCooperfromHigh Noon
holding aballot.(http://chnm.gmu.edu/1989/items/show/699)
[11] The rise of liberalism in the 1830sand 1840s in Britain is
widely
that
century.
cametodominateduringthesecondhalfofthenineteenth
consideredtobecloselyconnectedtotheVictoriansociety
Somehistoriansclassify capitalistliberalRichard

Cobden
and his Anti­Corn Law League and the liberalmovement behind it
as an importantaspectoftherisingVictorianculture.Theold
conservative aristocracyinBritain,however,opposedthemiddle
classes. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, forexample, following the
adoptionofthe
act for giving politicalpower
Reform Actof tothemiddleclassesanddeclaredthat
1832 inParliament, condemnedthe

“you have agitated and exasperated the mob, and thrown the
balance of political power into the hands of that class which, in all
countries and in all ages, has been, is now, and ever will be, the
least patriotic and least conservative of any....”
any
is not
onetime
[12]
synonymous
Victorianism,
period.with
However,
which itsliberalism,
classical
isspecific
closeconnections
to the
which
nineteenth
extends
with the
century,
beyond

urban
middle classes of the nineteenth century create a historical
symbiosis
Victorianism
Britain,
one of themost
forbetween
example,
wasnotexclusive
influential
bothmovements.
wasanti­liberal
essayists
to ofliberals.
and
One
theVictorian
anti­capitalist,
shouldalso
ThomasCarlyle
period.
note
butwas
Inthat
the
in

United States, however,

ideology,Victorianism waswhere
even more
liberalism
associatedwith
was the liberalism
dominant

Westerns.
than wasthecasein
[13] Tompkins,
Oxford University
Britain.
Jane.West
Press.of1993
Everything:The Inner Life of

1977
in the
[14]
[15]Lenihan,
andTerrible
Western
Douglas,
Film.
Honesty:
John.Showdown:
Ann.
1980
TheFeminization
Mongrel
University
Manhattanin
Confronting
of Illinois
of American
Modern
the1920s.1995.
Press. How
America
Culture,
the

Western is defined depends has beena topic of contention among

numerous
the morepopular
scholars.Westerns
Inthisessay,
orthosemade
Ihave chosen
bythetomore
simplyemploy
influential
directors.
 II. The Gunfighter vs. Classical
Liberalism
In analysis from Marxist historianslikeEricHobsbawm to
classical­liberal historians like Paul Gottfried,thepoliticalliberalism
that dominated the nineteenth century was so closely tied to the rise
of the bourgeois middle class as to be virtually inseparable.[16] As
middle
of
Gottfriedclass that glorifiedwascentered
the nineteenthcentury
describesitinAfter the on the
business­oriented
Liberalism,the oldvalues
private
ofthe
classical property
rising
liberalism

owner.[17]
both
commitment
homeand
Thesemiddle
tofamily,and
theworkplace.
class
anacceptance
The
liberals
“good”
valued
of long­term
manofthe
self­responsibility,
obligationsto
nineteenth­a

century middle class planned for the future with sound savings and
investment. He wasapart ofthe complex economic and social
systems
used toforward
of families,
bourgeois
markets,goals.He
andpolitical
wasalso,
institutions,
fortheallofwhichhe
mostpart, a

religious
Europe
centuries
the atas various
yokeofancient
man.Liberalism
membersof
dominated
systems
timestherising
politics
duringtheeighteenth
of government
throughout
bourgeois
privilege
classes,
Americaand
andnineteenth
andcontrol,
chafing
Western
under
set

out to gainaccess to power. In place of the old regimes, the

wanted
bourgeoisie
taxes, large­scale
peace.wanted
Whenbusiness
one
nation­states
isenterprises,
the owner
friendly
of
and
a major
political
towardfree
economic
liberty.trade,low
enterprise
Andthey

dependent on international trade, unless one is politically well

wars
they
connected,
Americans
would
thatwere
and
eliminate
warcanbe
with
foughttheMexicans,
theinthis
extremelybad
need for
period,
wars
were
such
inforbusiness.
justifiedon
theasthe
future.[18]
wars
thegrounds
TheAmerican
withNative
that

be that
1795,the
Americanrevolutionary
from The
the
Ofall
mostto
aversion
lateenemiesto
eighteenth
dreaded,
to warhad
James it Writing
publicliberty,
because
century.
beenobvious
Madisonconcluded in and
comprises
waris,perhaps,
amongAmerican
develops
theliberals
former
 the germ of every other. War is the parent of armies;
from these proceed debts and oftaxes; and armies, and
andunder the the for bringing
the
debts,
many taxesaredomination
known instruments
the few.[19]

Referring
This
to Madison’s
was the position
view onwar,
not only
historian
of Washington
Ralph Raicowrites:
and

Madison, but of John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and

theother men whopresided overthe birth of theUnited
States. For over a century, it was adhered to and
be
elaborated by our leading statesmen. It could called
neutrality, or nonintervention, or America first, or, as its
modern enemies dubbed it, isolationism.[20]
of
influence
American
nineteenth
course,
In
There
as
Britain,
of
century.
politicaldiscourse,
with
were
theearly
Henry
always
the corresponding
Clay
American
someand
proponents
extendednearlyto
hisliberals,given
anti­war
nationalists. the endofthe
of aggressive
positionofRichard
Nevertheless,
theirstature
warfare the
in

Cobden and his Manchester liberals further reinforced the relationship to

said
between
commerce
war. The
Inthe
tohaveover
concernedwith
the
bourgeoisie
nascent
Victorian­era
scoffedatthe
violence.
mattersof
days
were
ofbourgeois
liberal
naturally
Britishasa
dominance
liberalism
criticized
nationof
in andapreference
for
Britain,
thisaversion
shopkeepers,
Napoleonfor
is

commerce when they should have been

tending to more glorious pursuits suchaswar.[21] Some critical Brits
theorized that their countrymen, theManchester liberals, would
gladly
producednew
exemplars
haveofaccepted
liberalism,
business
militaryconquest
menlike
opportunities. bythe
InAmerica,
French, Victorian­era
as long asit

Edward Atkinson, founder of the

Anti­Imperialist League, and William Graham Sumner, were seen as
excessively attached topeaceand free tradeandwere denounced as
Spanish­American
seditious.[22]intrigue
international Writing
War,
and
on
Raico
victory
Sumner’s
notes
on that
the
1899
battlefield
the time­honored
condemnationof
was indeed of
gamethe

way ofthegreat powers. But, according to Sumner

 it was not the American way. That way had been more
modest, more prosaic, parochial, and, yes, middle class.
It was based on the idea thatwewere here to live our out
has been
writings
This
our
liberty,
families,
“small
of
linked
apparentliberal
lives,
JohnLocke.
policy.”[23]
and
historically
churches,
minding
pursuing
Locke,considered
pre­occupation
and
withliberalism
ourourhappiness
communities.
own business,
with
since
It inour
the
had
enjoying
itsearlyyears
economicsphere
been
work,
the in the

to be one of the earliest

liberal theorists, was keyinfashioning the importance of private
property and its protection as a central component of liberal ideology.
For Locke, the acquisitionof private propertyexistsinthe state of
human
nature,
foundational
evaluationofthe
that Locke
Keyto
society.
andthe
accepted
Locke’sphilosophy,
elements
cultivation
Western
thatbehind
orderinsociety
genreinrelation
andprotection
the
andof was
formation
particularimportance
of
toobtainable
wealthisone
liberalism,
andperpetuation
without
isthefact
oftheof
to the
an

interference ofa state apparatus. While Locke can accept the presence
of a limited state apparatus insecuring pre­existing property rights,
societal orderitself precedesthe stateandas such isnotbased on
coercive
As literary
power. critic
Paul
Cantor notesinhis analysis of Deadwood,
genre
“Locke
order,”[24]andthis
political
peace
classicalWestern
power.TheWestern
and
incan
whichthe
commerce.
imagine is thatthe
stands
proves
aneconomic
gunfighter
Aswecontrary
tobeimportant
shallsee,the
spreadof
isso ina our
orderindependent
totheliberal
often
civilization
chiefnarrative
figure
emphasis
evaluation
of
and
analogous
the
behindthe
economicto
political
onofboth
the

is
prosperity not possible without the presence of a nation­state
apparatus or at leasta state­like apparatus in theof form of the
and
gunfighter.
war­like
thisisTheforce
portrayed
gunfighter,
to meteout
as like
thepunishmentand
states
foundational
themselves,
act gain compliance,
to employs
civilization.
coercive

Eventually, this narrative met with enthusiastic acceptance from

millionsof Americans for whom theSecondWorld War andthe Cold
War were defining events in their lives.
The necessity of violence in making civilization possible is
especially evident inthe cavalry sub­genre of the Western. In She
Wore a Yellow Ribbon (1949), the narrator in the film’s prologue
informs
Westward
however,
would
exaggerates
the plains.”
Historically
beahundred
the
SheWore
expansion
viewer
the threat
speaking,
that“one
years
ofwhites.
that
before
the
more
thisanother
Native
Even
such
statement
wagon
Americans
defeat
without
traindaredto
almost
as this
Custer’s
posed
hyperbole,
comically
tothe
and
cross
it

a Yellow Ribbon and John Ford’s other cavalry

films, Fort ApacheandRio Grande (1950), all assume that the role of
the cavalry istopavethe way for civilization on the frontier. The
option
and
filmsthewhites
The classical
isassumed
ofco­existence
Westerns
living
to beunworthy
near
assume
between
eachthatofany
other
the whites
even
would
solution
themost
and
result
involving
theinterse the
Indians
a state
discussion.
inthese
of
Indians
total

Indians,
presented
warfare.The
Therole of optionthen,
madepossible
symbolically
only thecavalryin
bya
in John
strong
isFord’s
total
United
ushering
removalor
Stagecoach
States
in cavalry.
civilization
eradication
(1939) iniswhich
ofalso
the

the passengers of the stagecoach are onlyableto obtain safe passage

The
throughthe
hazardous
stagecoach,
wilds,
frontiervia
and
America
is theintervention
finally
in escorted
microcosm,
ofthe
safelyattempts
United
to its destination. the
Statescavalry.
tocross The

for
heroes
thecavalry,
ofthe film,
arethen
who would have on
abletoget been
withthe
massacred
businessof
had itnotbeen
building

civilization.
onlyno
but
within
city lifeispossible
Earp,officiallaw
Onasmaller
hascity
instituteda
limits.
enforcement
scale,in
inDodgeCityis
draconian
Outside
Winchester
officers
the
policyofguncontrol
because
town,
’73,
are where
permittedto
the town’s
inwhich
reason noguns
sheriff,Wyatt
official
carry
peaceful
law
one

enforcement exists,the main characters are subjectto murderous

of allagainst is
strong
Indians,
Thischoice
enough
unscrupulous
toeradicate
between
businessmen,
a the
warIndians
andaperpetual
and confiscate
all,and
stateafirearms,
of
government
war. a

frequent theme inWesterns and places the gunfighter (in these cases a
cavalrymanorsheriff) at the center of civilized life. Although John
Locke may have been able to imagine a functioning society that
existed before government, the Western film clearly cannot.
to the coercive ofthe
of the gunmanin arethe
concerns
Incontrast
of the typical middle­class
powerAmerican real­life
film frontier

period. With liberalism astheprimary political ideology in America,

private commercial
by and domestic concernswere ofchief importance.
The
ideology
viewedas
preservation
primacy
restraint,
self­defense
soldiering
some
liberalismwas
Indeed,one
middle­class
ofthemost
above
were
prudence,
and
importantvalues
andadvancement
war­making
its
all
equally
force
departurefrom
other
ofthemost
wealthy
bourgeois
thrift,and
was
important
skills.
certainly
at
and
that
thesummitof
cultural
ofChristian
most
notable
providedasolid
medieval
practical
onnotignored,
liberal
the
moresthat
characteristicsof
historical
societal
human
commercial
civilization.
societies,
but
foundation
accompanied
societal
normsthat
frontier.
it such
was
The
skillswere
values.
notgiven
as
classical
Dignity,
role
forthe
placedof
in this
the
In

militaryherohad
Dutch Republic,the
been
image
replaced
ofthebypatrician
theimageoraristocrat as soldierand
of patricians who were
or asin
businessmen iconic
Rembrandt’s bureaucrats
painting “The
dressed
Syndics
in sensible
of the Drapers’
black clothes
Guild.”

older
carried
life, Inthereal­life
and
agricultural
thisliberal
many Americans
way
civilizationtoanew
settlements
oflife found
wasgiving
ofthe
themselvesto the
frontier.
way
American new urban
working
Backinthe
West,the
in East,the
factories
settlers
wayof

life
WealthierAmericans
made
instead
and
travelavailable
urbanliving
of on farmsand
enjoys
began
to mostmiddle­class
living
amoving
negative
incities
tothefirst
reputation
Americans.
instead
suburbs,
among
ofsmall
Earlyfactory
andrailroads
many towns.
today,

but fortheVictorians, these developments were asignof progress

or of
sheriff,
and the
Thespread
gunfighter
military
of civilization.
man,is
infilm,
not part
however,
this Victorian
whether wanderingloner,
liberal world, and

is very rarely amemberof the bourgeoisie or partof a bourgeois

family
classicalperiod
officers,
structure.
sheriffs are
or
Veryfew
marshals,
businessmen or familymen.
oftheprotagonists
although Anthonyfrom
Mann’s
Most
Westernsof
protagonists
are cavalry
the

are often small­time proprietors inthe formof bounty hunters and

guns forhire. Even thefewWestern protagonists withchildren, such
as Tom Dunson (John Wayne) in Red River (1948), are unmarried or
estranged from their wives; and among television Westerns, which
of of
Bonanza
tended
consequence,and
rarely
1963),
Typically,
hasa
forexample,
tobe
(1959–1973)
family,
more
the
hedoesnothave
andhe
are
gunfighter
family­themed,
and
bothrarely
Lucas
widowers.
has
doesnotown
McCain
savings
any
patriarch
useforreligion
ormake
The
Ben
propertyofany
Rifleman
investments.
Cartwright
(1958–
He

at all. In the
Western, this figure socontrary to bourgeois sensibilities remains
always at
family patriarch
thecenterof
somewhere in the
the action. Theremight
background,
beabutsuch
businessman
figures
or

than
remainthe
more or less asprops
audience sittingin
viewing
the theatre.
the action
More
with often than input
little more not,

businessmenare
Theclassical Western centers not on bourgeois values of
villains.[25]
and
courage,
there
commerce
isnothing
skill withweaponry,
hearthand
to dislike about
home,buton
and
thingssuch
power martial
through
ascourage
values
violence.
and
ofphysical
Perhaps
skill in

as
battle.
personifiedinthe
Yet what we findinthe
gunfighter,classical
arenot Western is thatthese values,
complementary values to the
bourgeois world, but generally arein conflict with it. Through its
are
literary
historical
just
as a as
Inthe
hindrance
irrelevant
conventions,
frontier
classical
tothe
to
onthe
Western,
itsthe
neutralization
head.
final
Western
resolutionof
bourgeois
turns
andliberal
punishment
the plot,
values
valuebutare
of
system
the
viewednot
portrayed
villains.
of the

What
Indian
is the isessential
frequentapplication
residents ofthe of deadlyforceupon
to thefrontier.
proper both thetheWestern
resolution of conflictsin whiteand

Books.
[16]Hobsbawm,
London. 1996. Eric.The Ageof Capital: 1848–1875. Vintage

[17] Gottfried, Paul. After Liberalism: Mass Democracy in the

an
the [18]
protect
motivated
Managerial
American
pre­Civil
theInby
UnitedStates
State.
his
heartland
aWarattitude
lectureson
“Fortress
Princeton
surrounded
fromanyfuture
America”
classical
UniversityPress.
towardby
liberalism,
mentality.
Westward
frontiers
needofstanding
Princeton.
andoceans
RalphRaico
Theidea
expansion
2001.
was
that
armiesor
describes
asbeing
tohave
would
active foreign policy. http://mises.org/media.aspx?
action=category&ID=65
[19] Madison. James. Letters and Other Writings ofJames
Madison, Vol. IV, p. 491
http://archive.org/stream/lettersandotherw04madiiala#page/490/mode/2up
[20] Raico, Ralph.“American Foreign Policy—The Turning
Point, 1898–1919” http://www.fff.org/freedom/0295c.asp
[21]Raico,Ralph.“EugenRichterandLateGermanManchesterLiberalism.”TheReviewofAustrianEconomics.LudwigvonMises

Institute. Volume 4.1990. Raico describeshow theGerman

conservatives ofthenineteenth centuryopposedtheliberalsina
variety of ways. “Manchester liberalism,” the liberalism associated
with Richard Cobden and laissez faire capitalism especially won
classes.
and
disdain
“Manchester
freemarkets,and
http://mises.org/journals/rae/pdf/rae4_1_1.pdf
fromOtto
money­bags”for
vonforBismarckwho
its connection
Manchesterism’s
tothe
contemptuously
newly
support
wealthy
offreetrade
referredto
middle

[22]Not surprisingly, SumnerandAtkinson wereboth patrician

nineteenth
laissez­faire,
for
during
fight
types
American
theFilipinos
ofthe
the Victorian
century.
Northeastern
anti­war in of
soldierstomutiny
duringtheAmericanoccupationofthatcountry.
Atkinsonfamously
period
school
United
theagainst
American
United
Statestheir
authored
States.
which
liberalism
officersand
Both
culturally
apamphletcalling
were
during
todominated
partofthe
refuse
thelate
to

Copies of the pamphletwereseizedbytheUnitedStatesgovernment.

von Mises
[23] Raico,
Institute.
Ralph.
2011.
“TheConquest
http://mises.org/daily/5275/The­Conquest­
of theUS by Spain” Ludwig

of­the­US­by­Spain.
[24]Cantor,
of Paul A. “Orderashero
outof the Mud.” In The Philosophy
of
in
model
the
which
[25]Thereare
Western.University
an
family­man
unattached
exceptions,
DanEvans
gunman is theheroic
Press ofcourse,as
of Kentucky.
is far in3:10to
more
Lexington.2010.
protagonist,
common. but the
Yuma(1957)
 III. Violence and Money­
making on the Frontier
In a typical storylinefromthe classical Western, the bourgeois
society of the townmustsubject itselfto theauthority ofthe
gunfighter or face annihilation.The choice that faces the townsfolk is
to either accept the supremacy of the gunfighter, who personifies the
Indians,
state in the
outlaws,
classical
or worse.
Western,
Self­defense
ortoacceptprovidedby
oppression the
atthehands
community
of

itself israrely an option, nor would it be sufficient. For the bourgeois

To so
little
settlers,
extremely
frontier
be
classical
thesaved
genre.First,
canbe
consumed
establish
Western
bedone
after
violent.Second,
incapableofdefending
they
itcreates
except
ideal
makes
by
abandon
their
conditions
to
twomeekly
thegenre
the
pettycommercial
their
assertions
imageof
naïve
forthe
submitto
themselves
requires
bourgeois
that
anAmerican
extension
are
superior
that
andcentral
thattheymay
the
waysand
domestic
ofthe
physicalforce.
residentsofthe
to
Westthatis
the
fable,the
pursuits,
embrace
lifeof
only

militarism and gunfights as theironly hope inavoiding destruction.

athe
Wild
minds
P.J. In
growing
yearsofthe
Hill
This
Westremains.
West.
ofAmericans
their1979
write
image
body
Inspite
that
classical
of
ofthehistorical
study
research
of
hasthis,
Western,but
provenitsstaying
on debunking
Western
the frontierwas
powersince
violence,
the
of the
the1970s,
image
power.
challenged
Western
Terry
ofThemythof
the
there
Andersonand
genre
little
bloody
hasduring
inbeen
and
the

The taste forthe dramatic to inliterature and other

entertainment
seeming disparity
forms
between
hasledthe Westerners’
concentration
desire
onthe
for

as
scholars
that
orderand
image
thecompared
following:
ofthe
of theprevailing
violencehave
West
to“We
were
can
not
contributed
disorder.
report
enough to
with
IftheHollywood
with
some
taintour
quotes
assurance
view,
such

frontier days there has been a

significant decrease in crimes of violenceinthe United
 States.”
Recently, however, more careful examinations of
the conditions that existed cause one to doubt the
accuracy of this perception. In his book, Frontier
civilized,
he
Violence:
believed
more
AnotherLook,
“thattheWestern
peaceful, and
W. Eugene
safer
frontierwas
placethan
Hollon astated
American
farmore
that

society istoday.” The legend of the“wild, wild West”

lives
the
Dodge
1885,
1.5
cow
fact,per
major
In
towns,
nobody
on
only
City,and
cattle­trading
Abilene,
despite
cattletowns
45“nobody
was
homicides
Robert
supposedly
Caldwell)
killed
season.
was
Dykstra’s
(Abilene,
until
were
killed inEllsworth,
fortheyears
oneof
theadvent
reported—an
finding
thewildestof
1869or1870.
that
of
from
officers
average In
infiveof
Wichita,
1870the
of
to

the law, employed to prevent killings.” Only two

towns,
had 5 killings in in
Ellsworth anyoneyear.
1873 andDodgeCity
Frank Prassel
in 1876,ever
states in
his
anybook
conclusion
subtitledcanbe
ALegacydrawn
of LawandOrder,
from recent that
crime
“if

statistics,
significant
relative to other
itheritageof
mustbe
sectionsthatthislast
ofthe
offenses
country.”[26]
against
frontier
the left
person,
no

impossible
the fictional
Modern foraccounts
perceptions
many people
fromthe
ofviolence
to distinguish
Western
on the
genre
from
frontier
that
the aresoshaped
actual
they are
historical
nearly
by

facts about the frontier.

Historian Richard Shenkman noted “Many more people have
to
while
died
the
group
real
[i.e.,
from
the
Frontier.”[27]
been
Kansas
all themen
murdered]
codeAccording
in
gave
in Hollywood
thetown
mayorswhoranged
Dykstra
theWesterns
power
andin
Richard
tothan
ages
calleverdied
from18–50,
M.
a vigilante
Brown,
on

it seems, at least in Kansas, that it was rarely done. In a span of 38

years, In addition,
deaths.Kansas hadonlybetween1876
19vigilanteand
movementsthat
1886, no onewas
accounted
lynched
for18
or

hanged illegally in Dodge City.[28] Deadwood, South Dakota and

Tombstone,Arizona (homeof theO.K. Corral), duringtheir worst
years of violence saw four and five murders respectively. Vigilante
violence appears to not have been much worse.
Given the moneyto be made by exploiting the exciting
reputation
hardly alonein
of themanufacturing
frontier, it is tales
not surprising
of blazingthat
gunsto
Dodge
attract
City was
men
seeking
all playeduptheir
adventure. supposed
Towns like histories
Tombstone,
of frontier
Abilene,and
violence.On
Deadwood
closer

inspection though, the records arenot nearly as exciting.

we
West
Certainly,
learnfrom
Ifthe
wouldacase
movies
bedocumentedcases
the
that
and
Lincoln
resembles
novelsCounty
abouttheWest
the
about
quintessentialblood
warof
reallife
1878–81,
areviolenceinthe
unreliable,
which
feudinthe
whatcan
largely
West?

made thereputation ofnotorious gunfighter Billy the Kid. As the

After
name
generally
conflagration,
to
bodies.
Hollywoodstandards.
southern
When
all,
of Buteven
the
authorities
regarded
“war”
New
the
the smoke
legendremains
then,
Mexico,
implies,
haveonly
as the
wecleared
this
andproduced
most
find
beenable
unpleasantness
abodycount
far
blood­soaked
from
moreviolent
to this
quite
provewas
intolerably
unusually
participantin
its
thatBillytheKid,
thanthereality.
quite
sharedisruptive
of
lowby
violent
dead
the

Lincoln CountyWar,
possiblyhave
consideringthe killed
circumstances,it
as
killed
manythreepeople.
as three orfour
Most agreethat
morepeople,
he may
but

is difficult to ascertain how The Kid

managed togain a reputation as a “psychopathic killer” or how
stories
he was21.”[29]
Much
began
of to
thecirculate
confusionwas
of howhe
due,ashadRichard
“killed Shenkman
21 menbyindicates,
the time

to
as
makes
Lincoln
American
a rather
Billy
County
sympathetic
movies.
lookabit
Warfor
Films
obvious
character)
more
like crazy)play
Chisum
reasons.
and (1970)
Young
However,
upthe
(which
Gunseven
violence
(1988)(which
portraysBilly
considering
ofthe

the ratheralarming body count(by contemporary as wellas modern

standards),events like the LincolnCounty War were hardly everyday
gunfighter
occurrences.
The existenceof
is notactually a real­life frontier where a wandering

needed is something that needs to be

ignored in the worldof the Western genre. In real life, one of the
remarkable characteristics of thefrontier isthat it was moreorless
self­policing. In most cases, it was little more than a loose
confederation of municipalities and local governments held together
only byeconomic interests. National pride consisted of little more
than aloyaltytoa far­off national government that in the early days
economic
represented
words,
of the frontierwas
it was
dealings
byasociety
onlysmalland
virtually
were
where
virtually
invisible,andeven
political
rarely­seen
unregulated,
powerwas
bandsof
in and
later
locallycontrolled,
cavalry.In
defenseof
times wasstill
other
an

individual’s property was usuallythe responsibilityof the individual.

if they to
East.
they
fromThefrontierwas
sure stayed
tobefalltravelers
disease,
Certainly,
there
accidents,
many apeople
place
and
undertaking
madeit.If
general
wherepeople
died unpleasant
misfortune,but
they
similarendeavors
failed,they
wenttomakemoney,
deathssuchthingswere
returned
onthefrontier
anywhereinand
the

the world in the nineteenth century.

The truly important question is whether or not human beings on
world.
the
barbaric
government,
apparatus
frontier
Ifthis
than
is wereless
granted
canbe
commercial
theircounterparts
much
proventobe
prosperous,
more
regulation,
currency
inmore
more
thecase,
andan
violent,
intheminds
“civilized”
thenthe
and
aggressive
generally
caseforactive
ofpartsof
Americans.
police
more
the

Not surprisingly, the classical Western filmbecame a useful tool in

promoting
War II America.If
an activeand
the intervention
interventionist
of a government
well­trained inpost­World
cavalryand a

steady­handed sheriff were what madecivilization possible on the

mid­twentieth
frontier,
Inreality,the
thenthe
century
same
settling
or
couldbe
today.
oftheAmerican
justifiedonafrontier
global represents
scale during
some
the

of the most undirected, spontaneous and freesettling of land seen

since theancient world.All modern frontier states(i.e., Australia,
geography,
than
Canada,
economicreasons
on the
andtheLatinAmerican
American
but nowhere
by
frontier.
was
settlers
the state
countries)
willing
lessinvolved
tobravean
weresettled
in thisfor
settlement
unknown
largely

by
withthe
Forexample,the
thesettlement
Mormonsfleeing
of the
wagontrain
West,was
religious phenomenon
persecution
largely startedinthe
so closely
early
identified
1840s

in the settled United

States. They enjoyed little protection from U.S. marshals or cavalry.
Once on the frontier,the Mormonsquickly set up shopintheir new
environs and began trading with both the Americans in the east and
with the Mexican settlers on the West Coast (as well as Indians).
While
the riches
manydescribed
other Americans
in the guidebooks
begantoabout
braveOregon and to
the plains California,
travelto

another.[30]
Californiain
the trend
on the trailto
only1849.
began
Californiawith
By
toreally
1850,accelerate
therewere
one trainrarelyout
after
thousands
the discovery
of wagontrains
ofsight
ofgold of
in

Scouts,
moved
people
Theto
acrossthe
guides,
wagon
their destinations
trains
plains.
created
Entire
andserving
a largemobile
industries
them
grewup
economic
once they
around
system
gotgetting
there.
that

equipment, guidebooks and teamsters were all readily

supplied byenthusiastic entrepreneurs. Wagons and families moved
train
from experience
image,one
ofcourse,
traintoin
anotheras
isin
which
contrast
onewagontrain
conditions
tothe and
movie
preferences
moves
versionofthe
alonedictated.
and isolated
wagon
This

across the plains andis subjectto Indian raids and outlaws with
nowheretolook
day had
embroidered
Infact,as
beenuniforms
organized
Louis
forhelp
L’amourhas
that
butthesteady
likeresembled
smallnoted,manywagon
private
handofthegunfighter.
“an army
armies,
detachment.”[31]
complete
trainsofthe
with

enforcement,
most
These
more was
pressing
steps
not were
butonaday­to­day
law
were
enforcement
madeto or basis,
the problems
ensuregunfights
self­sufficiency
ofwhat
obtaining
with
concerned
hostile
food
in these
Indians.
private
andsettlers
other
law
Far

resources, educating children, enjoying some leisure time, and

Hollywood
making
Often,themodel
money.
Western.
One ofwould
the frontier
hardlygetthis
settler thatsuitsthe
impression
myth­maker
froma

until
novels
example,
In
need.
is the
sends
resident
Shane
awandering
Thisplot
modelofthe
aclearmessage.
andin
outlaw,
(1953),thesettlers
features
film
device
and
gunfighter
asimplyfor
settler­as­victim.
who
town
persists
Anthony
are
of bestruledbya
are
gulliblesettlers
selflesslyprovides
its
even
incapable
Mann’sThe
versatility
This
into early
hasbeenquite
ofdefending
sheriff
asa
easily
TinStar
revisionist
theprotection
plot
withan
ledastray
device,butit
(1957),
themselves
popular
Westerns
ironbya
they
fist.
for
in

such asSergio Leone’sA Fistful of Dollars (1964)in which the Man

with NoNamestumbles upon a terrorized village and proceeds to
eliminate crime from the town with a fast gun and a Machiavellian
mind.
Probably most notable in the defenseless­villager sub­genre,
however, is High Noon (1952) with Gary Cooper fruitlessly
attempting to recruit a posse to beat back invading outlaws. By the
town
end
of courageinthe
of“too
the dishonorable
film,Marshal
town,toWill
tosses
deserve
Kane(Cooper),
hisstar
protection.”[32]
into the
disgusted
dust ofthe
withthelack
frontier

concerned
conceit”of
account
Asfilmhistorian
yellow­bellies.”
about
High Noonwas
real­estatevalues
Thomas
Notably,
that“the
Doherty
and
the
Oldnotes,
boring
cowardly
Westwas
the
old
“slanderous
townspeople
businessmatters
packedwith
central
no­
are

rather than with settlingscores with the bad guys. Thegovernment

marshal
almost
beyond
serves
TheWestern
anear­messianic
the
supernatural
is heroic.
comprehensionofordinary
The
repeatedly
intheirwisdom
localmerchants
roleonthe
setsup atale
are
politesociety.
and
frontier
cowards.
of gunfighters
invincibility)
as The
he(themselves
gunfighter
saves
whoare
the

bewildered
their petty bourgeois
townspeople
concerns,
fromtheir
and unifies
enemies,
themina
pulls them
struggle
awayagainst
from

evil.
historicalaccuracy,
themselves.
admittedtolying
Westerns
flamboyant
He
the was,
137
Unfortunately
after
times
would
In
architects
all,
his
he
lead
abouthisviolent
woundedin
theAmerican
claimed.[33]
oldage,Buffalo
forany
peopletobelieve.
ofourHollywood
battle
perceptions
West
Such
exploitsto
with
Bill
was
tales
TheIndians
scriptwriter
Cody,one
farlessexciting
frontiersmen
of
sell
were the
moredimenovels.
exactly
also
West,
ofthe
aiming
immensely
knew
once,not
than
openly
most
this
the
for

popular with Americans of the mid­twentieth century who seemed

simultaneously
openKitCarson,
to believingalmostanything
excitingand
oneof the violent.
earliest
aboutthe
heroes Westaslong
ofthe proto­Western
as itwas

literature
the imagemanyhad
Jicarilla
In1849,
Mexico
oftheApaches,
for
mid­nineteenth
Kitof
awhite
Carson
him
a certainMrs.J.
as woman
awas
frontier
century,
searching
taken
hero:
was
M. White.
troubled
captive
throughNew
Locating
bythe
late in life by
 their camp, he noticed among the debris an abandoned
book, which turned out to be a novel about the scouting
same of Kit
exploitsyear titledKit
Carson,Carson:
probablyPrince
one published
of the Goldthe

match
Hunters.
was
thought
found
theskillsof
that
Asit
dead.
shehappened,
must
He
his fictional
long
havethe
remained
been
double,
real given
Carson
troubled
andMrs.White
hope
couldnot
by
in her
the

One
captivity
a great
can argue,
hero,
byreading
slaying
as hasthis
Indians
conservative
Western“inwhich
by thecolumnist
hundred.”[34]
I Gary
was made
North, that

cinema.[35]
the
to capitalize
violence There
oftheWestern
onpublic
is nodoubt
thirst
is nothing
thatthe
for adventure
more
popularity
thanand
harmless
ofexcitement
the attempts
Western
in

genre during the first half of the twentieth century, and its popularity
in the form of the dime novels during the nineteenth century, is at
least partially explained byits violent content.
however,
As Engelhardt
theclassicalhas
Western
shownat mid­century
inThe EndbecameofVictory
importantas
Culture,a

mechanism for reinforcing American perceptions about the need for

less
in
civilian
thethe
useofmilitary
absolutist
face
“polite”
of menacing
inearly
society
forcesilent
foreign
and the
violence
Westerns,
enemies.
helplessness
wasoften
theAlthoughthetreatment
fact
of that
civilian
moreearlier
complex
populations
Western
and
of

source material setthe stageforthe myth of the ultra­violent frontier

and
repetitiveness
reflecting
gunfighterviolence
inaccurate
enabled
a society
50s
Additionally,
wouldhelp
later
and
unregulated
stereotypes
ofthis
reinforcingAmerican
makersofthe
the
and
make
message
about
by
Westernplayed
villager
civil
theWestern
the
inclassical
government.
classical
American
impotence.
sentiments
into
akey
Western
Westerns
frontierand
an
As
The
duringtheCold
important
rolein
noted
sheervolume
to
during
enhance
its
byperpetuating
viability
vehiclefor
Anderson,
the1940s
War.
both
and
as

turn
Hill,
imposed
American
havebeen
and order
misperceptions
Shenkman,
usedto
of a central
the
arguethat
about
Western
government
violence
American
is largelytobe
on
have
settlements
the been
frontier,
uncommonly
blamed
lackingthe
which for
in

violent.
 [26] Anderson, Terry and Hill, P.J. “The Not So Wild, Wild
West.” Ludwig von Mises Institute, 1979.
The
(http://mises.org/daily/4108)
Not So Wild, WildWest: ThisProperty
was alsoRights
expanded
on the
intoFrontier.
abook:

Stanford Economics andFinance. 2004.

American
University
[27]Shenkman,Richard.Legends,Lies,
[28] History.
Dykstra,
of NebraskaPress,
William
RobertMorrow
R.1983.
ThePaperbacks.
andBrown,
Cattle and
Towns.
NewYork.1992.
Cherished
Richard
Lincoln:
Myths
The
of

Maxwell.
Strain
Vigilantism.New
of Violence:
York:Oxford
Historical University
Studiesof Press,
American
1975. Violence and

[29] Shenkman.
[30] L’amour, Louis. Showdown Trail. Bantam Audio
an
Publishing,New
introduction inYork,
[31]L’amour, whichhe
Louis.
1987.Inthis
Showdown
discussesthenature
edition,
Trail. (Bantam
Louis
ofwagon­train
L’amour
Audio edition.)
provides
life.

[32]Doherty, Thomas. “Western Drama, Cold­War Allegory.”

In The Chronicle ofHigher Education. September 13, 2002.
http://archives.econ.utah.edu/archives/marxism/2002w37/msg00058.html
[33]Shenkman.[34]Simmon,
[35] Northappears Scott. The
to takethe
Inventionpositionthat
of the Westernpopular
Film. culture

doesn’t matterin formingthe perceptions andideologies of viewers.

research
This is a position
on inopposition
the effects
tobothof
common
dramatized
sense and decades of
violence.

http://www.lewrockwell.com/north/north409.html
 IV. The Gunfighter vs.
Capitalism
societies
A recurring
and complex
theme economic
in the Western
systems.AsTompkinssuggests,
is adistrustofindustrialized

just as language is to be distrusted becauseofitssymbolicnature in

a sophisticated society, money, as a representation of economic
value, is
notes, andalso
deeds
to bedistrusted in the
areall symbols ofWestern.[36]
economic value
Contracts,
that cannot
bank

immediately be understoodwith thephysical senses and are

therefore
commonly
Eastern
threatening.
settlers.
private companies
decadence
suspect.Large
attempt
Everywhere
and
areportrayed
to exploit
corruption.
businesses
in theWestern,
the as
honest
Large the
intheWestern
vulturespreying
ranchers
people
railroads
of
and
areparticularly
the
are
industrialists
onthenew
West,and
asignof

Stevens’
Oneofthe
Shane (1953)
commonly
in which
known
a number
examplesof
of smallthis
farmers
is George
move

vast
have
the
ontofilm,
cattleranch.
landthathas
arighttoRyker’s
except tonotethat
Thefilm’s
been land
runforyears
for
central
Ryker
a reasonthat is left
assumptionis
ismotivated
by Ryker, theproprietor
by
thatthe
unexplained in
greed.farmers
When
ofa

Ryker objects to thefarmers’ squatting, heis portrayed asa villain.

The filmdoesn’t provide a convincing explanation as to why,
exactly, aresmall
farmers Ryker should
underdogs
give uphislandto
and Ryker isabig
thefarmers.
rancher, Sincethe
however,

he is assumed to be in the wrong.[37] A similar conflict appears in

because
ranchers
baron
small
protectors
The democracy
and InRio
Man
hiresa
ranchers
itare
oppose
ofthe
would
Who
Bravo,
defeated.
gang
are
statehood
are
Shot
honest
break
ofkillers
afterawealthy
victorious,
brought
Liberty
theirstranglehold
townsfolk
and
tooverrun
tothough,
aValance
central
the
land
areterritory
holed
the
once
baron’s
government
(1962),
on
sheriff’s
nationalist
up.
land
and
brotheris
El
in
inthe
the
office
Dorado
fortheterritory
which
fiendish
sensibilities
region.
jailed,the
where
(a
thebig
1966
The
big
the
remake of Rio Bravo,) naturally employs a very similar plot device.
In Anthony Mann’s Westerns, new settlers to the West are
constantly in danger of conniving businessmen seeking to exploit
central
andboth
these
in defraud
exploitersmanage
threattothe
TheFar
anyone
Country
townsfolk
whotostayin
(1954)
comes
is the
and
intotheir
businessisnever
locallarge
Bendofthe
territory.How
businessman
River(1952),the
explained.Yet,
exactly
who is

violently
Big
responsible
Sky(1952)
crush
forthe
allfeatures
competition.
corruptionof
anevil
InMann’s
lawfur
andcompany
order,
The Man
while
thatattempts
From
Hawks’s
Laramie
The
to

(1955) the local cattle baron notonly rules the local town of
Indians
townsfolk
Coronado
seeksThese
toexploit
whothreaten
are
with
story
threatened
an
alllinesall
for
iron
the its
very
fist,
byown
followa
existenceofthe
anaggressive
butalso
interests.The
basic
collaborates
and
pattern
town.
only
evilbusiness
thing
inwith
whichthe
standing
hostile
that

between these businessmen and their sinister aims is the gunfighter,

awho
federalmarshal.
isoftena government
Sometimes,
agent,
the perhaps
people begfordeliverance from
a sheriff, cavalryman,or
in
their capitalist oppressors, as Shane, and sometimes they are
oblivious
The ManFromto theLaramie.
true extent and severity of the threat posed, as in

for
rights”
the
Private
good
isunderstood
propertyis
of “the people.”
ascertainly
thecrushingof
Theaview
theme
of in
large
business
Westerns,but
business
in the enterprises
Western
“property
is

An
complexities
New
the view
popularity
small Deal.
business
one
among
Everywhere
of
would
interests
industrialized
apopulation
expect
and
largebusiness
must
fromagenre
bourgeois
thatoverwhelmingly
be neutralized.
interests
life
thatisreachedits
again
areout
aversion
supported
apparent
togreatest
to
crush
the
as

simple one­man operations arelooked upon with great fondness in

practices
the Western,
The Western
are notbut
totakes
betolerated.
largeenterprises
a dim view of the
andfreesophisticated
market in other
business
ways.

Stagecoach
the
proceeds
hypocrisy
workers,
toextol
is (1939)
obvious.
a particularly
the
features
virtues
insidious
a of
bankerstealing
theAmerican
act of theft.
the
business
Thebanker
payrollclass.His
owedto
then
 Not even small businessmen are safe from the Western’s anti­
commerce views. Winchester ’73, Fort Apache, and She Wore a
Yellow Ribbon all feature small­scale merchants who engage in the
apparently
against
agoods
central
withthe
thepurpose
Indians.
unforgivable
Indians.Indeed,
ofthe
In Yellow
actof
cavalryis
Ribbon,
inFortApache
attemptingtotrade
to
Theenforcetrade
Manand
From
Yellow
guns
Laramie,
embargoes
and
Ribbon,
other
and

Winchester’73,the merchantsare murdered bythevery Indians

to the
kill
but
withthose
the
whom
message
who
theyare
supplytrying
them
audience
todo
with business.Why
essential
isclear. goods
Suchare
the
is not
Indianswould
the explained,
wages of

trading withthe enemy. In The Man From Laramie, it is revealed

ofthe
declares
keep
iron
that thevillainplans
fist.
theArmy
“some
One people
member
awaytosell
sohe
will sell
rifles
cananything
rulethe
town,
tothelocal
upon
to
entire
make
Indians
hearing
countryside
a profit.”
inaneffort
ofthe
withan
plot,
to

dramatizedin
herd,
cattleThe
however,
empire inhe
contest
RedRiver
thebetween
must
grasslands
in
confront
whichsettler
large
ofthe
Texas.
andMexican
Tom
small
Before
Dunson
property­owners
Don
he who
can
buildsa
begin
ownssmall
the
his
is

land. Ina showdown with one of the Don’s gunmen, Dunson and
his
presumablyatthe
assistant learnother
that endofa
theDonvast
lives
estate.
hundreds
“That’stoo
of milesaway,
much land

for
Moments
one man,”
later, Dunson’s
Dunson shoots
assistant
anddeclares.
kills the“ItDon’s
ain’t gunman,
decent.”

apparently
ownership
Dunsonin
settling
nevercomes
proceeds
the American
the property
to squat
up
borderlands
dispute
again.
ontheDon’s
permanently.
The
are reduced
complexities
land, andthe
to the simplistic
ofland
issueof

presumably
notion that the
“tookit
Don from
had“too
someone
muchelse”
landfirst.
for one man” and that he

villain
slowly
Asabusiness
as
turns
his into
commitment
violent
owner,
megalomania.
to drivehis
even Dunson
cattle
Dunson
inevitably
frombegins
Texasbecomes
murdering
toKansasa

any employeewho expresses doubts about the venture when things

begin togopoorly.
its anti­capitalist
Given theWestern’s
stand against
origins,
thethere
nineteenth
is nothing
century
surprising
and all
about
its
factories, corporations, stock markets and other components of an
economically advanced civilization. In the Western, it is alright to
do business, but not too much business lest one become corrupted.
Contrary
trade
cooperation,
andmarketsasa
tothe
thenineteenth­century
Westernsourceof
sees business
enduringprosperity,
bourgeois
and liberals
tradeaswho
apeace,
zero­sum
saw free
and

game where exploitation is much more likely than cooperation.

government
the
interests
although
genreisreally
Free­market
the
andofficials.[38]
Western
politically
showing
defenders
seems
North,for
influential
a to
conflict
oftheWestern
portray
between
example,
corporatists
businessmen
trulyprivate
bases
haveargued
ininabad
this
league
claim
business
light,
with
that
on

conflict
owned with
the factlands;
federally­subsidized
that, thus,
open­range
onthehistorical
the
ranchers.[39]
conflict
ranchers
isbetween
frontier,
While
who grazed
this
private
homesteaders
was
cattleon
homesteaders
true incameinto
federally­
real life,
and

in of open
nor
the
Western
government
is
factsofthe
bigitaddressed
land
filmsthemselves.
asowners
subsidizer
matter
The
employthe
arevirtually
Man Therole
Whorangeisnot
homicidal
Shot
neverarticulated
ofthe
Liberty
Liberty
addressed
Americanfederal
Valance
inclassical
Valance
in
inwhich
Shane,
to

enforce
business
chief villains,
their in spite ofisa
usedinJesseJames
will.Nor the theme
fact
(1939)inwhichthe
that
of the
government
railroadsrailroads
were
collusion
notorious
arewith
the

conflict,
villain?
Indians
supporters
agents
If are
thesefilms
The
or
whydothey
usually
ofthe
villainsare,almost
corporate
people
heroes.
reallyvirtuallynever
welfare
who
wantedtopoint
collaborate
onwithout
the real­life
make
to
exception,
with
thea frontier.
state
government
them.
as
businessmen
the
Government
source
agentof
ora

protagonistsin
McLaglen’s
two exceptions
When Westerns
large
tothe
film,business
usual
McLintock
they rule,
areinterests
and
notablefor
(1963)
theyand
do
assumed
Chisum
their
appearthat
rarity.
(1970)
as
there
Andrew
friendly
present
is “no

conflict betweenthe frontieraristocrat andthe public welfare.”[40]

of
when
Chisum
Both McLintock
thebeing
structure
made
and well
Chisum
the classical
intothe
wereWestern
periodof
laterWesterns,
hadrevisionist
almost
however,
completely
Westerns
with
broken down. According to Lenihan, during the 1950s and the high
tide of the classical Westerns, only two major Westerns, The Broken
Lance and Ten Wanted Men, employed the same themes as
McLintockand
the conflictis
Inmost classical
generally
Chisum. Westerns,
framed asa
whencapitalists
simple matter
appear
ofbigasvillains
business

versus small business or small­time farmers. To claimthatthere is a

subtext offree­markets versus government subsidy in classical
in
primitivist
Westerns istheeconomics
contrary, to
view
inventa
of themeand
modern
oftheeconomies
subplotwhere
Westernfit quite
none
which
exists.Onthe
wellwith
advanceda

economies exploit workers, coerce the public, and rob men and
women
value
Victorians
Thisromantic
placedon
oftheir
and the
right
industrializationand
bourgeoisie
view
toliveofftheland.
ofsubsistence
and ignores
living
capitalism
theworks
economic
asheld
tooverturn
realities
by theof

modern societies. Murray Rothbard pointed this outinhis critique

on
not the
onlyis
divisionof
modern
laborand
industrialization
primitivism. necessary to
Rothbard contendedthat
keep the
significant bulk of humanity alive, but thatmodern civilization
offers the best hope fora decent standard oflivingfor mostof the
human
was
concedesthatthe
standard
markedby
race.[41]
of living
substantial
rapidly
Even
for a urbanizingworldof
very
the
andMarxisthistorian
large
unprecedented
portion of
the
improvements
the
nineteenth
Eric
population.[42]
Hobsbawm
century
in the

resulted
development.The
of
These
humanity
wages
fromnew
toweremade
riseindustrial
above
economies
possible
therevolutionmade
mostof
by
base
increases
scaleandmajor
levels
it of
possible
inproductivity
subsistence
forindustrial
thebulk
living
that

for the first time. One certainly wouldn’t learn this from watching
goods
unsophisticated
Westerns.
state offorvirtual
simple
Evenequality
viewof
necessities
fromitsfrontiereconomics
asearliest
theywork
at the general
daystheir
the
store.
whereall
landsandtradesimple
Western men
embracedan
live ina

probably
[37]Students
[36]Tompkins.
afree­range
ofland
rancher
use onfederal
in theWestwill
lands, andthe
know that
farmers
Rykerare
is
homesteaders. There is no reason to assume that the typical
audience member watching films using Shane’s central plot device
would know the economic history behind them, however, and the
films failtoexplainthings inthese terms.
[38]North. http://www.lewrockwell.com/north/north409.html
[39]North. http://www.lewrockwell.com/north/north409.html
[40] Lenihan, John. Showdown.
[41] Rothbard, Murray. “Egalitarianism as a Revolt Against
Nature.” In Egalitarianism asaRevoltAgainstNatureandOther
Essays. Ludwig vonMises Institute.Auburn.2000.
[42] Hobsbawm.
 V. The Classical Western and
Nostalgic Primitivism
While liberalism developed and enjoyed its greatest influence
in an industrializing worldwhereinternational trade,thedivisionof
labor, and the urbanlandscapebecame increasinglyimportant
fixtures of life, the Western would celebrate primitive modes of
living whilecorruption
effeminate portrayingofcitiesand
the “natural”
advanced
humaneconomic systemsas an
condition.

in theThe
films usedthe
ageof
Westerninitspost­dime­novel
“nostalgic
genre of primitivism”
the Westernasa
wherenovels
andmeansto
cinematicformbegan
andearly
“redefine
silent
the

‘overcivilized’
Westerns
nature of masculine
ofDouglas
and ‘feminized.’”
identityina
Fairbanks,Referring
society
Gaylynincreasingly
specifically
Studlar identifies
regarded
to the early
the
as

from
Western
redefine
modernity.”[43]
American
in these earlyyears
male identityin
as partofa“widespread
responseto perceivedeffort
threats
to

inthe
Roosevelt,aprivileged
his
urban
travels
Perhaps
lifeat the
the chief
American
closeofthe
popularizer
Easterner
West
nineteenth
whohad
had
of this
somehow
century
convincedhimself
revolt made
against
was him
Theodore
cultured
much
that

more masculine than most ofhis fellow American men. Roosevelt,

development”
camping
like countless
outininyoungboys.[44]
others
thewoodswas
atthe turn
thebest wayto
of the century,
achieve
believed
“character
that

According to Studlar, “character­

builders embraced anostalgia for a primitive masculine past. The
strongest evidenceof the past in contemporarylife was the instinct­
to the ofa
driven
even
frontier
Boy
Easterners
was an
In
Scoutsof
modern
‘savagery’
“antidote
Western
whowho
isquite
times,the
America,
cross
after
of
‘city
contemptuous
Western,
his
boys.”
hero
rot’
path. set of
wouldclaim
and
Ernest
isOverthe
fromthe
up
‘degeneracy’
Thompson
the
thatliving
asearliest
course
an
effeminate
uncultured
days
Seton,head
of
the
typical
modern
of
and of life
primitive
the
manofthe
urbanized
Western
genreto
life.”
the

tale, the urban fool must learn the ways of the gun or be destroyed.
The representative of complex or ineffective Eastern values has
little to contribute to the more pure and primitive order established
by the tough men of the West.
clear
desertInJohn
as
quickly
Colonel
Ford’sFortApache
declaring
Thursday
that (Henry
he’d (1948),this
much
Fonda)
ratherarrives
theme inthe
isimmediately
Arizona

be in Europe than the

American West. Thursday simply doesn’t understand the ways of
the West, and when he refuses to shakehands witha low­ranking
Thursday’s
the
frontier.
cadet,
(and
letterpresumably
civilian
ofthe
itis
Thursday
apparent
frontier­bred
lawpracticed
government
better)
happily
thatcode
Thursdayisfar
number­two,
workswithin
intheEast
while
ofhonor
Kirby
than
that with
strainsunder
therestrictions
moreconcerned
governs
Yorkthemore
theArmy
(John with
itsimposed
burden
primitive
Wayne),
onthe
the
by
of

effective
bureaucracy. At the
than everyfrontiersmen
turn, theEasterners
who know
are farbetter.
less honorable
Thursday’s
and

(he’s
ambition
his downfallas
This
“York”inFort
and
themeis
attachmentto
heleadsan
repeated
Apache,but
ill­fatedcharge
inRioGrande
Eastern
“Yorke”
waysagainst
inRioGrande)
(1950)
eventually
the
as Kirby
Apaches.
brings
son
Yorke’s
about
must

be schooledinthe ways ofthe frontier againstthe objections of his

mother. InCheyenne Autumn (1964), Ford portraysthe frontier
cavalry
Cheyennes.
bureaucrats
asguilty
hand down
only ordersthat lead to the whenthe
of followingorders annihilationEastern
ofthe

In Ford’s The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (1962), thefilm

town
opens
Stoddard
of
with
isnowa
Shinbone
Ransomsuccessful
Stoddard
where he politician
(JamesStewart)
hadonce having
beenreturningtothe
builthis
afrontier
careerlawyer.
on
small
his

reputation
of
outlaw
enforced
territory.
flashbacks,
inShinbone
thewillof
Stoddard
as“the
the man
audiencelearns
had
corrupt
who
who
initially
terrorized
shot
ranchers who
Liberty
traveled
thatLiberty
theValance.”
opposed
peopleofthe
to Shinbone
Valance
statehood
Through
was
intownand
order
once
aseries
for the
an
to

bring learning,law, and the blessings of civilization to the people of

the town.who
irrelevance
Valance On
of tears
book
hisway
upStoddard’s
learningon
totown,theStoddard
lawbooks,
frontier. himself isattacked the
thus highlighting by
 The people of the town, led by an out­gunned marshal, do
nothing to protect themselves. Eventually, small­time rancher Tom
Doniphon (John Wayne) takes it upon himself to help Stoddard
firearms,amazingly
death
and
defeat
forofValance
Valance.
statehoodIna
pavesthe
and
kills
the
showdown,
Valanceandbecomes
flowering
wayfor Stoddard,
the
of modern
defeat who
ofcivilization
alocalhero.
theisbig
inept
ranchers
across
with
The

the
sensibilities
Tom
teaching,
intellectual
territory.
Throughout
Doniphon
journalism,
pursuitsthat
that andLiberty
areintension with the
thefilm,Stoddard
the written
Valance.
is
law,
thesymbol
Stoddardis
hard­boiled
anda variety
ofeffete
frontier
concerned
ofother
skillsof
Eastern
with

are quickly exposed as useless skills on the

frontier.
barrel
scene, ofaguniswhat
Stoddard
Eventually,Stoddard
poignantly
paveserases
the
accepts
way
a phrase
thatorder
forlawhe
andhad
dispensed
order,
written
andinone
fromthe
on the

order.”
blackboard of thetown’s school: “Education isthebasis oflawand

AlthoughStoddard had been made outtobe aheroby the

for we
townsfolk
not killed the outlaw
his killingof
atall.It
Valance,
was Doniphon,
eventually
hidingin
learn
thethat
shadows,
hehad

who
Stoddard
Doniphon
during
shot
thetotakethe
Valance
believes
showdownwith
when
himself
credit.
Stoddard
unfit
Being
Valance.
forfiredhis
merelya
a leadership
Doniphon
own
humblefrontiersman,
role
gun
selflessly
in
(and
themissed)
rapidly
allows

civilizing West.
Ford’s
interloperattempting
the
order.
complexity
competent
gunfighter
InWhenever
all
filmsis
ofthesecases,
defender
andfunctions
corruption
usually
theagainst
“simplicity”
touselawand
much
athefilm
government
threats
of more
theofpresents
to
East,itisdue
the
successfully
reason
theWest
agent—as
establishment
the
tolimited
isgunfighter—who
victoriousover
onto
the
blind
the
availwhile
oflaw
onlytruly
instinct.
Eastern
and
the
in

Stoddard keeps attempting to reason his wayto a solution with

Valance,
men oftheWest
butinthe
understand
end,this proves useless, as the onlythingthe
is brute force.
Defenders of the Western as exemplar of America’s traditional
the
values might claim Western denigrates industrialized society in
order to emphasize the importance of self­reliance and
independence. While this may be arguable regarding the myth of the
frontier, it nevertheless runs up against the reality of the historical
frontier in which self­sufficiency was an unobtainable ideal. As on
century
the
had
noted
simply
mass­produced
civilized
to
family
frontier,
the
frontier.
The
fewadherentsamong
byDouglasJ.Den
connections,
gunfighter.
not
America.
few
state
impetus
available.”[45]
settlers
“Self­sufficiency”
can
firearms
beself­sufficient
Most
andchurch
attempted
behind
everyone
for
Uyl,
The
the
this
hisvocation;and
“self­sufficiency”
ofthe
organizations
gunfighter,
one
bourgeois
fondness
dependedon
because
can
gunfighter
argue
classes
ironically,
the
tofor
“noonein
makeagoof
ina
goods
typewould
on
trade,contracts,
savagery
ofnineteenth­
way
the
depends
needed
attributed
real­life
apre­
have
itand
are
on

primitivism, as Studlarnotes, is a distinct reaction against the urban

agricultural
nineteenth
popularity
bourgeoislife
ofthe
America
century.
thatcharacterized
Westernto
and
RichardEtulainattributes
“the conflict
the industrializationof
betweenindustrial
someofthe and
the

the resultant nostalgia for the past.”[46]

Nostalgic primitivism isn’t simply fondness for simpler ways, but
an active
world
Westerns
duringtheearly
ofFairbanks,
aversion tothe
Studlar
twentieth
economic
writes
century.
systemReferringto
of the contemporary
theearly

Inhisfilms, without literally becoming a child,

manyAmerican
Douglas Fairbanksmenin
seemedto
routine­driven,
achieve a changethat
sedentary,

bureaucratized jobs yearned for. The onerous psychic

to
seemedto
andphysical
intensity,
abeyance many,
vitality,
bydemandsof
ahero
tobe
andincreasingly
who
instinctual
masculinity
embodiedqualities
difficult
liberation
could be heldin
which
of

acquire
andretain among the complacency, compromise, and
consumerist comfort of modern bourgeois life.[47]

then
Criticizing
becomesmodernbourgeois
a raison d’être of
lifeand
the Western
the capitalist
early on,
system
and the
itcreated
theme

of the competent and honest frontiersman against theincompetent

and duplicitous Easterner becomes an enduring symbol.

[43] Studlar, Gaylyn. “Wider Horizons: Douglas Fairbanks and

Nostalgic Primitivism.”in BackinThe Saddle Again: NewEssays
on The Western. Eds. Edward Buscombe and Roberta Pearson.
London. 1998
[44] Stiles, Anne. “Go Rest, Young Man.” January 2012.
http://www.apa.org/monitor/2012/01/go­rest.aspx
American Psychological Association.

[45]Den Uyl, Douglas. “Civilization and Its Discontents.” In

The Philosophy of the Western. University Press of Kentucky.
Lexington.
[46]Quoted
2010. in Tompkins.

[47]Studlar.
 VI. The Gunfighter vs.
Bourgeois Life and Ideology
closely
The Easterner
Therelatedtotherevoltagainst
revoltrepresentsarefined,
against the effeminate
cultured,
bourgeois
EasternerinWesternfilmis
andsocietyingeneral.
literate society at

peace. In the worldview of the Western, this sort of society does not
produce
the frontier.
people
While
suitedfor
the gunfighter
self­reliance
ascends
or sound
to levels
decision­making
of great virtue
on

and
private
best, importance
Whilewe
andsociety
ridiculous at worst.
areregularly
know
inthe that
Western,
the
mocked
landscape
theand
institutionsof
portrayed
ofthe historical
ascorrupting
peacefuland
West at
is

primarily a landscape of farms, ranches, shops, churches, and

institutions
frontier
inhabited
portrays
homes, theconstant
society’s
primarilybygunmen
of
landscape
civilization
violent
dependence
ofthe
to
conflict
the
cinematic
and
margins
onthe
asa
theirvictims.
Westisa
andgunfighter
produces
This
landscape
focusonthe
apushesall
genre
of war
that

romantic and redemptive

domestic
activity.
superfluous
Meanwhile,
concerns
luxuries thatowetheir
areshownto
religious devotion,
very
be existence
secondary
economicpursuits,
tothe
activities
quick draw
and

of theInthe
Übermenschand
enlighten
gunfighter.
othersand
traditionalWestern,
Hobbesian
to imposeorder
Leviathanrolled
thegunfighter
on a dangerous
into one. He existsto
is world
Nietzschean
simply

is
possible.
conclusion:
life,
abyman
being
andonly
apart.He
more
The
without
proficient
classical
is
afterheimposes
abovethe
the gunfighter,
atWestern
the
contemptible
use civilization
of
thus
orderis
force
comes
pursuits
than
peaceful
impossible.
his
to
ofenemies.
ordinary
an civilization
important
He
daily
is

apparent
Reviewingthe
that theWesternis
themesof the classical Western, it becomes
well situated to buttress claims in favor
of
andthe
anearly
authoritarian
ColdWarorthe
twenty­first
garrisonstateof
War
centuries.[48]
onTerrorism
thenature
In the
duringthe
Western,
justified
mid­twentieth
byrhetoric
those who
remain preoccupied by economic and domestic interests live rather
trite and naïve lives until they embrace the way of the gun. The real
conflict is between the non­gunfighters of the frontier, who
represent
bourgeois the
society,
outdatedand
and thedangerous
heroic gunfighter,
notions of aan symbol
ill­conceived
of a

twentieth­century society much better suitedtodealwiththe harsh

realities of the world.
Winchester’73,The
WestAnthony
their skillsas
(1958)areallmenwho
former
Mann’sNakedSpur,
outlaws
gunfighters
emerge
Bend
infromthe
ofTheManFrom
the River,
wilderness
and Manofthe
Laramie,
and use

or wild men to preserve justice. In

some cases, they must be always moving, either to avoid danger, or
and
to escape
As
Their
asociety
partofthewilderness
status
theirpasts,or
inasgeneral
uncivilized
from
simplyto
itself,
and
the menaces
wild
they
satisfyaneedfor
is
emergeto
what
that existout
qualifiesinthe
protect
a transitory
them
the settlers
wilds.
tolife.
be

effective as defenders of the hapless general public in these films,

in
society,
for
others
if they
they would bemanner
the hadactually
aggressive incapable
beenan
required
ordinary
ofdefending
in Westerns.
memberof
themselves
civilized
and

of
scholar
basest
lack
need
being
existing
of
In
InFord’s
ofattached
desiressuch
control
Mann’s
his the
Paulprotection.
innormal
Willemen
films,the
that
toWesterns
asresponsibilities
makes
revengeand
societyfor
describeshim.[49]
herois
especially,the
him soless
valuable
greed,
heis
ofordinary
feral,although
herois
“near
but
to
Hethe
itisthis
ismotivated
psychotic”
virtually
society.
ordinary
just In
wildness
asaloofto
incapable
people
as
allfour
byfilm
and
the
in

of his cavalry films, Cheyenne Autumn (1964),She Wore a Yellow

Ribbon, Fort Apache, and Rio Grande, thehero, always a cavalry
officer,
his
Grande
affections
hasvirtually
does thehero,
are reservedstrictly
noKirby
obligations
Yorke, toany
have
forthe
living
family
Army.Only
family
or property,
members
in and
Rio
at

all, and even then he is estranged fromthem and unfamiliar with the
responsibilities
Thehero offamily
attains hisvalue
life.
as an extremely efficient killing
an
machine
ordinary is uncomfortable
thatmiddle­class lifestyle.
filling
Inthesefilms,
roles normallythe
associated
hero ismore
with
comfortable in the saddle than in a chair and more accustomed to
sleeping outside than in a bed. He might be tamed for an evening to
engage in the niceties of civilization, such as a bath and a shave, but
he must
—the The
heroic
alwaysreturn
gunfighter
action—takes
toattained
the
place. his statusas
wilderness where the important
protector action
and

indestructible man through his many yearsaway from ordinary

civilized
not possessed
people,bythe
andhenewarrivalsin
therefore carriestheWest.
withhima natural virtue
The primitivist
influence on this aspectofthe Westernis pervasive. Heroism is
learned andactedout in the wild, while cowardice and pointless talk
take place inthecities and towns andliving rooms.
the
criminal
man
Western,
enhanced
town’s
from
Insome
gangthat
Manof
the
thelesscivilized
school.
town
cases,the
the
Jones
has
of West,
Good
kidnapped
finds
Hopewho
Link
he
gunfighter’s
himself
becomes.
Jones
the innocent
forcedinto
is(Gary
trying
InAnthony
abilities
Cooper)is
female
to the
find
become
companyofa
asinger
Mann’s
teacher
a family
Billie
more
last
for

of
Ellis
film, (Julie
continually
London).
at risk
Ellis serves
being as
raped
a symbolofcivilization
and killed bythe criminal
inthe

InOnly
murderous
gang. to protect
eventuallyrevealed
order
andbrutal
Jones stands
that
oneatthat.
Ellis
Jones
between
fromrape,
is aformer
theand
gang
in
criminal
orderto
andEllis,
himself,and
foilthe
and plans
it isa

of the criminal gang, Jones must embrace his former criminal self.
refinement
hero.
illustrates
As he His
doesso,
progression
in
thecontrast
settling
he becomes
the
from
frontier
between
more thefaceof
domesticated
cunningand
inthe uselessness
family
effective
criminal
manasthefilm’s
elements.
of
tocriminal
cultural

protagonistGlyn
wants
Mann
tobecomea
used this
McLyntock
settled
samemember
device
(James
ofinthe
Bend
Stewart),
community
ofthea River
formerinwhich
outlaw,

for which he is
serving as a scoutfor their wagon train to Oregon. When outlaws
attempt to steal the wagon train’s food, McLyntock finds that he
must draw upon allof the skills he learned as an outlawto defeat
of
the thieves.
permeates
This opposition
the Westerntolaw­abiding
further serves tosolidify
bourgeoisbehavior
the valuesthat
primitivism in its audience. Link Jones is victimized as he tries to
find a schoolteacher for his town, but as he returns to his outlaw
instincts he becomes adept at defending himself. At the same time,
the
refinement
their
basis
by
shown
seasonedfrontiersmen
the
Through
comrades.
oftobe
gunfighter,
lawofand
morallyand
the
theEast,assymbolized
Ransom
order,
bare­bones
instinctual
turning
Stoddard
practically
of FortApache
efficiency
instead
action
gives
superiorto
to
by
andfrontierjustice
up
of
the
Thursday,
reject
on
violent
gun.
making
the
themore
action
thereby
formalism
educationthe
employed
civilized
canbe
saving
and

of
notions systematic thought and therule of law. Writing on the
consequences of primitivism’s viewof the intellect, Murray
is
Rothbard
Civilization
used
his noted:
environment
his reason,precisely
todiscover
rests,and
the tousethese
the
record
naturallawson
bywhich
lawsman
towhich
alter
has

hisenvironment
anddesires. so as tosuitandadvance his needs
Therefore,
worship of the primitive is
necessarily corollary to, and based upon, an attack on
intellect. It is this deep­seated “anti­intellectualism”
closer to to
that leads
“opposed thesepeople
it...nature”
Andbecause
and[that]
to proclaimthat
man
theprimitive
is supremely
civilization
tribes are
the
is

“rational animal,” as Aristotle put it, this worship of

the primitive isaprofoundly anti­human doctrine.[50]

The gunfighter,notone torelyon deep philosophy or complex

argumentation,
example, Lin doesnot
reliesinstead
need to
oninstinct.
deliberate In
aboutkilling
Winchester hisown
’73for
to
brother.
explanation
incapable
rehabilitate
Heof
his
providedfor
just
redemption.
brother
“knows” histhat
since,
Lin
criminal
in Dutchwas
cannot
the Western,
behavior), and is
realistically
bornevil(the
people attempt
aretherefore
simply
only

goodbad
and or evil.
guys Inclassical
rarely become
Westerns,
good nomatterhow
good guysrarely
muchtheymay
become bad,

wish to make a change. The conventions of the classical Western

require
call intolittle
question
moraltheabsolute
uncertaintyrighteousness
or ambiguity,offor
thesuch
finalthings
showdown.
might
This extends to relations with Indians. In contrast to earlier
Westerns, classical Westerns almost unanimously treat Indians as a
uniformly malevolent force.
Essential tothis equation aswellis the cheapeningof the use
of language.Talk,
ideas thanfighting,
whichcan
isviewedexpressmore
with complex andambiguous
extensive suspicion and is
usually thecentral weapon of the villain against the hero. The most
reliable
awkward,
Dorado
positioning
(1966)
plot
simply­dressed
ofaslick,
deviceto
and Rio Bravo,
exhibit
charismatic
hero. but
thisaxiom
Hawksuses
Anthony
villainagainst
of
Mann
this
the is
deviceinEl
genre
particularly
a socially
is the

in
proficient
villains
Laramie,
stonysilence.
talkalmost
The
at this
Far as
Thepunchlineof
Country,and
constantly
shown inWinchester
withglib
Bend ofthe
tongueswhile
course
’73,
River
comes
Theintheherosits
Man
which
whenFrom
the

antagonist’s fondness fortalkingis revealed as part of his villainy

and weakness. Realmen, the Western tells us, dealonly with
actions.
talk. Foolsand villains, on the other hand, confusethings with
tobe is
Thefinal lesson learnedhere that the virtuous
Westerner
to make
when
plan ofahandshakewill
action
hisway
has isfoolish
no need
through
of
doanda
when the
finely
the frontier.
craftedwords
group
hero can
discussion
A jump
contract
and
intothe
overaproposed
slick
is unnecessary
saddle
reasoning
and

accomplish something. It is always better to be silent and strong.

This
a Yellow
is the impetus of Nathan Brittles’ dubious advice in SheWore
Ribbon: “Never apologize, son. It’s a sign of weakness.”
in
[48] Engelhardt examines the role of the Western Cold War
rhetoric asa useful form of propaganda that justifies the
also
exterminations
employs
made[49]
Empire,
Masculinity
pointto
secondary
1952.
aggressive
Quoted toNational
andGaretGarrett’s
ofAustralian
tothreats
inWest,
foreign
foreign policy
theAmerican
policy,
Russell.“This
observation
concerns.
Identityin
domestic ina
nationstate.
that
See
isMan’s
Crocodile
concerns
Garrett’s
nationthat
One
Dundee.”
Country:
must
Riseof
could
be

In Subverting Masculinity. Russell Westand Frank Lay, (eds.)

Editions Rodopi B.V. 2000.
[50] Rothbard.
 VII. The Gunfighter vs. The
Victorians
complexities
While theof the
Western
market has
and little
the industrializedworld,itis
patiencefortheeconomic
even
more contemptuous of the social and religiouslifeofthe Victorian
bourgeois world that dominated American culture throughout much
of
class,
the much
nineteenth
like the
century.
middle
The
class
nineteenth­century
throughout Western
American
Europe,
middle
was
in
was
block
bourgeoisie
dominatedbybourgeois
sphere
beyond
worldthefamilyhome
Properdomestic
inthe
ofthe
the
Western
factories
from
largersociety.
bourgeois
Vienna
civilization.
and
conduct
thatmade
world
assumptions
to
merchants,
San
was
wasnosmall
Francisco
Contemporary
civilizationfunction.[51]
seen
about
as the
the
often
fundamentalbuilding
affair.The
role
defendersofthe
contendedthat
ofthedomestic
domestic
Indeed,
it

the bourgeois home was the

symbol of modern liberal society during much of the nineteenth
century. The liberal movements duringthe nineteenth century that
constitutions
attempted(often
extent,
accommodatingto
executed
andunsuccessfully)to
representative
with
the the
property­related
goalgovernments
restrain
of making
the
pursuits
nation­state
were,toalarge
thestate
of bourgeois
through
more

families
relationships
classes
Asthe
throughout
and individuals.[52]
nineteenth
began tochange.
America
century
and
Asthe
progressed,family
Europe
wealthcontinued
and size and
ofthe
to domestic
grow,
middlea

science
many
“Home
outside
household
considerable
history,
hoursaday
economics,”inThis
duringthenineteenth
couldsubsist
thehome.
governance
number aswe
householdmanagement
ofordinary
onbecame
theincomeofasingle
was
now
century
virtuallyalways
the
know
families,
central
as middle­classwomen
it, became
for
focus
thefirst
thehusband,so
person
of
verythenearlya
working
time
wives.
spent
in

and in budgeting the

wages earned
largely responsible
by theirfor
husbands.[53]
household Inmany
management
cases,thewife
including was
the
physical maintenance of the home, planning for future household
needs such as furniture and utilities, and countless other chores
considered essential to the economic stability of the family. In
of
matchmaking.
transactionin
Europe
familieswere
especially,
whichevenweddings
the
addressed
long­termbecame
through
economic
in many
economically
andcultural
waysabusiness
concerns
savvy

industrialization,
homes,
dominated
Thanks
educational
bywomen.
tothe
educationfor
institutions,
surpluses
and
women
churches
made
became
became
possible
widespread
worlds
through
often
and

Women attained more power in the domestic

sphere andinchurches, where the middle­class women who were
fortunate to have discretionary time would devotetheir resources to
in
a varietyofpursuits.Eventually,
poverty
political
or abolishing
movements,whether
slavery. Asthe
women
theywere
century
wouldin become
favor
came ofrelieving
to
very
anactive
end,

slavery,
First
women
the Spanish­American
WorldWar.
wouldbe
drunkenness,
at
Women’s
the
and
Warandagainst
forefront
anything
groupsmarched
ofthepeace
elsethey
American
against
saw
movements
entryintothe
asimperialism,
a threat
against
to

bourgeois domestic life.[54] Not allofthese movements were

necessarily
sensibilitiesof
centrality of compatible
the many
bourgeoisie
classical
withthe
to these
liberalsof
laissez­faire
movement
the period,
and
and ideological
capitalist
butthe

currents was undeniable.

Victorianism,
monstrous
used Today,
psychologically­damaged
toconjure
patriarch.
theAnglo­American
isoften
upthoughtsof
Butthose
viewed
children
withdisdain,
whoversion
sexually­repressed
living
actually
andVictorian
at
oflived
the bourgeois
mercy
in the
women
imagery is
bourgeois
of ideal,
some
and

world
Feminizationof
domestic
AnnDouglas’s
oftensawthings
lifein American
the evolution
extensive
differently.
Culture,explores
ofreligious
literarystudy
institutions
theofroleof
thisperiod,
and
womenand
literature
The

during the second half ofthe nineteenth century.[55] Douglas

contends thatwhile womenremainedlegally and culturally
political
constrainedintheir
spheres, theyability
asserted themselves inthrough
to participate the industrial
thecultural
and
realm and were able to significantly influence religious and cultural
institutions through literature and educational institutions. These
female architects of domestic and literary culture “exercised an
enormously
“between1820and
establishinga
Douglasconservative
perpetual
does not
1875...
Mother’s
necessarily
influence
Americanculture
Day.”[56]
ontheirsociety,”
view thisseemedbenton
as a andpositive
that

development.[57]She connectstherise ofVictorianism to the rise

of consumerand
problem forthe Victorianswas
mass culture consumerism,
and concludesthatthe
andthatevencentral
its
culture, which at times relied on both religious and secular
sentimentalism, became a type of consumerismitself. According to
consumption
Harriet Beecher the Victorian
Douglas,theliteratureof
emotionalismofbyreaders
Stowe. whothewere
literature
agewas
attracted
ofgeared
SusanWarnerand
to thetoward
middlebrow
mass

Douglas believes that this sentimental, woman–centered

Highbrowliterature thesecond half of
culture setsupthe oftwentieth­century literary
the nineteenth
revoltagainstit.
century,

such asthewritings of Herman Melville, was already anti­

Victorian, whilethe middlebrow writings remained bourgeois and
middle­classintheir
Victoriannovels produced
outlook.dismay
Often attaining bestsellerstatus, these
among some who regarded this
with
damned
literature
Hawthorne
century,
Even
The Althoughit
Virginianin
beforethe
mob
Victorian
fortodeclare
of
themasses
scribbling
Western
dominated
literature
1902,
“America
became
ascontemptible
women...”[58]
Victorian
wasnot
book
aninfluential
is unchallenged
now
sales
literature
wholly
and
during
prompted
“literary”
faced
given
by
theotherfiction.
significant
nineteenth
overtoa
form
Nathaniel

competitionfromthe
century.
bestsellers,
It would
Thedime
especially
be anovels
mistake
frontier­themed
among
appealedto
the
however,
working
youngermales,
dime
toclasses.
concludethat
novels of thenineteenth
andthey
Victorian
were

while
novels thedime
wereforthenovels
upper
wereformass
classes, sellingconsumption.
relatively few copies,
Although
of
commercial
Douglas herselftakes
success and popularity
a dim viewof Victorian
mass fiction
consumption,
speakstoits
the
success and influence. Victorian literature was middlebrow, not
highbrow, and as such was accessible to a large cross­section of
American society. Books like The Lamplighter (1854) and The
century’s
capitalize
Wide,Ann
thousandsofcopies
WideDouglas
onthe
biggest
World
success
best­seller
observes
and
(1850)were
ofthe
spawning
that
in
Victorian
“Harriet
Uncle
bestsellers,
countless
literature
Tom’s
Beecher
otherbooks
selling
Cabin(1852)
that
Stowe to
camebefore.
hundreds
seeking
wrotethe
and
of

on
consolidatedthe
the fictionmarket ... stranglehold
virtual White middle­class
ofAmerica’s
womenhad
women
seizedthe
authors

reins of national culture inthe mid­and late­Victorian era.”[59]

Tompkins
into
cede
filmsitsmodernliterary
By
andOwen
ground
theviews
time
to Wisterand
the
dimenovels
the Western
Western.In
format,
ZaneGreywere
werebeing
as
Victorian
anher
assault
book,
literaturewas
made
transforming
onWestofEverything,
both
intosilent
the
beginningto
bourgeois
thegenre
Western

world ofthe nineteenth centuryand on the women who weresuch

juxtaposition
an important part
betweenthe
of that world.
popular
Tompkins’
literatureanalysis
oftherests
nineteenth
onthe

most
twentieth
centurypopular
and
century,
thatand
ofthe
Tompkins
commercially
twentieth.
lookstothe
Granted
successful
thatVictorian
the
genreof
Western
novels
thewasthe
early
that

literature of the nineteenth

dominatedpopular fiction through
century, much
pioneered
of the
by nineteenth.
female authors
The

like Stowe, Warner, Maria Cummins, and others, could not have
been more unlikea traditional Western:

Inthese books
Warner’s WideI’mWide
The (and speakingnowof
World, Stowe’s
bookslike
The
in
interior
private
and
being
awoman
Minister’s
youngorphan
upstairs
women
spaces,
strugglesof
Wooing,
is chambers.
always
girl,with
too.
at home,
Most
and
thethe
Cummins’sThe
And
heroinetolive
several
indoors,
ofthe
maincharacter,
most
other
action
inofitconcerns
kitchens,
main
takes
uptoan
Lamplighter)
characters
usually
place
parlors,
thea

ideal
of Christian virtue—usually involving uncomplaining
learning
submission
to quell
to painful
rebellious
and instincts,
difficult and
circumstances,
dedicating
 her life to the service of God through serving
others...there’s a great deal of bible reading, praying,
hymn singing, and drinking of tea. Emotions other
there
saintly
than anger
arelong,drawn­out
womanarediesanatural
expressed freely
death
death and
scenes
athome.
openly.
inCulturally
whicha
Often,

and politically, the effect of these novelsisto establish

women
work (saving
at the souls)
center and
of the
to world’smost
assertthat inthe
important
end

Tompkins
spiritual
continues:
poweris always superior to worldly might.

themselves
The elements
in stark
oftheopposition
typical to
Western
this pattern,
plot not
arrange
just

vaguely andgenerally, but point forpoint. Firstof all,

in Westerns (which are generally written by men), the
maincharacter isalways a full­grown adult male, and
almost all of the other characters are men. The action
takes
main place
street—or
eitherinoutdoors—on
public places—the
the prairie, on the
saloon, the

The
death
hero
with
emotions.
expresses
action
sometimes
that
fighting.
and
sheriff’s
beddominance
but
aisfrequently
awith
rival
concerns
more
always
woman...
office,the
And
himself
The
his
guns.
orrivals,
important
when
ofsudden
rival,
hero
physical
formsa
the
Inthe
Thereis
through
barber
death
Victorian
more
and
isdeath,
thanany
course
aoccursitisnever
culminates
struggles
bond
shop,
oftena
man
very
physical
usually
literature
of
theliverystable.
with
of
little
relationshiphe
these
comrade—a
between
murder.[60]
few
inafightto
action—usually
another
expression
would
strugglesthe
words
athomein
the
man—
eventually
bond
hero
The
and
has
the
of be

targeted would
twentieth
culture
reform­oriented,
by
century.
what
consist,
Theshift
Douglascalls
serious­minded,
according Douglas, tothe
from “themoderns”
the
tomiddlebrow
Victorians of
during
religious
a “shift
modernsin
the early
from
and
intellectual discourse to the lighthearted, streetwise, and more or
less secular popular and mass arts as America’s chosen means of
self­expression.” In order to complete this change from the
sentimentalnarratives
Western,
the
white
modern
middle­classmatriarch
soopposedtothe
world,thetothemore
moderns
value
ofneeded
system
hard­nosed
the recent
toofovercome
the
“honest”narratives
Victorianpast.”
late Victorians,
“thepowerful
The
fits
of

well withinthisnew shiftinpopular culture.[61]

Christian
please
During
audiences.
virtue
thetime
andpersonal
To ofthe
furtherenduranceof
Victorians,however,
illustrate this,
affliction
Tompkins
rarely
the themes
points to
failed of

Charles Sheldon’s 1896 book In His Steps, which chronicles the

evolution of a congregation as it attemptsto livearadically
translated
copies.
charitable
In Christian
this
into21
samelanguages
lifestyle.
period, books
This
andsold
book
suchas
was
hundredsof
the
wildlypopular. Itwas
mega­bestseller
thousandsBen
of

Hur (1880)and thepopular Quo Vadis (1895) featured heroes who to

do
undoubtedlyhas
observations
series
Christianity
designed
not
Tompkins’
oftrials,and
triumph
tonegate
and
onhow
byconclusion
ato
killingtheir
ultimately
point
the
domestic
therole
here,
Western
isof
perseveringin
adversaries
that
butshemisses
virtue,is
womenin
jettisons
the Western,
but
atmost
American
their
by
its
thebeing
meekly
everything
faith
most
larger
inGod.[62]
society.She
sobasic
enduring
point.
hostile
dear
level
Her
toa

middle class Americans during the nineteenth century (i.e.,

essential roles
domestic Christianvalues)
thatwomentakeus
playinthe
closer to
Westernare
thetruth. The
certainly
non­
of
Western;
emphasized
theyare
inthefilms,
also representatives
butthewomen are bourgeois
not justsociety.
womeninthe
As the

Western
industrialized
manhoodinamudhole,
nostalgic isnotjust
primitivists
society forand
made
the
women,
realloathing
with
cleartheir
butwith
forthe
program
being
their
propagated
urban,
opposition
for industrial,
achieving
by the
to

bourgeois world that had so radically changed Western civilization.

The
but theiroverriding
primitivists mayinterest
have been(and
was notonly
probably
in subduing
were) misogynists,
women but

also in
Bysubduing
mid­century,
the larger
the Cold
society
War
theyhad
represented.
increased the impetus to
devalue the domestic in favor of a global ideological struggle.
During the 1950s, popular art like Westerns reminded viewers that
few considerations could take precedence over the need to rid the
worldAn of
intercontinental
examinationofthe
communist
ballistic missile.[63]
evil,
Westerns
whether
ofthe
by veryearlydays
six­shooter or
of the
by

Western film, however, suggests that Tompkins maybe overstating

her case regarding early Western silent films. Theearliest Westerns
of the silenteraprovidea different takeonthegenre in numerous
ways,
Western
According
from
chronologically,
When
Film,
the
wego
the
physicalsettingto
toearliest
Scott
back thereare
and
Simmons,the
Westerns
watch surprisein
survivingsilent
author
atreatmentofIndians.
pairof of
The
several
subsequent
Invention
Westerns
ways: ofthe

surprises, because ofhow different the genre looks

and
earliest
becauseofwhat
guises, especially
different
fromthingsishasto
around1908–1910. In
sayinits

landscape, Westerns from this era are lush, woodsy,

we tothe to
later
earliest
These
Westerns.
and
chases
white
through
feature
find
Westerns
appear
daysthosesavageGreat
wet:
trends
the
hero.
ofthegenre
through
so
aforestclearings.In
wide
aresetentirely
fundamental
“nobleredskin”
filled
only
Only
vistas,rolling
the
with
lastfora
later,
underbrush,
infilm,
lakes,
tothe
around
PlainIndians
within
few
asguide
theysetthe
narrative,
genre.
streams
grasslands,
yearsatatime,
of
1911,
tribal
hand­to­hand
orsavior
and
communitiesor
do
many
wars
stage
arid
canoes,of
that
begin
of
deserts,
fornumerous
but
fights
these
now
beingthe

The early years of the genre were marked by very different

sensibilities, particularly in regards to Native Americans. In
addition to the “noble redskin” that Simmons mentions, the earliest
villains
Western
characters...arrive
films
by comparison.
in as
many
villainous
casesAccording
madethe to
disruptionswhite
to forest
Simmons,
settlersouttobe
idylls, as
“White
with

the land grabbingpioneers ofTheRedman’s View (1909) or the

doctor in Mohawk’s Way (1910).”
As a brand­new industry, the film industry of this era was
composed primarily of small firms located on the East coast. Often,
if not usually, Indiancharacters wereplayed by actual Native
in
Americans.
the caseofJames
In some YoungDeer
casesNative whofor
Americans
a time
directed
wasantheinfluential
films,as

filmmaker inthe industry. This practice came to an end as the

industry
illustrationofhow
1950. slowly relocated
much thetoindustry
southernchanged
California,
between1910
but itisan
and

By theeraof the classical Western, Indians had been relegated

almost entirelyto roles as villains. The somewhat pro­Indian
abecause
classical
noveltyaWestern
Western,
during the
film
Broken
post­war
sympathetic
Arrow
period.
to(1950),
During
the Indianshad
1910,
isnotable
however,
becomesuch
precisely
there

would have been little novelty to the plot of Broken Arrow, which
possible
that
amount
an
casts
sympathetically
Miracle
advocate
one
Aslate
theofcash,
Rider
highway
Apache
groupof
for
as(1935),
the
than
leader
the1930s,
the
robbers.
Indians
Indian
inthe
hero
starring
Cochise
are
tribes,
He’stoo
rushes
post­warfilms.
Indians
traveling
Tom
inand
apositive Inthe
offtoprotect
late,
Mix,the
earlyinthe
were
cross­country
however,
portrayed
light.
protagonist
movie
the
series,
andthe
Indians
withalarge
much
serials
being
becomes
Indians
more
from
told
The

fall victim to marauding white men.

examples
WesternscasttheIndians
In The
a of
major
Miracle
virtuous
departure
middle­class
Rider,
notonly
from
the ambushed
the
behavior.
asclassical
sympathetic
andWesterns,
robbed
characters,
Indians
somebut
early
had
as

been carrying savings they had accumulated in order to begin

Passion
like
farming
thewhite
Intheearlier
operations
Play middle­class
(1913),
aspart
full­length
the settlers.
Indians
of aneffort
silent
welcome
film
to settledownand
Hiawatha:
Catholic missionaries
The become
Indian

into their settlement displaying an openness to Christianity

exhibited
contrast
Indians
tothe
by few
repeatedly
shiftless
gunfighters
white
exhibitvalues
oftheclassical
settlers whodisrupt
of Western.
hearthestablished
andhomein

ways
of life. In early Westerns based on the works of James Fenimore
Cooper, the iconography of the frontier hero is challenged with
story lines featuring “talkative Indians and long­winded Natty
[Bumppo,
Hollywood’s
Directorthe
taciturn
D.W. protagonist]
Griffith,certainly
cowboys.”[64]
himselfadefender
[who] of
seem
(Anglo­Saxon)
farfrom

bourgeois values in Birthofa Nation (1915), brings his own

Griffith
Victorianas“themost
sensibilities consistent,
to someearlyWesterns.
andmostVictorian,
Simmons describes
in assigning
with
protection
the highestofthe
“lingering ethicsto
Victorian
innocence
women”in
obsession”
of children.[65]
hisWestern
storyfilmswhile
lines related
exhibitinga
tothe

out
narrativestaking
of nostalgic
justice
Thisisn’tto
froma
primitivism
place
well­aimed
saythatthe
inare
a wilderness
present, asis
rifle. early
Nevertheless,
setting.The
Westerns
the gunfighter
theoverall
wereVictorian
earlywho
Westerns
elements
metes

contradictthecore
to a muchlesser valuesof
extentnineteenth­century
thantheir mid­twentieth­century
bourgeois literature

descendants.
at
least The
initially,
heroofand
thehis
silent
intervention
Westerns is
remains
key inpaving
amanof theway
the wilds,for

gunfighter,
the
civilization.
villainshave
although
Hehas
beenlittleusefor
hewill
killed.usuallysettle
civilizeddownwith
society inawomanonce
his role as a

prominent
Indeed,inthemany
centrality
earlyofWesterns
women tothan
the gunfighterismuchmore
is the case during the

classical period.While revenge, male camaraderie, and noble ideals

usually motivate the gunfighter of the classicalperiod, winning over
a woman is amajor motivator for the gunfighter of the early
Westerns. In TheReturn of Draw Eagan(1916), the protagonist
settle
(William
into makinghim
down
S.Hart),an
after fallingin
marshal,decides
outlawlove
whowiththe
hastogo
tricked
straight
the residentsof
permanently
a town
and

mayor’s daughter, who is

“the kind of girl he had heard of but never believed to exist.” In in
involving an Oklahomaland
Tumbleweeds
but hislovefora
The gunfighter’s
(1925),
woman
desire
the motivates
heroDon
rush.
for theheroine
the
Carver
principalaction
(Tom
is central
Mix)totheplot
isa
of the
drifter
film
these early Westerns. In contrast, while numerous gunfighters of the
classical period also eventually settle down with women, the
primary motivation of the protagonist stems from a desire for
River,
eventual
alter
money,thecentral
for
asin
loveinterest
example,
Theconflictbetween
NakedSpur,or
the
tends
love
toshow
interest
revenge,asin
protagonist
uplateinthe
(not forprotagonist
andantagonist.
Winchester
filmand ’73.The
doesnot
Dunson
InRed

himself, butfor his adopted son) shows up only inthethird act, and
in Rio Bravo,the female lead, Feathers, while acharming character,
law­enforcement
has no motivational
duties.
effectJust
onthe
as often,
sheriff’sfaithful
the gunfighter
executionof
ends up not
his

settling down at all asinThe Man From Laramie, Fort Apache, and
Shane.
The early Westerns are oftenmuch less authoritarian than the
Westerns ofaretheoften
classicalperiod
outlaws or aswell.
Indians,The
andheroesof
the outlaws
silent­era
are

frequently
John
the RingoKid
Ford’s
ontherunfrom
Stagecoach (1939),
ineffectual
the last
agents
of of
hislaw
pre­war
enforcement.
Westerns,
In

is reminiscent
Tom of the charming and mostly harmless
outlaws played by Mix and William S. Hart during an earlier
period. After World War II, Ford departs from this model
completelyand never again features an outlaw as his protagonist.
None
although
ofHawks’
Anthony heroes
Mann, from
notable
theclassical
for hismore“edgy”
period areWesterns,
outlaws,

employs former outlaws as his heroes in Bend of the River and Man
of
periods,
landscapes,
applied
faith,
their
War,
theAlthoughher
thevestiges
most
theclassical
West.
tothe
Tompkins’
stark
militarism,
post­war
andserious isterms.
ofVictorianism
critique
Western
critique
masculine
classical
appliespartially
presents
mostinthe
Westerns.
focus,
applicable
Following
theWestern
themesof
and
toWith
absence
Western
andtrenchant
the
areall
the
SecondWorld
excised
their
of
filmsof
Westernin
religious
almost
sparse
when
all

completely. Women recede even more into the background, while

religion,
and of less
commerce,
relevance.and domestic concerns become even sparser
Indians become almost uniformly a force for
evil, while sheriffs,cavalry and other symbolsof government power
become even more reveredand unchallenged.
 [51] Stein, Susan Isabel. “A Woman’s Place: Nineteenth­
Century Bourgeois Morality and the Spanish American Domestic
Comedy.” Latin American Theatre Review. The Center of Latin
values
19th
American
several
centurywhich
extended
“domestic
Studies,
evenbeyond
comedies”
University
identifiedproducedin
of
theVictorian
“the
Kansas.
middle
1992.
Latin
class
world.
America
Victorian
household as the
Steinexamines
during
domestic
the

concern
household
locus
political
German
[52]The
ofdecency—the
for
Nation:
and
management
culturalleaders
propergovernance
economic
Domesticityand
moral
became
concerns
ofcoreofthesocial
thebourgeoisie.
animportant
of private
National
aswell.lifeIdentity inofGermany,
organism.”
See
component
Therole
becameasignificant
“Sweeping
domestic
of larger
the

1870–1945.”
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/jsh/summary/v043/43.1.matysik.html
by Tracie Matysik.

[53] Hobsbawm.
present
or racialmixing.
[54]Among
inmany Victorian
thesethreatsto
Douglas movementsin
notesthe
domestic
whitesupremacist
life
America,
was “miscegenation”
although
overtones
anti­

slavery movements and other reformist movements designed to

limit the effectsof racism in America also simultaneously came out
of Victorian
[55] Douglas,
society.TheFeminization
of American Culture.
[56]
[57] Douglas,
Ibid, p. 9 Terrible Honesty

[58] Frederick, John T. “Hawthorne’s ‘Scribbling Women’”

Inc.
The NewEngland
1975.
[59] Douglas,Quarterly,
Terrible Honesty.
Jun.1975 TheNewEngland quarterly,

[60] Tompkins, West of Everything

[61] Ibid.
[62] Tompkins, Westof Everything.
[63] Engelhardt.
[64] Simmons.
[65] At the climax of Birth of a Nation, a white Victorian
family is fondness
Griffith’s under siegebymob
forthe Victorianfamily
of black formerslaves,illustrating
and white racial purity.
 VIII. The Gunfighter vs.
Women
malesInof
many
the East.
Westerns,
Theywomen
lack anserve
understandingoftheways
a functionsimilartotheeffete
of the
West, and they fail to grasp the monumental importanceof the work
being performed by the gunfighter. In Rio Grande, for instance,
soldier,”
Yorke’s estranged
and she responds
wife istoldby
that “whather
makes
son soldiers
that Yorke
greatisa“great
is hateful

unchanged.
when
modifies
to me.”
shemakes
The
herWe
viewer
valuesystem
areledto to
thisis statement.[66]
not supposed Bysympathize
conclude
match
to that
his,and
the endofthefilm,
she simply
Yorke
withKathleen
remains
doesn’t
she

understand the sacrificesthat must be made to bestow the blessings

of
build
Ribbon,
act moderngovernment
ashis
Red
thehero’s
ranch.
River’s wife
Tomislong
on
Dunson,
thefrontier.
dead,
whodesertshis
so theheroremains
In She Worea
love interest to
asfreeto
Yellow

a conversationinthe
unnamed
RedRiver
loveinterest
removesfilm’s
that
anyrole
hemust
opening
forwomen
leaveher,
scene. Dunsonexplains
on
declaring
the frontier
that through
frontier
to his

life is “too much for a woman.” To this she replies, “You’ll need
do.”
me.
with
Dunson
You’ll
Theclassical
the doesn’t
wagon
need what
need
train.She
Western,
awomancan
awomanhowever,
atall,
give
makesit
andherides
you to clear
do what
off
thatyou
leavingher
a man
havelike
to

is killed by Indians several hours later.

Dunson then stumbles upon a young orphan in the wilderness. The
subsequent
without
also
in the
providesa
film,
theinconvenience
adoption
even
handy
though
ofexcuseto
theof
orphan
the
having
film
avoid
allows themestoof
aisrelationshipwith
any
ostensibly
Dunson about
acquirean
domestic
awoman.
a family
heir
life
It

dynasty.
cowardly
Zinnemann’s
Often,townsfolk
women
High are
and
Noon,
just
triesto
Mrs.Kane
obstacles
convince
tobe Kanewith
alliesherself
Marshal
overcome. to
In leave
Fred
the

town before the villains arrive. Similarly, in The Searchers (1956),

after a woman and her older daughter have been raped and
murdered by Indians, and a second daughter kidnapped, Ethan
Edwards, the hero, is told by an older woman to not encourage the
revenge­fueled
young
He thenleadsthe
Inmen
othertofilms,
wastetheir
spreemen
women
acrossthe
onamulti­year,
livesin
moredesert.
explicitly
vengeance.
but
represent
ultimately
Edwardsignores
civilization.
successful,
her.
In

My DarlingtoWyatt
attachment
showdownwiththe
Clementine
Earp,
Clantons.
yet Herejects
(1946),
Earp Clementine
eventually
hersohecanride off toa
attemptsromantic
leaves

Tombstone
altogether (without her) so as not to be compromised by the
Lina
her,
civilized
Howard
between
but
(JanetLeigh)
in
Kemp(James
thedomestic
ways
his of
surrender
the
manages
growingtotown.
lifeand
Stewart)is
to her thelife
convinceKemp
feminine
ultimatelyfaced
In The
ofan
plan,
Naked
amoral
Kemp’s
to Spur,
settle
bounty
withchoosing
bitterness
protagonist
downwith
hunter.
at

leaving thegunfighter’s lifebehind is apparent.

which
the two
Oneexception
TealEye, to this
protagonists,
anIndianJimwoman,
trend
Deakins
isHawks’s
is acentral
(Kirk TheBig
Douglas)
character,andassists
Sky
and
(1952)in
Boone

Caudill (Dewey Martin), in reaching their destination where they

the
wish
place
moviehas
totrade
ona frontier,
with
littletheBlackfoot
and
incommonwith
thevillainis
Indians.
the
a monopolisticfur
Westerns
Althoughthe
of theclassical
filmtakes
company,

period. Thefact that oneofthe main characters decides tostay in

Indian
Westernsof
of anearly­silent
the Indian
country
thisperiod,
woman as
withTealEye
period
whoassists
that
does
makes
itssetting
sets
white
The
its men
way
Big
inthe
isanother
intoa
Sky
1830s.
apartfrom
few of
Itsinclusion
remnant
post­war
most

impediment
subplot
Westerns.
accidentally
Sometimes
in The
The
tothe
buys
Searchers
treatment
the
search
anwomen
Indian
in
party
ofwhich
TealEye
might
wife.
andEthanEdwards’
isThe
astreated
could
well
womanis
with
becontrasted
be men.
general
adoptive
regardedasan
In contempt.
The
with
nephew
Man
the

From
Canady,
frontier,
presentsLaramie,
it’shelpful
the
a mannishspinster.
film’sprotagonist
theory
if, likethat
Canady,
Will
the
If women
villain
Lockhart
they was
act
arelike
made
is
tobe
assisted
men.Canady
souseful on also
by abyKate the
woman.
In one conversation, Canady examines the origins of the murderous
behavior of Waggoman’s spoiled brat of a son, Dave. It is revealed
that Dave has turned to a trite and criminal life because his mother,
agunfighter
classical
refined
Thechoice
Western
woman
illustrates
oftheEast,
assumes
betweenawoman
the exists
fundamental
coddledhimin
between
andthe
bourgeois
incompatibility
hisyouth.
lifesociety
of athat
and
heroic
the

life of a self­sufficient frontiersman. Although many early Westerns

orwho
in who
Will
From
down
Ethan
more
is
have
the
portray
generally
gunfighter’s
littleneed
frequently
Edwards
Laramie
the
Myretirement
unresponsive
Darling
ofTheSearchers,
ridesback
presenta
or
career,
useforwomen.
Clementine,
to later
domesticlifeas
gunfighter
tointothe
women.
Westerns
andKirbyYork
and
WyattEarp
hero
wild
Tom
oftheclassical
the
alone.
Dunson
Lockhartof
natural
is awidower
refuses
Shane
ofFortApache
progression
of Red
to
of
era
The
be
course
River,
much
Man
tied
of

Cantor’s
cannot
[66]The
manage
analysis
vectorof
anormal
of Star
moral
middle­class
Trek
sensibilitieshere
andlife.
Gilligan’sareIsland
echoedfound
in Paul
in

representing
dramas,
Minnow
Gilligan Cantor
Unbound.
castaways)
American
notes,
Inwould
those
allwho
culture (the
havehis
series,
cameincontact
which
Enterprise
orherperspectives
also served
crew
withasCold
ortheradically
the
parties
War
S.S.

changed by contact with the superior and more dynamic

“Americans.”
 IX. The Gunfighter vs.
Christianity
also While
often women
represent
arereligion.
symbols AsStagecoachopens,Dallas,the
of domesticityintheWestern,they

whore with a heart of gold, is beingrunoutoftownbythemore

conventional and shrewish women who have created a frontier
version of the National League ofDecency. Dallas’woes are
increased by the prejudices of the bourgeois passengerson the
to the
stagecoach,
Kid.
girls)
the
of
God,
reliably
importance
settling
distant
Westernsin
InMann’s
enthusiastically
usuallymade
shown
the
future,
and
with
frontier
relevance
The
tobe
the
general
implying
Far
bywomen,
exceptionof
will
talk
made
Country,
of
are
have
about
thatwhen
religious
dottedwith
uncomfortable
been
building
atwhich
thewomen
thecharming
complete.
faithtothe
churches
churches the
occasional
point
(mostof
oroutlaw,TheRingo
arrive,
conflict
atshrug
some
gunfighteris
referencesto
them
theprocess
at hand.
off
timein
saloon

note
and infrequenttopic
Christianity
above, the popular
inthenineteenth
ofliterature
conversation.As
ofcentury
Victorian
was
Tompkins
America
notsucha
andDouglas
wassteeped
marginal

the
Vadis
Christianand
in Christianity.
bourgeois
illustrates
subscribed
families
The
thatthe
popular
Victorian
that
to astatusof
Christian
livedworld
initidentified
books
worldview.Christianity
waslikeBen
a Christian
themselves
Hurworld,
and Quo
was
and
as

prominent
the peoplewho
intheirsettled
literature,
the education,
West carried
and their
politics.
Christianity
We know with
that

them.[67] Catholicand Protestant missionaries crisscrossed the

frontier,
In
or ignores
spite of
Gunfightersarenever
andreligionasan
allofthis
churchessprang
however,the
important
religious
up wherever
partof
classicalWestern
men.the
newtowns
Engaged
story ofin
eitherridicules
were
the
theWest.
primitive
founded.

world ofthe kill­or­be­killed frontier, thegunfighter hasno time for

survival—andno
such
good. immaterialpursuits.
In fact, in some
amount
cases,
ofpraying
Heknows
the gunfighter
is ever
onlyhimself
goingtodo
one thing—physical
serveshimmuch
as a sort
of divinity, doling out death and vengeance without the slightest
thought that his judgments might be flawed or that he might be
gunning down the wrong man. The gunfighter is always right, he
always
and omnipotent,
impervious
man. winsthefinal
to the
andhe
dangers
showdown.
doesn’tneedGod,
and trials
He isthat
simultaneously
forheis
would destroyalesser
agodomniscient
ofsorts—

intellectualism
structure
Thisaspect ofthe
philosophicalquestions.
of simplistic
of Westerns
dichotomies
genre,
Instead,
which
isthebetween
closely
Western
isnotrelated
good
suited
relies
andtoona
toevil.
theanti­
complex
moral
Later

Westerns are notable for their moral ambiguity, but the classical
Westerns createa worldwhere the gunfighter destroys the villain
to
characters
withone’sstatusasa
thehelpofthegunfighter’s
inWesternsmemberof
oftenlackinfallible
free
the will
elector
instincts.When
sincethe
freedamned,the
will
it comes
would

never
anything
implyastateofgrace.
from anability
doeither
that might
to
illustrates
repentofone’s
complicate
Thatfactthat
thethemoral
Western’s
evilwaysor,
characters to dispensewith
landscape.
need
inWesterns
conversely,to
virtually
fall

the
dependence
neverthelessextremely
elect
Sinceand
eternal
ondamned
violence so only
soulsretain
importantin
don’t matterinWesterns,
central
aworldly
providing
to Westerns.
status,
justification
thebut
concepts
Unlike
they
for the
are
of

Victorian novel where saving soulsis an important consideration,

the
world,
Western,
enemyisthe
and exists
through
onlyin
only
omission,
goal
thephysical
worthconsidering.[68]
denies world
the existence
whereelimination
ofaspiritual
Gunfighters
of

occasionally
fashion.
on
them,
the
Theseveral
Lordtakethaway,”
Searchers,Ethan
andblithelyrecites
Redoccasions
River’s
exhibit Tom
religiosity,
heEdwards
before
gunsmen
theScripture
Dunson
getting
but
angrily
mocks
downfor
onlyin
on
verse“The
disrupts
Christian
with
apetty
terse
theday’s
aScriptures
Lordgivethand
offenses,buries
funeral
and dismissive
chores.
for
whenIn
his

Later,
horse
dead relativesand
getting
Edwards thento
important
refers quickly
thingsdone
Christianity as “whatyou
exitsthantending
thescene. He’d
tospiritual
preach”
rather beona
trifles.
when

speaking to Reverend Clayton, putting additional distance between

himself and Christianity.
The afterlife is apparently a source of great confusion in
Westerns. Following the bloodbath incompetently engineered by
Colonel Thursday in FortApache,York (to the strains of the Battle
corpses
and
Hymn
forgotten
they’ll
of
don’t
because
the
keep
occasionone
Republic)
on
theyhaven’t
livingas
declares
to mention
died.
longthatthedead
as
They’reliving
God—just
the Army soldiers
lives.”
the
rightoutthere
Army.
Pilesof
“aren’t
In a

toa
thoughts
genre soreplete
might consider
never occur
fromtimeto
with death,onemight
gunfighter.
time a man’s
thinkthat
ultimate the
fate,but
characters
such

central
Christian­biblical
endure
Western.[69]
Forconcern
an
the evil
gunfighter,
Themust
thanto
doctrines
Christian
bephysical
what
commit
that“to
ethic
mattersis
is dieis
all
one,
life
thephysical
and
gain”
are
morephysical
meaningless
or
ridiculous
survival,
thatitis
death.The
since,
betterto
and
in the
in

the Christian worldview, death may havetobeaccepted for the sake

no
of
defeat,
defending
value
andbecauseheis
victory
a larger
goes
moralprinciple.
toof
those
nouse
who Butin
live.The
in thetheWestern,
classical
ChristianWestern’s
God
deathis
has

utilitarian
are a readygun,
world.Theonly
a steady horse,
things
and
that
a fast
candraw.The
be trusted gunfighter
in the Western
may

ride
America,
forthegreaterglory
Just as
buthemost
Ford usedcertainlyisn’t
caricaturesof
of hiscountrymen
ridingfor
puritanical
andGod.
women
the United
as aStatesof
symbol

means to exhibit
surrounding
of religion, bourgeois
Westerns
the town’s
society.
usechurches
cowardice
High Noonuses
as
andgeneralsymbols
hypocrisy.
this Looking
deviceof asa
the
for

is
help againstthe outlaws, Marshal Kane determined to gather
support
the minister
fromthe
readslocal
Scripture.
church.
Whilehe
He interrupts
urgently
theseeks
Sunday
help,
service
Kane as
is

replies:
“What
curtly reminded
couldbe
“Ineedthat
sohelp.”
important
hedidn’t to
He admits
“seefit”
bringyouhere
thathe
to be marriedinthat
isn’t
now?”
“a church­going
Kanechurch:
simply

man,” and that he wasn’t married there—because hiswifeis toa

The
Quaker.
cruelandoblivious
There
“ButIcame
are only hereforhelp,
socongregation
many scenes
because
offersno
that thereare
onecan
help. people
cite here
here.”
illustrate the Western’s dim view of Christianity because the
deafening silence with which the Western treats Christianity and
religion so permeates the genre. Neither Mann, Ford, nor Hawks
considerationof
gunfighter,
departure
ever seefitto
nineteenth century.
from
further
include
thosewho
theillustrating
Christianityas
Victorian
tend
thepopular
tobean
Western’s
anything
entertainment
irritant
drasticand
other than
tothe
aminor
of
lasting
hero
the

of
the
their
institutions
influenceof
InTheFeminization
religious
ofthe
culture.
period,
the Referring
American
as
of well
American
to
as
Victorian
theCulture,
perceived
Victorians,
women
Douglas
shortcomings
Douglas
onreligious
points
again
to

employs herview oftheVictorians as sentimental and consumerist

and contends
peddling of Christian
that “theirdebased
belief for its nostalgic
religiosity,their
value—iscrucial
sentimental
in

understanding American culture in the nineteenth century.”[70]

disestablishment
supported
Christianity
of
Revolution)
the
Onthistopic,
eighteenth
religious
duringthe
ledto
ofthe
andDouglas
institutions
earlynineteenth
nineteenth
major
churches
changes
constructs
century.
that
inAmerica
cameafter
centuries
inWhereas
a theory
American
(the
wasthe
the
in
end
moreon
Christianity
whichthe
Protestant
American
ofstate­
the

hard­linemodelofJonathan Edwards, the Christianity ofthelate

nineteenth century took ona much softer, accommodating tone.
Protestant
membershipby
The decline
clergyto
avoidingunpleasant
of stateaugment
support for
financially­supportive
orcontroversial
churches led topics.
to a need
During
church
for

this period,Douglas contends, the roleof Christianclergy became

geared
and towardsupporting
moretoward popularization
women andandsoftening
childrenin timesof
of Gospel
emotional
themes,

had
seat
need.
instead
beenthecase
toMinisters
filling
ofademanding
the
switchedthe
pewswith
in earlier
and focus
centuries.
paying
morallyabsolutist
toward
believers.
Doctrinal
playinga
Many
leadership
rigortook
supportiverole
saw thisasa
role,as
aback

one
transformeditselffrom
dove
positive
Unitarianminister
thatdevelopment, who
ministered tochildren.
and
an eagle,a
Douglas
imagined
Although
symboloftheolder
recountsa
thattheChristian
the“vision”
Unitarian
faith,intoa
churchhad
relatedby
minister
meant this to be received positively, this trend within American
Christianity, some complained, had produced a “largely pacifist”
clergy that “hovered on the edge of the battlefield.”[71] According
Asa
century,
Victorians,this
effeminate
moral
to critics,this
andphilosophical
asbourgeois
result,
andwas
versionofthefaith
intellectually
criticsincreasingly
true
liberalism
battlefields.
of bothliteral
immature.
gave
gavebirthtowhat
saw
way
wartimebattlefields
By
the
to progressivism
the
American
early clergyas
twentieth
among
andof

is now known
as theThemovements
“social gospel” spawned
of left­wing
bythesocial
Victorianreformists.
gospel were more post­

Victorian than Victorian, peakinginthe early twentieth century.

odds
Closely
the socialgospel
with
associated
the bourgeois
were
withtheProgressive
largely
liberal Victoriansof50
anti­capitalist
movement,
which
yearsearlier.
theputs
adherents
themItis
of
at

easy to see, however, how the social gospeland the supremely mild
nineteenthcentury.
version
synonymouswith
This
of new
Christianity
mildthe
and
described
Victoriansand
pleasantbyDouglas
gospel,bourgeois
now
could
associatedwith
be
liberals
thoughtofthe
ofas
the

late Victorians, would lead to a backlash. Reflectingonthese new

embraced
strains of Christianity,
judgment
Christianity
aongospel
during
whatinwhich“a
thisperiod,
hesawas
RichardNiebuhr
God
the
declaring
without
deterioration
eventually
wrath
that Americans
pronounced
broughta
ofAmerican
man
had
his

without sinintoa
ministrationsofa Christwithout
kingdom withoutjudgment throughthe
a cross.”
sensibilitiesin
across
complaint
tradition.
dispensed
In
According to Douglas,
thespectrum
asimilar
wasnotto
withwhat
Themoderns the
twentiethcentury
from
way,
embrace
they
Hemingway
the
introduced
saw
aWesterns’
more
moderns
literaturein
as to
doctrinal
this
Fitzgerald
very
ofthe
contemptuous
response
general,
or
different
twentieth
hard­line
to Mencken.
toNiebuhr’s
represented
religious
century
version

of the faith,but to replace Christianity’s deity altogether. What

gunfighter
could beabetter
himself? With no
answer to the
trueGod
feminizedVictorian
ofany consequence
God thanthe
to exact
vengeance, theclassical Western’s gunfighter himself would supply
wrath and judgment while bearing a cross of solitude to rid the
world of sin.[72]
One of the most well­developed examples of the burden
carried
which emphasizes
bythe gunfighterisfound
the in John Ford’s The Searchers,
gunfighter’s separation from domestic and
heroes
bourgeois
in John
society.
Ford’s
Edwards
Westerns.
is an extreme
Ethan isnotonlya
versionofother
Confederate,
post­war
or
absence.
sketchy
lawmen,
which makes
pastin
Almostall
are
him
general,as
military
rare
ofFord’s
amongFord
men.
emphasized
post­war
Edwards,
protagonists,
byanunexplained
heroes
ontheare
other
but
formeror
hand,
he also
three­year
was
current
hasa
on

the wrong side of the Civil War, which perhaps made it easier for
ahatred
thethirst
nationalistic
Filmcritics
of
forvengeance.
Indians,Ford
andmodern
especially
to makeComanches.
Edwardsa
fans have made
character
This hatred
muchfilledwithsuch
drives
of Edwards’
him to

making
Searchers,
wives
nearly of
murderhis
theComache
animpassioned
but thatown
is Chief
not
niece,Debbie,
clear.
argument
Scar.Edwards’
Many
who
against
nowassume
hadbecome
hatred
racism
is that
notone
with
Fordwas
based
of The
the
on

some arcane and pseudo­scientific theory of race such as those

concrete
family
toward
employed
allIndians.
members.
experiencesin
by manyHe’s
Ethan’s
white
which
motivated
supremacists.
hatredofsome
Indians
more
have
Nor
Indiansisbased
by
rapedand
ishis
revenge
hatred
murdered
than
directed
onvery
byhisa

theoretical idea of race. TheIndians are in no way misunderstood

the
innocentsinThe
motivatedbyasimilar
hands of white Searchers,andwhile
men,
thirstto
the film’sfocusis
avenge thedeaths
welearnthat
nevertheless
ofhischildren at
Scarisalso
on the

violence committed by Indians.Ethan’shatred is therefore

understandableand
film.
code)
Debbie’s
of hisEthanonly
whenhe
hatred
adopted
fortries
Debbie,and
stepsover
brotherMartin,
arguably
tokillhisaafter
justified
niece.
line(according
she
scalping
is
Thanks
in
spared.tothe
themoralcontext
Scar,
Later,
towho
theintervention
Ethan
was
film’s
killed
repents
of
moral
the
by
of

family.
Martin, Ethantakes Debbie, whodoes not resist,home to her white
is
Although Edwards’ character seen by many today asa
commentary on racial hatred, he is more properly seen as well
within the tradition of the flawed gunfighter heroes. In fact, his
character is reminiscent of Anthony Mann’s revenge­driven
characters,suchasLin
brother.
community
UnlikeLin,
Inspite
in the
of
however,
hisanimalistic
modelin of
Winchester
EthanEdwards
Shane
hatred,
or’73who
Wyatt
Linremains
remains
EarpinMy
guns
isolated
downhis
thehero.
from
Darling
own
the

Clementine.Thisis thedoor
Searchersinwhich famouslyofemphasized
the familycabin
inthefinal
isshuton
scene
Edwards
ofThe
is
who remains
closing ofthedoor,
outside however,
and alone.What
important
comesalso:the
immediately
scenebeforethe
in which

Debbie isbrought home to her family for a joyous, if bittersweet,

reunion.

family,
family’s
Although
It
film.
wasObviously,
Edwards’
his
Debbie
reunification
she
obsession,
had
isEthan
clearlynot
initially
drive,and
and
Edwards
theresistedbeing
resistant
death
isfrontier
theman
ofto
thethe
know­how
vicious
who
returnedtoher
ideabythe
madethis
Comanche
that end
ledhappen.
to
of
white
Scar.
the

hatred of Indians was not enough to blot out his role

help
as
rapists
theofman
and
official
murderers.
whosaveda
law enforcement
young woman
officers,
andrid
of at
theleast
frontier,
one with
bandthe
of

and justiceare
rejection
Ethan’sultimate
of religious
dramatized in in
isolationas
matters, several
the
nature’s
person
ways,
instrument
of
including
Reverend
ofhis
vengeance
Clayton,
explicit

and everyone else, including their conventional ideas of morality.

it!
“Well,
hindered
Emphasizing
Reverend,
by the
hisstatus
ordinary
that tears
asaman
peopleFromnowon,
of apartand
the frontier,
as
youEdwards
one
stayout
whodeclares:
isonly
of this.

All of ya.I don’t want you with me. Idon’tneed youforwhat I got
to do.”

audiobook
novels
laborers.
popular
[67]ofromantic
amongfrontier
Theheroesof
According
recording to
novelistSir
of Scott’s
LouisL’amour,
A settlers,
Trailnovels
toWalter
including
thewere
West
inScott
his
regarded
(Bantam
cowboysandmale
introduction
wereasAudio),
particularly
models
to the
for

proper behavioron the frontier, L’amour claims, and he suggests

that the popularity of Scott’s novels were even influential in
lowering the incidence of violence against women on the frontier.
How Scott was regarded among the Victorians is represented in an
1871 speech by Rev.Charles F. Lee titled “Sir Walter Scott, the
ChristianManof
which
“describe
theyhealthy,
necessarily
manly,
Letters”inwhich
callChristian
forth,they
characters
Lee
tendto
claims
and in in
create
thattheadmiration
Scott’s
the reader
worka

qualities
for
disposition
Having
a badheart,
shownthat
should
to imitate
engender
but,onthe
mental
theadeeper
greatnessshould
virtues
contrary,
religious
which
thatthe
Scott
notbe
conviction.”
possessionof
glorifies
usedas (The
inacloak
them.
great
New

York
earliest
violence,
[68]Redemptive
Times,
human
such
August
as
myths.
humanity
28,1871)
violenceis
Itstates
being
athat
literary
created
creativegood
device
fromthe
thatdates
comes of a
bloodtothe
from

murdered god. The term was coined by Christian essayist Walter

Wink.
[69]“To dieis gain,”from Philippians, Chapter 1, in itself
genre’s
substantially
ethic. divides
It is repeatedly
theChristian
reiterated
moralethic
in Westerns thatthe
from deathis
Western
the

ultimate
[72]In
[71]Ibid.
[70]Douglas,
defeat. The FeminizationofAmerica Culture.

the Pilot of Hell on Wheels, the protagonist Cullen

Bohannon is asked if he believes in “a higher power.” His response:
“Yes sir, I wearit onmy hip.”
 X. The Gunfighter vs. The
People
Western’s
Few Westerns
dim view ofoffer
American
as starkaportrayaloftheclassical
bourgeoissocietyasFord’s
Two
Rode Together (1961). In it we see the developmentofmany of the
anti­bourgeois themes that permeate his films. The film is laden
with
businessmen,
stereotypical
and spiteful,
portrayals
gossiping
of gullible
women.Eastern settlers, cynical

some
track
corrupt
Widmark)
Thefilm
downabducted
attractive
andrecruitingGuthrie
jadedlawman,
benefitsfor
openswhites
with
but
himself.Atthe
living
McCabe
Army
heagreesto
among
officerJim
(James
theIndians.
settlers’
theStewart)
job afterhe
Gary(Richard
camp,
McCabe isa
tohelphim
McCabe
secures

is accostedbynumerous parentsstill lookingfortheir children who

had
finding
beenthechildren
abducted bythe
(nowComanches
adults) and
years
determining
earlier. Thechance
which ones
of

belong towhich parent is extremely low. The parents are desperate

and
paragon
pathetic.
ofmanly
Sheriff
virtueand
McCabe,courage
onthe next the self­important
otherto hand,shines as a
wife
businessman,
he needs isanywhite
Mr.Harry
male
J. he
Wringel,
can pass
who
offcynically
to his explains
as theirthatall
son.

Eventually, McCabe manages to bringback two captives from

white
and
the Comanche
nomale,a
longer teenage
speaks
camp: onewhite
English.
boy,now McCabe
male
thinks
andencourages
ofoneMexican
himself as
compassion
awoman.
Comanche
The
for

the young man, but the settlers can’t be botheredto do much other
ofthe
bythe
than
seeing
poorly
turns lock
out
thanhewasever
himas
tobe
himup.The
one
the brother
of their
bigotryof
treated
ofown,and
one thesettlers
Comanches.
the
female
settlerstreat
prevents
settlers,
The youngman
them
but
himbefore
more
from

his sister can figure this out, he kills one of his captors and is
lynched
captive, for
settlement
that Elenabyshould
ostracizethe
beingan
aviciousmob
have
Indian’s
killed
Mexican
ofsettlers.
concubine.
herself
womanElena,
rather
Later,the
Thethan
settler
submit
thewomen
other
to such
believe
former
of the
an
unseemly fate. In the end, McCabe lectures the townspeople on
their lack of tolerance, and he rides out of the settlement with Elena.
So ends another Western, with naïve, selfish, and hypocritical
townsfolkbeing
man, orsome other
showngunfighter
the virtuous
whopathcan
by rise
thesheriff,
above themilitary
the insipid

Westerns
Cheyenne
pessimisticfilm
prejudices Autumn,
selflessly and,
serving.
and dysfunctional
like
thanhis
Two
Two
TheRode
Rode
Man
earlierefforts.
bourgeoisways
Togetherisamore
Togetheris of the
Who ShotYetthe
Liberty
one melancholy
ofanti­bourgeois
Valance
people
Ford’sheis
and
last

attitude isvery much inline with the Westerns ofthe 1950s. The
settler­gunfighter dynamicin Two Rode Togetheris extremely
similar
where
own professed
thegunfighter
tothatfound
values.
in TwoTin
educates
The Rode
the
Star
settlerson
Together
(1957)and
howtoabide
manages to by
High Noon posit
(1952)
theira

scathing critiqueof Eastern bourgeois society while setting the

he
civilizing
gunfighter
is nonethelessmorecivilized
the
inafrontier.
positionof moralthanthe
ascendancy.
hypocrites
In hiswhoclaim
primitivestate
tobe

The relationship between the gunfighter and the townspeople

in George Stevens’ Shaneismore subtle.In this case, the gunfighter
is merely
Althoughthe
Ryker, thelocal
contrastedwith
townspeople
oppressive
thepeople
would
cattle ideally
baron,
ratherthe
like
thanpitted
townspeoplelack
toridthemselves
againstthem.
the
of

knowledge, courage, and driveto do so. Farmer JoeStarrett does

magnitudeofthe
have the courage,but threatpresented
only because he doesn’t understandthe
by Ryker’s gunmen. When
dispense
Starrett tries
incapacitates to
justice
him,
defendthetown
himself.
presumably
Shane
forhis
himself,
hereown
exemplifies
Shane
good, beatshimup
sothat
the wandering
Shane and
can

gunfighter
frontier
is a relicofan
whomakes
archetype
earliercivilizationpossible.
andserves
age, but intheend,
asa sortofcivilization
Shane
deusex
explicitly
machina
isnot states
possible
ofthe
he

without the rootless wanderer who intervenes unasked and makes

Clementine.While
the
however,
townsafefor
The ending
Shane leaves
civilization.
ofShane
Wyatt
the town
harkens
Earpleaves
because
back he
Tombstone
toFord’s
simply doesn’t
My
voluntarily,
Darling
fitin
there and cannot stay. He can’t settle anywhere. He must travel
from place to place, perhaps making civilization possible for other
towns. He has nothing in common with the townsfolk who owe him
everything,
similar
not properly
Therelationships
wagon
but
appreciative
who
train
forthe
between
sub­genre
ofShane’s ofrole.
mostpart
gunfighter
don’t
the and
Western
realize
settler.
itand
often
In likelyare
Anthony
features

Mann’s
by the wagontrain
Bendofthememberstoactas
River (1952), Glyntrail
McLyntock
guide from
has been hired
Missouri to
from
Oregon.
a timehe
McLyntock,
wasnearly
however,
hanged
carefullyhidesa scar on outlaw
during his daysasan his neck
in

Bleeding Kansas.[73] Hehopes to be accepted asamember of the

plainly
will
train
communitysome
be
arenotas
seethat
expelledMcLyntockison
perceptive,and
from
day, the
but community.
knowsthelevel,the
the
thatprejudice
ifAlthough
hispast
peopleof
and
the
isdiscovered,
intolerance
audience
the wagon
can
for
he

“bad apples,” as the film puts it, isamajor plot devicein the film.
precisely
McLyntock,nevertheless
The
community
hopeful,
villainofthe
however.
because
like thatof
he
Even
film,Emerson
despairs
aftermanytrials
the
decides
of
wagon
being
to
Cole,who
returnto
train.McLyntock
acceptedinto
in which
is alife
very
heanrepeatedly
similarto
ofordinary
remains
crime

wagon
one
proves
of them.
train,
his loyalty
stilldoubts
Onlyafter
to theMcLyntock
that
wagontrain,
McLyntock
finally
Jeremy,
cankills
really
Cole
thebeleaderofthe
does
trusted
Jeremy
tobe

decide
InHenryHathaway’s
that McLyntock isn’tTrueGrit
a bad apple
(1969),the
afterall. semi­comedic tone
for
of the filmdidnot,
honorable
settled
Cogburn
negatethe
society.
[played
rugged by to
according
sincerity
Instead
individual
ofJohn
Lenihan,
the
of Wayne]
andan
thanking
contrastunappreciative,
between
[protagonist]
capturing
this

notorious
questions
than bringing
his
outlaws,
beingtoo
themtotrial.
the
quick The courtrighteously
town
tokillhisquarry
same societyrather
that

condemns
film
celebration.
turning
Cogburn’s
a public hangingis seen
violentways into early
a festive
inthe
 Here we find themes similar to those developed in Two Rode
Together. Namely, judgmental, incompetent settlers fail to
understand the more virtuous way of the gun, yet still manage to
trying
find macabre
InBendofthe
tosavethe
and hypocritical
lives
Riverand
of the
joyin
TrueGrit,thehero,
members
hangings.
of the wagon
whoisclearly
train or

settlement,
sometimes derision,
is nevertheless
until he finallyproves
regarded withhimself
suspicion,
throughawide
and even

variety
of
clearly
generosityand
of
virtuous
harrowing
outsider
openness
trials.
into
The
tothe
their
reluctance
community
gunfighter
of thepeople to accept
illustratestheir
whose skills have
lacka

made thesafetyof the community possible.

frees
townsfolkfrom
Man Sometimesthe
From
anentire
Laramie,
oppressorsby
towngun­slinging
protagonistWill
from anpursuing
overbearing
outsider
aLockhart
personal
saves
cattle(JamesStewart)
vendetta.
theunreceptive
baronand In The
his

criminal
motivatedby
son.Whilethis
a selfishdesire
is ultimatelyapublic
tofind themanwhoservice,
isselling
Lockhart’sis
rifles to
the Apaches. the
detachment.
dusty
is
investigating
thea U.S.Cavalry,
personal
Thefilm
townofmatter
thesale
begins
Coronado.
was
forhim
ofrepeating
with
killedin
since
Lockhart
Wefind
a hisyounger
riflestotheApaches
recent
entering
Apacheraid
out brother,amember
quickly
vicinity
on
and
that
aCavalry
thatthis
ofthe
heis of

irresponsible
Lockhartsonof
soon runs afoul of Dave Waggoman, the
local cattle baron Alec Waggoman. The father
repeatedly
“one­man”
and son, and
attempt
town,
most
hetoeveryoneelse
isget
informed,
him toleave
and
Lockhart
everything
town encounters
permanently.
“withinintown,
a Itthree­
is a

Apaches.
foreman
Lockhart Vic
days’ ride”belongs
learnsthat
Hansbroare
Dave
to Waggoman.
indeed
Waggoman
selling
Asthe
and
repeating
Waggoman’sranch
mystery
riflesunfolds,
tothe

Accordingtothe film, this is insidious on several levels. Not

rifles did
only
brother topossible,but
Apaches
the saleof
will
Lockhart
such
makerifles
makesit
a general
makeclear
the
Indian
that
killing
continued
uprising
of Lockhart’s
possible,
sales of
leading to the destruction of Coronado and the surrounding white
settlements.
When confronted with the fact that women and children would
die
motivatedprimarily
in suchan uprising, Dave Waggoman, beinga capitalist
by greed, declares, “they aren’t mine.”
Although he is unaware ofthesale ofthe guns, the film implicates
Alex Waggoman as a collaborator with the Indians. As an
the
land
illustration
rather
filmreveals
asthanthemore
partofofWaggoman’s
“thedeal.”
that important
Waggoman
Waggoman
concernwith
business the to theIndians,
allows evenchallenges
ofsubjugating
petty
Indians
mattersofbusiness
hunt
the onhis
film’s

assumed innocenceofthe U.S. Cavalry bydeclaring that in the

battle
know
shot first,
Lockhart,
whoshot
between
tellingLockhart’s
unlike
first,
Waggoman, “I Lockhartdoes
doWaggoman,
you?”
brother’sunit
knowtheU.S.
andunlike
andthe
Cavalry.”
ofcourse
the
Apaches,
people
knowofwho
“Idon’t
the

is As
town,
land.
to.”
military
former
The
Ashe
Hestates,
iscavalry
man,
not
audienceeventually
gets
motivated
heis
“I’veneverowned
closerto
officer
motivated
and
by
solvingthemystery,
the
not
by
findsout
bourgeois
higher
just
anya ideals.
land,and
mere
thatLockhart
concernsof
private
anIndian
I’venever
citizen.
money
who
infact
wanted
works
anda

for Waggoman
murder, and Lockhart
asaclerk
is lockedupby
atthe mercantileframes
the useless sheriffwho
Lockhartfor
clearly

does little more than the Waggomans’ bidding. Kate Canady, a

Canady,
small­time
Lockhart
cripple
After
her
however,
any
Lockhart’s
competition,
rancher
concretehelp,
admits
who
meddling
Waggoman’s
sheis
isthe
eventuallybails
primarily
beginsto
only ranch.
person
motivated
endanger
in
outtown
Lockhart.
by
theher
who
transfer
desire to
offers
Even

of
rifles to the Indians, Vic Hansbro killsDave Waggomanin self­
defense
and
forces
almost
theelder
afterWaggoman
everyone
Waggoman
elsehe
begins
over
knows.
wildly
a cliff
Later,
threatening
in an
Hansbro
effort
tokillHansbro
to
accidentally
cover up

him
then
Davetopushthe
Attheclimax,
runs
Waggoman’s
Hansbro
wagon
killing
Lockhart
off ofrepeating
unarmed,
andgetsthe
the sale
andrifles
of
drop
Hansbro
therifles.
offofacliff.
on Hansbro
issubject
andforces
Lockhart
tothe
typical fate reserved for men who dare do business with the enemy:
He is killed by the same treacherous Indians whom he had
attempted to furnish with weapons.
owe
tried Lockhartmuch.
Although
torid themselves
they remain
Lockhart,
of him,
blissfully
after
the people
all,
unaware
sparedthe
of thetownof
of the truth,Coronado
andhad

town the misrule

of petty tyrant Dave Waggoman. He alsospared them death at the
settlers
(1950)
handsWhile
minded
model of
among
capitalists
and
the
gunfighters
townsfolk,
The
Indians
classical
lookingoutonly
Magnificent
who
oftenface
we
Westerns:
would
mustSeven
foolish,
considertwo
have
forJohnFord’s
themselves.
(1960),
beenarmed
clannish
exceptions
directed
Wagon
and
byparochial­
judgmental
byMaster
tothis
John

Sturges.
intervene
The for
Magnificent
the sake ofavillage,
Seven features
but in this
freelance
case, their
gunmen
assistance
whois

solicited
contrast
resisting
fact that to
and
an
themany
invading
financed
Westerns
group
bythevillagers
of
featuring
villains.The
themselves.
lonesheriffs
contrastis
Thefilm
or foundinthe
gunfighters
offers a

villagers are actively seeking the assistance of the

gunfighters and are in charge of the situation. The villagers are in a
business
albeit
gunfighters
initiate thereis
and are element
relationship
take
whoaction
an workingfor
withthegunfighters
to protect
of themselves
selflessnesson
low pay.and
Itisthe
froma
aretheir
the
ruthless
villagerswho
part
employers,
band
of the
of

of
outlaws.
gunfighters,attacking
and
Westerns
who
the
village
gunfightercan
clubs.
InWagon
mustdealwith
fullof
Atthe
isnoticeably
This
cowards.
Master,
sort
climax,the
more
the
ofrare,
theircriminal
prejudices
mobviolence
easily
theand
wagontrain,
villagers
be
reasonably
accentuated
ofthe
oppressors
againstvillains
even
non­Mormons
composedofMormons
so,joinforces
when
since
withtheheroism
compared
chairs,
inclassical
throughout
withaxes
tothea

the frontier,hiretwo horsemen as guidesand security. The two menIt

eventually
from
of theWagon
attacksby
Cleggfamily.
prove
Master
a murderously
invaluable
is unlike any
incriminal
protecting
other post­war
gangthe
composed
wagontrain
Ford Western.
of members
peopleis
relatively non­violent, features peaceful interactions between white
men and Indians, and focuses more on the wagon train’s physical
obstacles in the frontier than with the problem of criminal elements.
Pioneers.
There
laborers
composed
ismorethan
than
The
largely
hired
professional
ofoptimistic
onedance
gunmen gunfighters,
inthe
folk
sequence,
songs
film sung
and
are
andthe
portrayed
by
thethe
soundtrackis
wagon
Sons
more
oftrain
the
as

members
generallysavvy.
Inother
themselves
words, are
Wagon
portrayed
Master
as being
departs from the classical
polite,accepting, and

ina
emphasis
Western on family
number
andofcommunitylife,
ways.Inits lack
it resemblesFord’s
ofviolence andpre­
its

style
war silentfilms. isin
andcontentIndeed,numerous criticsnotethat the filmin both
many ways a throwback to Ford’s pre­war
style.[74] Westerns
classical The factthat
of the
Wagon
post­war
Masteris
periodsohelps
different
illustrate
fromthe
the

the
life
Westerns
oriented
changes
as
post­war
Wagon
competent
silent
thattook
of Master
the
period
Westerns
1940sand
and
place
and
intheir
courageous,
The
ofthe
fromthe
50s.
Magnificent
portrayals
1920s
and
relatively
tothemoreviolent
asbeing
ofSeven
civilian
optimistic
at
areleastas
both
and and
unusualfor
community
and
important
family­
bleak

settlers
as gunfightersin
stand outfrom
are craven,
athepreservation
crowded
ungrateful,
fieldof
and
and classical
settling
incapable
ofthe
westernsin
of frontier.They
self­defense.
which

Whether it’sthe parochial andgreedy settlers of Two Rode Together

or the selfish townsfolk ofHigh Noon, the common folk of the
classical
services provided
Westernsby arerarely
sheriffs and deserving
cavalrymenofthe
andlonemagnanimous
gunfighters,

yet
West.
presumably
it is thesetheprogenitors
cowards andfools
of modernAmerican
of the villagesandtowns
societywho
inthe
are

[73] “Bleeding Kansas” was the name given to a period of civil

in
unrest,
prior
that
whereWilliam
totheU.S.
he“killed
lawlessness
Munny
women
Civil
andWar.
was
guerilla
andaguerilla
InUnforgiven
children.”
warfareinthe
fighter
(1992),itis
Kansas
Bleeding
Territoryjust
alsoimplied
Kansas
 [74] Bruce Eder: http://movies.msn.com/movies/movie­critic­
reviews/wagon­master/ and Glenn Erickson:
http://www.dvdtalk.com/dvdsavant/s3011wago.html
 XI. The Transformation of the
Western
By the mid­1960s the Western had changed. The old view of
the settlement of the frontier as triumphantprogressinthe face of
savagery had broken down. While the Westernwasnever static as a
genre, big­budget Westerns of the 1940s and 50s had generally
followed
the tradition
reliable
of classical
formulasthatwe
Westerns. now easily recognize as partof

PartIn
careers.
dominatingWesterns
Autumn. Howard
of 1964,JohnFord
thereason
Hawks
fortwo
forcontinuedto
thedecadeswere
releasedhis
change was
make
the
last
reaching
Westerns
factthatthe
Western,
the endoftheir
until
Cheyenne
directors
1971,

although
identical traditional
both Westerns
Western
produced
plot formulas.Anthony
after 1959’s Rio Bravo followed
Mann directed
evolution
no Westerns
Everyscholar
fromits
after 1958.
classical
of theWestern
form to the
hasdarker
a theoryabout
and more the
ambivalent
genre’s

prove
violence,
revisionist
tobe
andfar
form.
morepessimistic,
The
less likelytoportray
Westerns of
more
the thefrontier
graphicin
post­classical
as
portrayals
age
a place
would
of

rejuvenation.
Vietnam duringthe
suffered War Aand
common
thecrisis
1960sexplanation
and70s
of legitimacy
for this
thatchangeis
theUnitedthat
States
the

fueled a breakdown in the

traditional
of Kennedy,the
mythology
Ageofofthe
Aquarius,
West. or
Perhaps
Watergate,
itwasbut
theone
assassination
thing was

clear: the image of the American gunfighter as harbinger of

once
novel,
fiction
civilization
Itheld.
TheVirginian,
apartfromthe
hadbeen
inawild
sixland
decades
had
dime
noredefined
longer
novelsof
sincehadthesame
thethenineteenth
Westernas
first full­length
moral
serious
century
authorityit
Western
adult
and

spawnedtheclassic
decline, anew erafor
Western
the no
genre.
longer
Regardless
seemed to
ofthecause
have muchto
forsay
its

that theAmerican audiencewished to hear. Consequently, the new

directors who came onthescene began to rework the Western in
new and inventive ways. By 1965, Sergio Leone and Sam
Peckinpah had created new Westerns with much different visions
that lacked the triumphant militarism of the traditional Westerns.
XII. The Rise and Decline of the
State in the Western
When comparing the classic Westerns with the late Westerns,
what becomes most immediately obvious isthe declineinthe
prestige of government institutions. The fact thatlate Westernshave
a largely negative view of the nation­state is not in dispute, although
the causes
further thanforthis
the portrayal
are debated.To
of gunfighters
see this,we
as lawmen
needin notlook
Westerns.much

In the classical Western, the gunfighteris most frequently a

of
governmentagent
and
above,
local
almost
sheriffs
allofwereall
somekind.
Johnpopular
Ford’s
Cavalryofficers,
gunfighter
post­war Westerns
heroes.
federal As
marshals,
feature
noted

government agents as the protagonists. There are only three

exceptions: Wagon Master, TheMan WhoShotLiberty Valance,
treatment
progress,
In
support
andThe
the American
The
Thiscooperation
Searchers,
rolein
Searchers.
although
offormer is
theelimination
nation­state
the
however,
WagonMaster
Confederates
state
particularly
itself
explicitly
government
of the
is largely
andLiberty
Comanche
throughout
interesting
as agentsplay
the
absent
inevitable
Scar.
Valanceapproach
inlightof
his
from
films.
animportant
the
resultof
screen.
Ford’s

nationalism
is
reunification
common tofindascene
comes
betweenNorthand
throughin
inwhicha
hisrepeated
South.
Confederateveteran
In hiscavalry
return to the who has
Westerns,it
theme of

joined
other soldiers,all
theU.S. Cavalry
Northerners,
following
gather
the war
around
iskilled
to commemorate
byIndians. The
the

Confederate’s
The pointofcourse
passingasthe
is to showsoundtrack
thevalorin
playsafewbars
Southerners fightingfor
of Dixie.

the
with
on the
whenUnion
AnthonyMann
Northerner
Linhelpsagroup
frontier.
andto joining
illustratetherise
employs
ofUnion
Southerner
asimilar
cavalry
ofinthefight
Americanunity
device
soldiersagainst
in
fendoff
Winchester
sincethewar,
thesavages
a band’73
of

me
Indians.
at Bull
TheRun.”
commanding
Lin responds
officer
thatdeclares
he had been
“Iwish
at Bull
I hadyouwith
Run, but on
the Confederate side. The two former enemies shake hands and
bond over a pile of nearby Indian corpses. In Ambush at Cimarron
Pass (1958), which included an early starring role for Clint
are
in
be
Indians.
Eastwood,
soldiers
the
defeated.
Inaddition
classical
Former
on embitteredformer
theWestern
divisions
post­war
to delivering
sowithin
frontier
that Confederates
messages
a the
common
inorder
nation­state
about
enemy,
toreconcile
confrontthe
national
itself
the Indians,
with
unity,
puthostile
Union
aside
may
the

is to
violence
classical Western
employedoften
by goestogreat
the gunfighterpains sanctioned
ensurethatthe
by the

community
is a scene inwhich
at large.An often­seen exchange in classical Westerns
the good guys are all deputized by the sheriff or
the
status
marshal
forallthe
right heroes
beforethe
involved
finalshowdown.
naturally supplies
Thischange
legitimacy
inlegal
and

legal immunity to the gunfighters as they prepare to gun down their

enemies. Howard Hawks’s to Rio Bravo andElDorado are
of
particularlynotable
legitimate
a band and
ranchers and
scrappy
outlaws
illegitimate
allies
forbeyond
thecareful
power.
defend
the edge
In
attentiontheypay
the
both
oftown
town.
films,
against
The
the close­knit
sheriff
totheissue
thevillainous
collects
band
of

of
various
however, thecombs
deputies
townsfolkinthe
sheriffthe
andhis
town
process.
foroutlaws
deputiesare
Whenitcomes
and
isolated
enjoysthesupport
tobythe
their
showdown,
elevated
of

status as professional lawmen, and they must protect themselves

confers
until
on
far select
off
Sheriff
additionalofficial
federal
themen
approval
John
installations.
by Chance
thesheriff
of theentire
law(John
enforcement
Thispower
himself,
community.
Wayne),
who,we
oflegitimacy
personnel
whose are
benevolent
canarrive
shown,
is conferred
from
also
rule

maintains peacein thecow town ofRio Bravo, Texas, dominates

an in aChance
murdering
the
turnsstoryline
outtobeofunarmed
JoeRioBravo
Burdette,
bystander
the
(1959).
brother of
saloon.The
wealthy
arrestsa
rancher
arrested
manfor
Nathan
man

work theBurdette
Burdette.
siege
for
Burdette
trial.
totheand
Following
Realizingthat
towninorder
his men,
hisbrother’s
Chance
heneedshelp
toprevent
setsarrest,the
toChance
to organizinga
defend
powerful
fromhandingtown
posse
overJoe
from
lays
and
enlisting help from townspeople.
Rio Bravo is often described as a response to High Noon in
which the townspeople refused to help the marshal defend the town.
Rio Bravopresents a scenario inwhichthe townspeople are
generally
Chance’s
defense offorce
helpful,
the town
of characterandhis
although
possible.thefilm
Learning
statusas
isnoless
that Chance
sheriff
authoritarian.
isthat Itis
attempting
makesthe
to

put together a defense force, the benevolent merchant Wheeler

to
starts
use
to put
this
spreadingthe
astoptothis,
informationnewsthat
however,
their advantage.
Chanceseeks
notingthatThis
theassistance.
wrong
isthe frontier
elements
Chance
version
might
tries

of loose lips sinking ships, and theaudience learns that Chance’s

Stumpy,
efforts
Chance
arerecovering
bestprotected
deputizesa
drunkbyDude,
rag­tag
maintenance
andayoung
groupof composed
state
gunslinger,
secrecy.
ofColorado.
sidekick

overcome
Chance makes
his alcoholism.
Dude’s contribution
Chance also
possible
attemptsto
by helping
deputize
him

own
Colorado
business”
who initially
is what refusesto help, atclaiming
he’sbetter thangunfighting.
that “minding
After
my
his
come
helps
Chance’s
Colorado’searlier
Burdette’s
tothe
Chance
group
men
town’s
killmurder
someof
but
lackof
defense.
isangrily
Burdette’s
civic­mindedness.
Chanceand
employer,
turned
menishefinally
Colorado
his away
group
Onlyfinally
attempts
byafter
Chance
allowedto
neutralize
Colorado
to join
for

Burdette and his private gang, and this allows the federal
unilateral
consequenceinRio
government
Meanwhile,
choices
to arrive
there
at will.
and
Bravo.
appears
The
takeJoe
Chance
enemy,
tobe
Burdette
no
predictably,
has
civilian
totalauthority
away government
tostand
is arancher
trial.
tomake
ofany
using

unimpeachableconduct
his
who
Chance,
position
wealth
arenot
ofturn
to
theunleash
onlyhelpful,
lawman
High murderous
Noonon
atand
the
buttop
the
also
itshead
cowhands
of
behavior
the
knowtown’s
without
theirplace
upon
ofseveraltownspeople
hierarchy.
thechallenging
town.
in relation
Chance’s
the
to

Hawksmade two more films very similarin plot and structure

to Rio Bravo,withEl Dorado (1967) andRio Lobo (1971). Evenin
the
andsecond
Leone were
halfofthe60s
already challenging
andduringthe
theearly
conventions
70s when
of the
Peckinpah
classical
Western, Hawks was sticking to the tried and true classical formula.
Rio Lobo and El Dorado relied on the same overall messages of law
and authority, and John Lenihan notes that Rio Bravo and the two
professionalism
stands
remakes
with little
with
assume
directreliance
hisprofessional
inafrontier
wielding
uponwhere
colleagues
agun.
the larger
“lawand
Thehero
society.”[75]
between
order
oforder
Hawks’s
depends
and chaos,
films
upon

Gunfighters might also receive legitimacy through public

corrupt
the
acclamation.InTheFar
public
sheriff
demands
fromthat
the JeffWebster(James
Country
neighboring
(1954),it
town is
(he’s
Stewart)
significant
alliedconfrontthe
withsome
that when

villainous business interests), itis not suggested that Webster

compare
confront
may
election
he pursuea
asthetown’s
the
private,
sheriffasaprivate
showdown.
selfish
legitimate
interests
Thecitizen.
film
law
(such
enforcement
uses
First,
as tending
thisasan
hemust
chief.
toopportunity
acceptpublic
one’s
Only
private
then
to

in
property),
belabored
accepts
first,
claim.
bad
office.
things
Websteris
Themoral
responsibility
with
happen
repeatedly
serving
inclinedto
because
repugnance
asthe
a the
public
common
goodmenaren’t
mind
film
of servant,sending
such
hisown
goodasagovernment
untilJeff
a self­interested
willing
business
finally
the
to runfor
and
messagethat
recantsand
position
agent.
workhis
public
At
is

is
goodWhilepublic
guy,it’s necessary
acclamation
tokeep good
a tight
when lid
the on
sheriff­to­be
power whenis a

undesirables
takes
killed
quite
sheriff
(Henry
Anthony
convinced
chargeonly
infrom
Fonda)
the
Perkins
line
mightend
timethathecoulddo
ofduty.The
playsBen
totime.
afterhisfather,
up inFortunately
power.In
Owens,an
town
a better
agitator,
theMann’s
forOwens,
previous
jobas
inexperienced
Bart
The
sheriff,
Bogardus,
sheriff,
Tin
Morgtorments
Star
sheriffwho
hasbeen
Hickman
(1957),
whois
the

rides into town, reveals that he is a former sheriff

with
himself, and agrees toteach Owenshowto deal agitators like
Bogardus. Owens learns from Hickman that “if the Sheriff doesn’t
crack down on the first man whodisobeys him, his posse turns into
a mob.” from
inciting
Mobruleis
the townspeople
a bigproblemto for
rebel.
Owens
MuchsinceBogardus
of this stems
isalways
Bogardus’s militant racism, which is exposed when he refuses to be
disarmed after shooting a half­breed Indian: “No sheriff’s gonna
disarm no white man for shootin’ a mangy Indian. What are ya, an
Injun
hands
to bully
retain
lover?”The
ofwhoever
them.
control
If of
Bogardus,
ismost
the
townspeople
mob,
adeptat
the
then
racist
inThe
chaos
bullying
small
will
TinStar
businessman,
them.So
reign; are
butOwenslearns
ifthe
puttyin
is allowed
sheriff
the

takes charge and“cracks down” onthosewho disobey him, order

mob
will berestored.
town justice
as theyisattemptto
avoided,
Thesheriff
and
lynchhisprisoners.
goodness
eventually
prevails.
hasto
Bogardus
face downhis
isreinedown
in,

narrow
are
High
however,
ignorant
those
Lenihan
Noon,
with
and
goes
where
whichalso
afast
has
cowardly
a the
step
pointed
draw
sheriff
furtherin
featuresa
people
out
anda
keeps
that
saying
ofbig
the
The
sheriffwho
hisown
shotgun.Outlaws
citizenry
that
Tin the
Star
town.The
on
best
must
draws
thestraight
frontier
confront
heavily
aren’t
Tintowns
Star
and
the
on

the
problem.
policeSuch
state
It’s
depictions
willkeep
theentire
themob
of populationthat’s
abenevolent
in line. order
thesecured
problem,
byand
the onlya
quick

draw ofthe gunfighter wouldgrow increasingly rare as the 1960s

progressed.Aswith
of
benevolence
but the
in the
traditional
endand
they
compassion.
Western
always
Morg Hickman
chose
eventually
They
to defend
might
inThe
provides
show
the
Tin community
Star,the
reluctance
his serviceswith
gunfighter
in
atfirst,
need,

sometimeseven
TheWesterns
at potentially
of Peckinpah,
great costtoself.
Leone, and Eastwood,
on the
other
will.
Eastwood
loner Leone’s
hand,
whoonlyfor
infeature
three
stockof
gunfighters
very whoManwith
character,The
Leone’sfilms,
brief moments
held
isaexpresses
thoroughly
nosuchfeelings
No Name,
much
self­interested
interest
playedby
of good
in

actively
anything
Peckinpah’s
menacing.
other thanprivate
Major Dundee
profit.Peckinpah’s
(1965),for example,
protagonists
isa cavalry
canbe

film where the cavalry isled bya nearly­mad Union commander.

The commander, Amos Dundee(Charlton Heston), commonly
in
with
abuses
thehis
occupying
own men,invades
French forces,
Mexico
andpartakes
againstorders,
not picks
one, but
a fight
two
bloodbaths as the film draws to a close. In Pat Garrett and Billy the
Kid (1973), Pat (James Coburn), newly appointed sheriff, betrays
his old friend Billy (Kris Kristofferson) and guns him down as a
in
service
cavalryman
controlled
Westerns,totheNew
are
bya
and
suddenly
the
corporate­crony
sheriff,
Mexico
murderoustraditionally
territorial
villains
regime.In
sowingdiscord
government,
heroic
bothcharacters
cases,the
which
wherever
is

agents
they go.
SergioLeone’s Westerns In
asprominent characters. seldomfeature
general, such agentsin
any government
Leone’s

Westerns
the
Union
West(1968)
soldiers
are either
in and
irrelevant
TheGood,or corrupt
The Bad,and
asinOnce
The
Upona
Ugly Time
(1966).
in

The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly are particularly

with
violent,
monstrous,
a conscience
andandthe
corrupt
canonly
federalsoldiers
peopleon
manage
thefrontier.
to
proveto
face the
The
be
absurdity
one
themost
Union
ofit
snarling,
soldier
all by

Taking
maintaining
film’s profoundly
placeaagainstthe
perpetual
critical
state
backdrop
view
of drunkenness.
ofthe
ofthe New
nation­state
Thisisall part of the
Mexico theatre
inwartime.

American Civil War, the film portrays thewar as a pointless

finding
appears
even
sideshow
carnage
offersapuffon
buried
ofthewar
quite
tothegold
sane,and
much
that
onhis
more
surrounds
thefrontier.
cigartoa
even
interesting
charming,
them.
dying
The“Blondie”
and
greed
Confederate
reasonable
against
of (ClintEastwood)
theprotagonists
thesoldier
business
senseless
inofa

against
(1976),
poignant
Adecadelater,
thebrutality
drawing
scene displaying
upon
of
Clint
war.
theEastwood’s
many
the films
mercyown
about
ofThe
the
Jesse
OutlawJosey
outlaw
James,contrasted
featured
Wales

the exploits ofan unreconstructed Confederate guerrilla that heads

aof
West
guns
little
Johndowna
toescape
oldlady
Ford’s
detachment
position
the
anddisgraceful
her on
settler
ofthe
former
family
United
United
Confederates
fromKansas.
States
States cavalry.
Armywiththe
is clear.
The
Inthe
repudiation
end,he
help of

attempts
of officiallaw
In Unforgiven,
tobring
enforcement.
a Eastwood
guninthe town of
WhenEnglish
further expandsBob
on (Richard
the brutalHarris)
nature

Big Whiskey, the sheriff,

Little Bill (Gene Hackman), beats Bob withinaninch of his life and
confiscates the gun. The gun control measure, predictably, also fails
to prevent the bloodbath at the end of the film. This is a reversal of
the gun­control storyline found in the classical Western Winchester
’73
protagonist’s
willfully
in whichWyatt
submitandthe
gun while
Earp,
gun
heisintown.
sheriff
controlofmeasures
Dodge
In this
are
City,
case,
even
confiscates
shownto
gun owners
the
be

effective in preventing violence within the town. Wyatt Earp does

not
Unforgiventypifies
deliver
Thecontrastbetween
any vicious
thechange
beatings
law that
and
in thefilm.
takes
orderplaceasthe
in Winchester
Western
’73 and
genre
in

formto
moves fromits classical its revisionist form.In the earlier
era, willful
but violent submission
outlaws. Intogovernment
alater era,however,
authority isthe
assumed
brutality
for all
of
government
within
featured
Abuseofpower
therevisionist
crooked
agents isan
lawmen,
also
Westerns.
ever­presentthreat.
appears
such
While
tobe
portrayals
some
endemicclassical
were
amongrarely
Westerns
lawmena

commentary
alawman,
bad lawman
while was
onpower
in the
usuallysolved
itself.Ina
revisionistclassical
Westerns,
by theWestern,the
intervention
power itselfis
problemof
ofagood

what
makes abadmanbad.

[75]Lenihan, John.Showdown.
 XIII. The Persistence of
Traditional Elements
We cannot assume that negative portrayals of authoritarian
government in revisionistWesternsnecessarily meana
rehabilitation of the imageofbourgeoissocietyin these laterfilms.
The Outlaw Josey Wales is quite an exception in its magnanimous
view of
Josey as they
middle­class
build a homestead
Kansas settlers
in the who
wilderness.
form aclose bondwith

scenes
Peckinpah’sTheWild
conglomerate.
represent
Ananti­capitalist
establishthat
the law,”
The tyrannicaland
theytellus)
theoutlaws’
Bunch
and (1969)for
anti­bourgeois
are
primary
dishonorable
contrasted
example,whenthe
foesare
biasis
with
railroad
thethe
localrailroad
obvious
men
honorable
opening
(“We
in

killers ofthe Wild Bunch itself whoholdtoa code of outlawhonor.

resulting
Temperance
when
The railroad
itshiredgunmen
bloodbath
companymakesits
Leagueand
parade
open firemonstrous
the images
has wandered
on the
of bodiesof
Wild
natureallthemore
intothe
Bunch,
men,women,
crosshairs.
even thougha
clear
The
and

in
children
territorial
outlaws
Nameless,
abovethe
strewnabout
government
faceless
wicked
ofMain
business
New
railroad.
Streetserve
Mexico
interests
inPat
aretoGarrett
furtherelevatethe
collusion
and Billy
with the

Kidthemof
rid
the large
(1973). Kid becausehehas
rancherswho
The
Theshadowyarebusinesses
attemptingbecome
are
to consolidate
motivated
a thorntohave
their
in theside
power of
Garrett
in

the region.Garrett thinks he’s hisown man, but in the end, it’s
corporateAmerica.
revealed thathe hasnot
Aman escaped
withno name
the corrupting
appears ininfluence
Eastwood’s
of

High PlainsDrifter (1973) to avenge themurder of the late sheriff

who discovered thatthe corporation rulingthe town withan iron fist
is engaged inillegal mining activities. Naturally, the company will
Shane,
large
murdermining
pits
toprotect
small­time
interests
itsprofits.Pale
minersagainst
eventually
Rider (1985), to
resorting
large­scalealoose
miners
hiringremake
withthe
corrupt
of

marshals to force the small miners off their property.

 Sergio Leone appears often to be silent on this issue. While
there are groups of men who band together for the express purpose
of making money (as in Fistful of Dollars (1964) and For a Few
Dollars
criminalsand
More(1965)),
not as representatives
such gangsare
of business.
portrayed
Oneexception
as traditional
is

(1968)
Leone’sfeaturing
vehemently
Morton,
anti­corporate
the railroadOnce
baronwho
Upon awill
Timeinthe
stop at nothing
West

to
the
in
repeatedly
length
crush
additionto
filmprogresses,
about
anlooks
entrepreneur
hownothing
beinga
ataMorton
painting
whohas
personificationofcorporate
canprevent
serves
of gotten
asasymbolof
the Pacific
him
in therailroad’s
from
Ocean
Manifest
reaching
and
greed.He
way.As
Destiny
talks
all the
at

way
Morton
Westward
to suffers
the
expansion
Pacific.
fromarare
isInaparticularly
literally
bonedisease
disintegrating
baroque
sothat
fromtheinside
touchby
this symbolof
Leone,
out.

The role of religion is more varied intherevisionist Western

preachers
Christianity.
than intheclassical
view toward
andMost
religion.
fundamentalists
ofWestern. withinfeature
hisWesterns
Peckinpah
Some holdtothe
words
particular
crazed,
of vengeance
traditionally
isquite
Bible­thumping
down
onhostile
their
on

lips. The Temperance Union featured in The Wild Bunch, obviously

a symbolofbourgeois Christianity, isportrayed asinnocentbut is
nevertheless
(1962)
Armstrong
and as
Pat
aa rather
Garrett
venom­spitting
ridiculousgroup.
and Billy
Bible­thumper.
theKidRide
bothIn
theHigh
feature
Pat Garrett
actor R.G.
Country
and

Billy the
unarmedandshackled
Hogue (1970),
Kid, hecan
Hogue’sBilly
barely
friend,theReverend
inrestrain
the face.InThe
himself Joshua
from
Balladof is a
shootingan
Sloan,Cable

womanizer and con manwho spends his evenings seducing married

women.
or
suggests
forcesClint
thethat the hero ishis
elementsintotwoof
townspeople
Eastwood, ontheother
tosomekind
literally
Westerns.paint
of HighPlains
ghost
hand,places
the town
avenging
red
Drifter
and He
supernatural
angel.
renames
(1973)

was with
the
girl
(Eastwood),
on him
town“Hell”
readsScripture:
Death,
ashebefore
iscalled
and
“And
Hell
burningittotheground.
beholda
in
followed
Palepalehorse:
Rider, him.”[76]
appearsinthe
andhis
The“Preacher”
Itname
issuggested
filmasa
that sat
that the Preacher, perhaps murdered by the same men who do the
mining company’s dirty work, has returned from the dead to even
the score. The Preacher wears a collar, hence his name, but trades in
man’s
references
intentions
his collar to aChristianity,
fiancée.
for
remain gunbeforethe
ThePreacher’s
quite vague.
although
showdown.
presence
the Preacher’s
Healso
providesseduces
origins
someoblique
another
and his

Indeed, only in Leone’s workdo we find any unambiguously

Wallach)
positive
war. InTheGood,
portrayals
stumble of
upona
the
Christianity,
Bad,andthe
Franciscan
couchedasa
Ugly,Blondie
monastery
commentary
where
and Tuco(Eli
theagainst
friars

care for the casualties ofthe war. The head friar makes his contempt
for
of the war
colorof
knownand
theuniform
notes thattheywear.Later,
theycare forthe dying
Tuco’s
regardless
lapsed

Catholicism
monk and whoandishis
portrayed verywith
encounter his brother, who
sympathetically, are shown
has become
to be a

source ofconsiderable unease and possible regretfor Tuco.

the
be
building
manage to
disappeared.
dominated
representativesofthe
agunfighter,
While
mistake
blocks
make
the
occasional
The
toof
Westerns
and
their
conclude
centralactionof
thethe
wayinto
Western
genre.
references
gunfighter
attheNor
mid­century
asdescribed
some
standard
canwesay
the
toattains
ofthe
Western
God by
contempt
had
later
his
and
that itposition
JaneTompkinshave
still
evaporated
Westerns,
dominant
the
for
the
revolves
religion
fundamental
supernatural
in
around
would
later
that

through a superior commandof the primitive landscape where

intellectualand
unchanged,
importance.
In this although
respect,
Essentially,
economic
Sam
the context
Peckinpah’s
considerations
thegunfighter’s
has shifted
Westerns
are
considerably.
ofarevery
behavior
extremely
traditional,
remains
limited

although
violence
generally onfilm
(indeed hisfilms
hisdarkvision
drivenby
overall)
were
verynovel
ofviolent
rarely
the for
West
feature
men
histime.
andhis
who,
women,
inventive
Peckinpah’sWesterns
whileand
vicious,
portrayals
theaction is
can be
of

need
quite sympathetic.The
example,aremen
ofreligionor
of women
actionand
gunfighters
oreven
self­sufficient
as showninthe
civilization.In
rogues
Wild
whohaveno
Peckinpah’s
Bunch, for

films, thegunfighter is destroyedonly when civilization catches up

with him, and the West is conquered by the modern world.
In The Ballad of Cable Hogue (1970), Hogue is killed when an
automobile, one of the first he has ever seen, rolls over him and
crushes him. The message against modernityishard to miss.[77]
unconventional
(The Ballad of Western,
Cable which
Hogue,
exalts
however,
Hogue asremainsa
an entrepreneur
very

who usescunning rather than violence to protect his business

interests.)
from Peckinpah, we findin
preoccupationwithmasculinity
The judgment
sinceagainst and
modernity
violencein
hiswork
iswhat
a primitive
wewouldexpect
asignificant
world, a

in
preoccupation that giveshis films much common with the
Westerns of Mann, Hawks,and Ford.

[76] Apocalypse/Revelation 6:8. This sameverse is also used

in Tombstone(1993)to
[77]TheBalladofherald
Cablethearrivalof
Hogueis arguably
Wyatt Earp.
not a Western at

all, andhasmuchin common withthe Little House on the Prairie

series initstreatment ofwork, violence and domestic life.
 XIV. Deadwood, Spontaneous
Order, and Progress
Though Westerns havenotdominatedpopular culture inthe20
years since the releaseofEastwood’s revisionist Unforgivenin
1992, numerous Western televisionseries andfeature filmscontinue
to be made. Hell on Wheels (2011) and the Kevin Costner vehicle
contributions.
Open Range Perhaps
(2003) one
areof relatively
the most popular,
high­budget
critically­acclaimed,
and notable

Deadwood,according
human
the
and
Deadwood
namegroundbreaking
In
series’
that
a detailed
once
(2004–2006),
highly
flourished in
societiescanariseindependent
examination
Westerns
sympathetic
toCantor,
featuringthe
theof
Dakota
the
this
takes
view
series,
period
Territory.
ofthe
miningtown
the
ofspontaneous
Paul
position
wasthe theof
intervention
Cantor
thatordered
of
HBOidentifies
order.
series
same
any

extremely
established
together by unusual
law­enforcement
economicposition
self­interest.[78]
entity,and
fora Western
Aswehave
thatthose
totake.
societies
seen, thisisan
Classical
areheld

way
true
cavalryman,
Westerns
civilization.
orderoverwhelminglytake
is sheriff,
finally only
orgunman
established
theopposite
whowiththe
can
view
pave
intervention
and the
maintainof
that
fora

of
appreciate
the
InDeadwood,
self­interest
that peace
ofminersandmerchants
onthe
anda
other functioningeconomic
hand, orderarisesimmediately
who seeksystem
riches and
out
are

essential for prosperity.

Intheseries, Al Swearengen (Ian McShane), the ownerof the
Deadwood.
The
to maintain
Gem,alocal
asmuch
Swearengen,
peace
saloonandbrothel,
while
and order
calculating
in thedominates
andbrutal,
town as possible
thetown
is motivated
for the
of

sake ofbusiness.He is also motivated to avoid interference from the

federal andterritorial governments, and works frequently with local
magistrates andbusiness
interdependence ofDeadwoodrivals
andatoensure
relative stateof
the political
peace.

Swearengen’s chief antagonist is Seth Bullock (Timothy Olyphant),

who eventually becomes sheriff of Deadwood yet fails to ensure
order. In typical style for a Western, the central villain in Deadwood
is a mining magnate who manipulates political authorities and
engages
the
culture
origins
town.
philosophies
Noting
ever
of
in order
otherformsof
that
gets,”
Deadwood
of Cantor
Thomasfraudand
views
is“as
Hobbes
Deadwood
closeto
and
corruption
John
philosophicalas
asan
Locke.
to the
examination
Asfarasthe
detrimentof
popular
of

are concerned, Locke approaches the question by

asking Can
make
interaction,
authority
(as paraphrased
human
possibleand
of beings
orare
thestateto
by Cantor):
spontaneously
facilitatetheir
they create
dependent
andarrive
productive
on attherulesthat
central
social

enforce law and

only thereby tomakelifein society feasible?[79]

classical
clean
provides
contends
Hobbes’
Locke’s is andimpose
out Western.InFord’s
in
the
answer
Leviathan
Indians
overarching
eventual
an
(1651)that
answer
emphatic
political
cavalry
tothis
order,
life
“no.”
andfilms,
is end
“nasty,
moral
questionis“yes”
Hobbes,
the
trade
frameworkfor
brutish,
U.S.
withIndians,
who
Cavalry
and
famously
short,”
while
must
and
the

generally provide the blessings of government­imposed peace. In

The
and
again
defined
“there
of
the
this,
classical
supposedly
the an
decentralized
instead
nation­state
Tin
disorganized
is
ItCantor
that
wasorder
akey
bourgeois
issignificant
asthe
Star
liberalism
authoritarian
itisa
representative
andHigh
componentof
claims,
government.
gunningdown
and
and
revisionist
population,
liberal
that
no
allitstrappings.
and
thatthe
Noon
Hobbesian
lawwhatsoever.”[80]
isso
valuesof
describes
Theclassical
oftraditional
later
Western
the
and
of
characteristicof
messageof
outlaws
sheriff
bourgeois
in
view.
laissez­faire
Liberty
Deadwoodas
that
Deadwood
Western,
imposes
American
followed
takes
liberalism.
Deadwood
Valance,
Locke’s
amarkets
order
on
sympathetic
repudiates
bythe
values,
atheother
“progress”is
place
on
Wefindyet
reflects
philosophy
andsmall
arrivalof
a reflects
chaotic
where
allof
hand,
view
the

Not only are economic interests of menlikeAl Swearengen

and the miners essential in holding together the political order, but it
also serves to domesticate the men to an extent and force them to set
aside violence in favor of peace and collaboration. According to
Cantor:
is
In Deadwood, commerce the chief force that works
to
bethe
produce order without law. Above all, it seems to
only force that can get the alpha males to set
aside their differences, give up their fighting to the
death, and worktogether for theirmutual benefit.[81]

the in
other,
in which
hisThis
Inand
state
Hobbes’
the
isonly
of
obviously
local
nature,
view,this
merchants
leviathan
“human
not true
sort
statecanstop
and
beings
ofminerswant
the
collaboration
visionof
will them.”[82]
simply
order
Deadwood
is start
impossible
andkilling
are
however,
willing
since
each

to band together in a variety of complex and creative ways to do it,

Bullock,
“official”
short of forming
the
representative
former
apermanent in Deadwood.
federal­marshal­turned­sheriff
oflawgovernment.
enforcementThere iseventuallyan
of Deadwood,
Seth

ends up offering little to the town, however, and fails to understand

the delicate and skillful methods used by Swearengen toprotect the
ofthe
peace
that
economic
“the
Swearengen,
community,
disorder.”[83]
Swearengen
eventually
intellectual
and order.
independence
while
the
Bullocklackstheself
workagainst
complexity
possesses,and
Bullock,
criminal,
of thecommunity.
the
ofturns
the
the
lawman,turns
thisimpelsBullocktoactinways
interests
series
out
control
to
is evidentinthe
As
and
beouttobeaforce
Cantor
long­termthinking
forlocalsocial
order
describes
way
in that
and
the
for
it:

Western,
In
termed
yetFew
anothertwist
heroic
the
ofthe
protagonists
behavior,andintypical
characters
on thearemoreanti­heroes
classical
in Deadwood
Western,
fashion
display
and
than
forarevisionist
in
what
anything
keeping
mightbe
else.
with

the overallrepudiation of classical Western values, Al Swearengen,

ability
the
values.
thing It’splanahead,
foul­mouthed“criminal”
thetownhastoan
to Swearengeninvest,
effective
whoof exhibits
thetown,
andlook
representative
fortitude,
turns
out for
outthebe
of patience,
the
bourgeois
good
theclosest
and
of
liberal
the
an
community. It’s this brothel owner who comes closer to
exemplifying the values of bourgeois America than any cavalryman,
sheriff, or wandering gunfighter of the era of classical Westerns.
territorialandnational
found Therelationship
inclassical Westerns.In
governments
between the
Ford’scavalry
istownof
alsoverydifferent
Deadwood
films, Winchester
from
andthe
that

’73, and The Man FromLaramie, forexample, the cavalry itself is a

symbolis of the assumedcivilizing effect of the United States
of
West one in progress
governmentthat
central theme classicalWesterns
makes toward
thesettling
modern
ingeneral
ofthefrontier
civilization.
is thattheThisis
possible.
storyofthe
often
A

Clementine,but
inevitable
communicated
Deadwood, withasa march
andultimately
the with
wistful
advantageous
many
toward
nostalgia,
revisionist
civilizationis
to
asin
American
Shane
Westerns,
and
society.
assumed
MyDarling
takes
to bea

different approach, but Deadwood takes the critique of centralized

the
Once
Billy
level
government
end
the
thanisnormallyseen
UponaTimein
ofsomething
Kid,an
and its
older
commentaryon
good.
the
worldof
West
InThe
in Westerns.
lookupon
gunfighter
Wild
progressto
Bunch,andPat
BothTheWild
theendof
honoris
a morebeing
frontierlifeas
sophisticated
Garrett
Bunch
losttoa
and

corrupt modernism.In Once Upon a Time in theWest, the

industrialization
gunfighteris replaces
almostliterally
the way ofthegun.
buriedbyHere
therailroad
wefind all the
as

elements ofnostalgic primitivism inwhichthe masculine gunmen

are replaced bya more effeminate and complex society, which in
America.
some ways resembles the industrialized society of bourgeois liberal

Western
masculinityor
AccordingtoCantor:
Deadwood
Elementsofthe
and posits
gunfighterhonor
departsthat
Western
evensomething
from
myth
is these
lost
of far
progress
inthe
lingering
more
march
are
elements
important
present
of progress.
ofthan
the

inDeadwood,
forces
creator
progress.
quite differently,
trulybegin
David] especially
Milch
and
to transform
refuses
evaluates
in season3,when
to
thetown.But
thetransformation
view it simply
outside
[series
as

More than any other Western I know,

 Deadwood dwells upon what is lost when a town
makes the transition to civilization and becomes part
of the nation­state. What is lost is freedom.

In Deadwood, territorial andnational officialsare viewed as

thieves and bureaucrats whose primary interest is stealing fromthe
Indians, and, when they canget away with it, from thewhite
civilians also. “They’re too busy stealing to study human nature”
season
one character
—to
Whoof
beforewe
get
declares:
shedofthe
doremarks,whilea
what’sin
uscame?
herecocksucker?
didn’t
Wasn’thalf
localsaloon
knowAnd
our
what
here
purpose
owner
government
itcomes
duringthe
comingto
again
wassecond

its nature—to lie to us, and confuse

us,and steal what we came to by toil and being lucky
just once in our fuckin’ lives. And we gonna be
Continuing
surprised a by
government?[84]
general
that,
trendboys,
in revisionist
government
Westerns,
being
agents of

and
for
the criminals
government
Indians even
andin
more
thugs who function
Deadwoodnot
miserable. onlytosteal,butare alsoofenablers
make the lives whites

Deadwood is perhaps the apotheosis of the revisionist Western

for
in its example,
view of thecentral
paintgovernment
government. The Westerns of Peckinpah,
agents as simultaneously
incompetent and menacing. Amos Dundee of Major Dundee is
nothing but anagentof chaos onthe frontier while thefoolish and
inept American lawmen who takeon the Wild Bunch are stooges
for
TheaGood,
the marshals
corrupt in Eastwood’s
TheBad,and
regime.The The Ugly
warmongersofthe
Pale
spread
Ridercome
murderand
central government
discord while
in

to drive small
businessmen offtheirland and enforce the rule ofmight over right.
Meanwhile, TheOutlaw JoseyWales flees atriumphant and
murderous nation­state formed outof theruinsofthe bloody Civil
War.

government
In Deadwood,
inother we
Westerns
learn thatthese
arenot isolated of woebutbrought
tales cases, are in the
by
very nature of the nation­state itself. If progress consists of the
march toward the consolidation of the American state over the
“lawless” frontier, then progress is something the people of
Deadwood cando without.
is
Like
Autumn
presentedin
Thisis,
manyandShane)
Westerns
of course,a
John the
ofthe
Ford’s
end
very
1950s
The
oftheWild
differentviewof
Man
and early
Who60s,
Shotprogress
(such
Liberty
as thanwhat
Cheyenne
Valance.

West is presented with a

is
triumph
that
because
Valance,
melancholy
statehood
ofprogressin
the
oppose
villainous
tone,
for
statehood,and
but
theranchers,
aLibertyValance
territory
numberin newspaperman
ofways.
league
a good
nonetheless
with
First
thing.
the
of
Dutton
all,it
barbaric
Weendorses
Peabody
isassumed
know
Liberty
this
the
is

even savagelybeaten
supporting statehood. by Valance (asaservice tothe ranchers)for

Thekilling of Valance then paves the way for statehood, and

Stoddard,
new
It then
attain
state.The
statehood,
goesan
the assumed
film
extra
and,viewsallof
step
presumably,
killer
andendorses
of thesedevelopments
Valance,ismade
progress.[85] a with
the use oftheNobleLieto
senatorof
approval.
the

As Stoddard begins to doubt himself, having built his success

on a lie,thefilm makespretenses toward being subversive by
thefilm
attained
momentarily
through
callinginto
deception. Ultimately,
questionthehowever,
legitimacy of concludes
progress

that the truthis best glossed over and swept under therug and that
any means
both beneficial
to achieve
and inevitable.
progress is acceptable because progressis

InLiberty Valance, the truthisthat civilizationismade

possible
attained
to
brings.
Progress,specifically
though
bureaucratic,
attainany
through
by
civilization,
the
means
and
frontier
menlike
centralized
necessary,
so
ingunfighter.
beit,
thiscase,
Ransom
government
butthe
isthe
The
Stoddard.
so establishmentof
lie
valuableas
truthwillremain
andallthe
isthat
If the
civilization
lieis
advantages
to beamodern,
necessary
the
obtained
canbe
truth.
that

That Deadwood’s messageis a departure from themessage of

progress containedin Liberty Valancewould be an understatement.
is
In the classical Westerns, the nation­state indispensable thanks to
its cavalry, its marshals, and its eventual establishment of official
law and order. This is the march of progress in the Western, and a
progress that led to the modern United States, which in 1962 was
of
perceived
promoted
theBy
freethe
bymovie
bythe
world.
late classical
1960s,
audiencesasthe
the
Western
view had
ofthe
veryfallen
symbol
American
on and
hardembodiment
nation­state
times. The

frontier
by corrupt
infilmhad
government
become a differentplace, and was now plagued
officials checked only by dying and
West,
irrelevant
theold
heroes
conventions
whose days
of primitivism,
were numbered.
redemptive
Yet even
violence,
in this new
and

villainous capitalists remains largelyin tact. Bythe 1990s, however,

even [78]Cantor,
thegunfighter Paul
wouldA.face“Order
thedoubts
Outofoffilmmakers.
the Mud.”In The

Philosophy of the Western. University Press of Kentucky.

Lexington. 2010.
[80]
[79]Ibid.
[81] David
Cantor,Milchquoted
PaulA. “Order
in Cantor.
out of the Mud.”

[82] Ibid.
and [83]
[84]I’madding
uncritically
Ibid. accepting
nothing new atallto Cantor’sanalysis here,

his selection of quotations and his

conclusions about Deadwood.
[85] Plato endorsed the use of the Noble Lie to maintain order
over the presumably ignorant masses, andin this case,the reality of
Doniphon’s killing of Liberty Valancehelped make progress
possible. Thus, the film asserts that deception is preferable to truth.
 XV. “Something To Do With
Death”
In the historical West,gunfightersweremarginal figures, but
in the cinematic West, they are everything—theaxisupon which the
Western spins. Thus a Western about the gunfighter,as opposed to a
Western that features gunfighters, is really a Western about
in
this
Westerns.
regard:Two
Leone’s
Westerns
Oncestand
Uponout
a Time
as being
in theWestand
particularly Eastwood’s
effective
with
Unforgiven.
possible
being
no
would
the
Leone
to
of
purchased
produce
death
longer
gunfighter
visual
OnceUpona
Early
aWestern.
expect
believed
andviolence.
torepudiating
essential.
legacy
the
afilm
inthefilm,
Infroma
ethic,
only
bothof
the
In
ofthe
that
Domestic
thesethe
ofinthe
Western’sdays
plot
Time
and
traditional
hebelieved
these
itself
Western
laterevisionist
Brett
land
outcome
films,
bourgeois
while
Western.
withwater
and
Westwas
McBain,
would
were
the an
stillretaining
isasquite
Western
values
Westerns,the
aserve
numbered,
critiqueonthe
for
Leone’s
different
exist
asmiles
entrepreneur,
comesascloseas
both
the
in
and
last
thanwhat
gunfighteris
tension
an
qualitiesof
he
centrality
elegyfor
Western.
sought
has
we

around. This
forces the railroad to use his water forthe men andthe locomotives,
railroad’sexpense.
will
putting
simply
McBainin
have McBain
The
aposition
railroad’s
and his
toowner,Morton,
familymurdered.
make a lot of He does
concludes
money thathe
at just
the

this, and whenthe railroad’s hired gunmen shoot an unarmed little

in
boycinema.
at point­blank
Unfortunately
range,itforthe
drives home the brutality of the frontier
railroad, however, they have not
killed
train. McBain’s new wife, who arrives shortly thereafter on the

JillMcBain (Claudia Cardinale) quickly takes control of her

late husband’s assets and faces down the railroad. She does this
gunman.
through amixture
manipulates
Jill Frank
never armsherself
(Henry
of intellectual
Fonda),
with
andsexual
therailroad’s
a gun, forguile
shemost
obviously
bywhich
dangerous
can’t
she
outgun her enemies. Instead, she coldly calculates how she will take
advantage of her enemies’ weaknesses, playing the company and its
hired guns against each other. She is assisted by a nameless
only
sadistic
gunfighter(Charles
and aspares
romanticoutlaw
killer
Jillwho
so he
guns
Bronson)
can
named
down
sexually
Cheyenne
whoconstantly
women
assault
and
(JasonRobards).
her,
children
or
playsa
so with
he thinks.
harmonica,
pleasure,
Frank,
Jill,
a

however, isnot fazedby Frank,andas she makesclear to

husband’sinvestments
Cheyenne,
Visually,
notthe
evenFrank
film payoff.
contrasts
canJill
stopher
and the frommaking
gunfighters through
herlate­
the

McBain estate itself, a large, sturdy house builtto function both as

residenceand
reliable
gunfighters
fixtureof
wander
whistle
the
theland,
stop.
physical
Thefilm
coming from
andmoral
establishes
landscape,
the house
whileasthea

nowhere and heading

nowhere. Jill makes plans for the future while the gunfighters hunt
each
gunfightersproduces
vision,
not
they
ownershipofthe
FrankThis
haven’t
Cheyenneand
other
and
those
in
juxtaposition
Morton
aendless
with
goodtrain
guns
idea
destroyeach
chases
aHarmonica
station
situation
know
about
ofandstalwartJill
how
remains
showdowns.
which
other
are
to
touseit
unleash
essential
ambiguous,
illustrates
after
effectively.
and
aseriesof
much
inthat
the
for
saving
violence,
Whether
inLeone’s
ultimately,
ephemeral
Jill’s
but
or

double­
crosses. All Jill has to do is endure their crude attempts at
intimidation until the villainsultimately self­destruct.
todo
has
ashowdown,
neutralized.
Harmonica
kill
final
himforcrimes
nothing
AsmostWesterns
showdown.
whohasbeen
The
Jill’sshowdown
The
attraction
he
with
committed
do,Once
showdown,
searching
Jill,istofor
aUpon
Harmonica
decades
personal
between
the
forFrankfor
aTimein
railroad
earlier.During
matter
Harmonica
becomes
has
theWest
years
ofalready
revenge
andFrank,
inorderto
clear,
thisfinal
buildsto
been
but
for

Cheyenne talks her out of pursuing a relationship with him, telling

her:
death.”
“Peoplelike that have something inside—something to dowith
the two
maintain
Jill, the
a relationship
symbol ofthesettled
with gunfighter,
bourgeoisbecause
life, can
thenever
lifestyles cannot be reconciled. The gunfighter is not a complement
to the bourgeois life, nor is he its protector. He is instead either
irrelevant or damaging to the settlement of the West, wild and prone
to
Cheyenne
in the
self­destruction.
Dedicated
dust.ride awayfrom
to Sergio
AstheLeone,
Jill’s
film estate
Clint
drawstoa
Eastwood’s
to die,close,
forgotten
Unforgiven
Harmonicaand
anduseless
takes

Leone’s
much
everything he stands
moredevastating
critiqueofthe gunfighter
deconstruction
and presents
of the afar
gunfighter
darker and

for. Unforgiven opens in a brothel. But this is

miniscule
(Gene
compensate
Inside,
not oneHackman),
a ofcowboy
genitals.
thewell­lit,
notthe isdemandingthat
His
woman
cutting
assault
ribald
upa
who’s
brothels
ends
whore
beencutup,
the
withthesheriff,
of
cowboyandhis
who
the has
classical
but
laughed
the
LittleBill
Western.
partner
brothel
athis

owner for destruction of his “property.” The sheriff’s obvious

disregard
punishmentleads
hunter. for the concept
thewhores
of self­ownership
to pooltheir money
and his tohirea
alarmingly
bounty
light

whowe
news
under
married
are repeatedly
CivilEnter
Warguerilla.
ofthe
theMunny
influence
William
whores’
toldhaskilled
against
Munny
of
Munny
bounty
hiswifeClaudia,
herhad
(Eastwood),a
mother’s
reaches
womenand
turnedaway
Munny,
wishes.Yetbythe
a “respectable”woman
children,
vicious
from
Claudiahas
gunfighting
outlaw
and is died
atime
former
while
who
and
the

Munny
SchofieldKid
hasfallen on hard times. Munny is recruited by The
(Jaimz Woolvett), a youth who talks too much and
Munny
obviously
(he
would
Freeman)
has
Asthe
have
two
accepts
for
wantsto
children),
film
wanted
onethejob
unfolds,Munny
lastjob.
makea
from
and
largely
hehim.
name
brings
out“She
repeatedly
for
ofonhis
his meof
himselfwithafew
cured
desperate
oldreferstowhat
partner
need
Ned
drinkin’
for
(Morgan
killings.
Claudia
money
and

wickedness,” he tellsNed. He’sonly doing this for the money, and

to
haunts
enduring
Munny
set things
thefilm
awayfrom
symbol
right
every
offor
the
domesticity
stepof
whatthe
life of thecowboy
andpeace.It
gun.
way,Itand
was
didevenin
tothe
she
was
who
shewho
whore.Claudia
deathsheis
builta turned
house
an
with him, had children with him, and worked a farm with him.
Now, by accepting this job, he is risking repudiating everything she
ever taught him.
would
his partners,
Through
have wanted.
hedoesn’t
most ofthe
Heinvokes
patronize
film,Munny
her
thename
brothel
holds
likeorafast
mantra,
drink
to what
any
and,unlike
whiskey.
Claudia

He’s in town to make some money and return to his children.

Unfortunately, Munny runs into Little Bill, thesheriff who has
scarcely
does. Indeed,
any less
itmay
experience
be thattheonly
in gunningmen
difference down
between
than
Little
Munny
Bill

and Munny is that Little Bill wearsa badge.

with
when
Harris),
against
Little
Bob’s
headministereda
Little
agunfighter
Bill’s
biographer
Bill’s
viciousness
regulations.[86]
whohad
the
savage
secrets
was
attemptedto
well
beating
ofAfter
established
being
tothe
bring
English
a beating,
gunfighter.
apistolinto
earlier
Bob Billshares
in(Richard
the
Intown
film
this

conversation, Bill essentially deconstructs the mythof the

is
showdownsof
Bill
opponent,
dime
gunfighter,
tells
Atthis
novels
us,pointing
taking
of
point,
winning
mythare
the timehadvery
carefulaim,
Billisjustconfirming
outthat
agunfight
ridiculous,
afastdrawand
little
and
Billtellsus.
about
toshooting
dowith
getting
the
whatother
reality.In
him
Munny
thedrop
legendsofthe
down.
has
real
on been
your
life,
The

tellingMunny,seeking
grills usthroughout the
to learn
entirehis
film.The
secretsto
Schofield
winningKidcontinually
gunfights; yet
was
time.
courageousorinteresting
lucky
doesn’t
Munnywhen
gunfightson
According
remember
himselfisn’t
itcame
top.He
to
muchof
to
attributes
Munny
evensure
killin’
about
it folks,”
most
because
himself,
being
how
ofit
hesays,
agunfighter.
he
toluck:
there
cameand
isn’t
drunk
“I’ve
outof
heowns
Thus
muchthat’s
always
most
Claudia
sothathe
ofthe
many
been
is

confirmed
drunkenness
Munny asfeels
and
Munny’s
murder.
thepullofthe
salvation domestic
and as hislife
rescuerfromaworld
through his memories
of

of
that
violence
“there’s
Claudia,
LittleBill
not
ofhisjob.
butweknow
a straight
is building
The
angle
thatLittle
house
ahouse
in the
ispoorlybuilt,
place.”
Bill
asaalso
domestic
Little
feelsBill’s
the
thispull.
refuge
roof
shoddy
leaks,
We
from
house
learn
and
the
sets up a second symbol of bourgeois domesticity set against the life
of the gunfighter. Just as Munny cannot simultaneously honor
Claudia’s memory and gun down the cowboys for the bounty,
neither
the
question
same
can
his
time
Little
authority.[87]
heisraining
Billbuild aneatlittle
blows upon
bourgeoislife
every manforhimselfat
who dares

learns
death
his innocent
After
by
ofNed’s
LittleBill.
Munny,
friend
death
Ned,and
forthe
The
atthehandsof
final
bounty,
the
epiphanyfor
KidNed
kill isthe
captured
Munny
offending
comeswhen
andcowboy
torturedto
and
he

Little Bill, and Munny takes

to
his first drink of whiskey since his marriage Claudia. Munny
posse,
was
the
returns
floor,declares
abuilding
good
even
to town
man
shooting
a house.”
to
ortoMunny,
shootdown
a good
someof
Little
sheriff,
“I
them
Bill’s
Little
don’t
but
inthe
appeal
Bill
deserve
thatback.Little
and
he
tojustice
was
this,todie
everybuilding
member
Bill,
is not
like
dyingon
a that
house,
of
this.I
his
he

the symbol of everything that thegunfighter is not.

of isand we
conclusion
futility
Critical
violence.
among
analyses
themisthat
Thisis
of Unforgiven
certainly
the film
are
true,common,
a commentary
know
anda this
common
onthe
from

forin
Eastwood
woman
bounty itself,
excessive,
andhimself.
endswith
which
fact,
Thefilm
had
thewhore’s
a bloodbath.
precipitated
begins scars
with
Bysomuch
afrom
thenon­lethal
end
theoriginal
of
killing,
thefilm,
assault
appears
assault
onthe
a

have healed andare already fadedby the time the final showdown
commences.
Somehave claimedthat thefilm’s coda, which tells us that
to
fruit.
after
Francisco,
Yetwe
hereturns
proves
knowhome,Munny
that
thatMunny’s
earlier inreturn
becomes
the film, gunfighting
abusinessman
Munny had bore
confronted
inmuch
San

his ownmortality. He had seen “the angelofdeath,” was terrified,

and
the film
hadseenthe this? Ithiswife,
include faceof certainly“all
doesn’t domuch to convince
coveredinworms.” Why does
us

that Munny, after getting drunk and shooting a few men in the back,
will be
Andwhilethe
living happily ever after.
role of violence is a central theme, the presence
Itis
of Claudia’s
alternative formemory
the gunfighter.
and LittleBill’s
the peaceful
house serve to illustratethe
bourgeoislife of the
settlers. But neither Little Bill nor Munny is capable of living this
life. They are condemned to the shiftless life of the gun with no
wife, no home, and nothing but a life of endless combat and death.
to
The
of
Cheyenne
TheyLittle
connection
wereBill
andHarmonica
committed
andtoMunny,
OnceUpon
thelife
werelikewise
the lifeofthe
aTime
ofthe
gunfighter,
incapable
gunfighter
in the Westisclear,
and
ofsettling
is like
sterile.
thelives
down.
They
for

create nothing and destroy everything. They cannot sustain

Who
City
themselvesand
in
[87]John
[86]
ShotLiberty
Mann’s
This may
Forduses
Winchester
ultimately
Valance.
be a reference
the
ridetothe
’73.
TomDoniphon
device
to horizon
ofhouse isbuildinginThe
the gun as
ban ruinedmen
adding
in forceabedroom
inDodge
todie.
Man

onto his house in expectation of marrying the heroine. Later, after

his status as a gunfighter is confirmed, Doniphon gets drunk and
accidently burns down his own house.
 XVI. A Victorian Western:
Little House on the Prairie
In 1930, Rose Wilder Lane, a successful essayist and novelist,
an
encouraged hermother, LauraIngalls Wilder, to write
autobiography aspartofa plantohelp Wilder gain a stream of
income from her writing. Wilder at that time had published little,
and her during
success daughterthe
Lane, whohad
1920s, hadalready
spent several
met with
years
muchwriting
during the

twenties
develop
autobiography,
withher
herwriting
which
mother
wasand
skills.
repeatedly
fatherin
WithMissouri
rejected
Lane’sby
helpingher
help,
publishers,
Wilder’s
mother
was

eventually reworked into fictional form and became a series of

books
Lane’s
influentiallibertarian
read WhileRose
author
known
motherdue
today
Laura
Wilder
toasthe
Ingalls
essay,
the Lane
Little
Little
TheDiscovery
Wilder
is
House
House
still
whoon is
remembered
series
theofFreedom
today
Prairie
ofthe
books
for
series.
more
(1943),itis
herand
widely­
highly­
the

televisionseriesand
While
school thebooks
children, the
themselveshave
television
made­for­TV
showmovies
long
reacheda
beenmost
basedonthe
national
popular
audience of
books.[88]
among

all 1983,
to
today.
ages asand
a prime­time
continues fixture
in syndication
on NBC for
on nine
several
seasons
cablefrom1974
channels

frontier
drastically
While
setting,
from
thoughtto
Little
the form
House
beofaWestern
the
on classical
the Prairie,
byWesterns
manyviewers
as we shall
in its see,
lack oftoits
duedeparts
gun

ofthe
violence
repudiates
late
family,
literature
If
Although
nineteenth­century,
women,
Jane
inthe
andin
theTompkinsis
themes
Little
children,
its Houseseries.
central
education,and
wefind
correct,andthe
emphasisonthemes
middle­class
a partial
religious
bourgeois
Western
restoration
faith.
ofnovel
commerce,
thoroughly
ofof that
the

the series is about the settlement of the American

frontier, gone isthe gunfighter as savior of thetownsfolk, and gone
is the centrality of violencein general. The series instead repeatedly
focuses on the importance of commerce in settling the frontier.
The series centers on the Ingalls family, headed by Charles
Ingalls (Michael Landon) and his wife, Caroline (Karen Grassle),
and theirthree daughters. Unlikethe typicalWestern in which
central
female
women importance
characters,
and childrentothe
andin
are onlymarginal
drama.
particular
Charles
the
characters,
Ingalls,
female intended
children,
the livesofthe
toareof
be a

often
model of in
engaging
Domestic
seen masculinity
performing
commerce.
settings,in
domestic
women,
the series,rarely
duties
children,
asashops
usesa
husbandand
and
gun.shopkeepers,
Hefatherand
ismost

takes
In
Ben
schoolhouses,
theOwensof
place,
worldthere
ofandchurches
The
WalnutGrove,
wouldbenoroom
Tin Star,a
areMinnesota,
all frequent
foran authoritarian
wherethe
settings for
series
sheriff
the mostly
series.
like

violent bounty hunter like Howard

Kemp fromThe Naked Spur, or a drifter like the protagonist of
Shane.
to
townspeople
occur
athe
drama
sheriff
frontieror
Lawandorderin
Inthe
within
thatorstemsfrom
byany
who
thetown.
fromthe
work
formal
Walnut
physical
challenges
together
Mostlaw
episodes
Groveis
environment.
enforcement
presented
address
feature
maintained
conflicts
byfamily
officialsbut
earning
notprimarily
and
conflicts
crimes
alivingon
bythe
that
and
by

episode “The Creeper of Walnut Grove,” foodstuffs are

being stolen from the townspeople, who react with dismay, but deal
to
with
ahave
young
friend
the
learnedfromreading
takeit
thefts
man whoinupon
a hopes
restrained
themselves
detective
attend
fashion.
tocatch
medical
novels.The
In response,
thethief
schoolbut
thief
Laura
usingskillsthey
turnsout
whose
Ingallsand
father
tobe

has
living.
suffered
Sometimesthe
No gunfight
a debilitating
ensues.
series features
heart attack
relations
and isunable
betweenwhites
tomake a

and
Indians,
sides arealthough
highly these
motivated
episodes
to often
avoidemphasize
violence. the
In factthat
the episode
both

“Freedom Flight,” a group of Indianswhomust migrate from their

the town toseek the help
government­appointed reservation,which
ofa physician.The
isonbarren
whites areland,enter
distrustful

but wish to avoid violence, inspite ofthe problematic rabble­

rousing of one racist member of the town. Dialogue and conflict­
resolution skills are employed to avoid a bloodbath.
This theme of Indian­white relations is also clear in the
located
originaltotheKansas
series pilot. Territory,
The Ingalls
meetsthelocal
family, which
Indians
has in
recently
numerous
re­

tension­filled encounters, although violenceis always avoided. The

family is eventually driven off the land, but by the U.S. government
and notbythe
generallyhelpful
Theepisode“He
Indians.
and certainlynot
WasOnlyTwelve”
Thefew menacing.
local whites
isoneof
they
thefew
encounter
episodes
are

In
that features truly dangerous criminals. it, Charles Ingalls’s
adopted son James isshotand severely injured when he walks in on
aavailablelaw
bank robbery
enforcement
in progress.
forcesThe
Charlesand
criminalsIsaiah
escape.
(Mr.)Edwards
A lackof

to hunt the robbers ontheir own. The two men eventually catch up
with the robbers, and Charles, filled with rage, nearly kills one of
and
them.therobbers
stand trial.
After intervention
are subdued
fromand
Edwards,Charles
turned over tothe
thinksauthorities
better of it,
to

from
law
chase
even
conflicts
and
Aside
Obviously,
though
comes,
found
order
from
theycould
Charlesand
in
are
the
classical
the
amateur
narrative
haveeasily
rareEdwards
Westerns.In
gunmen,
violent
hereisjustified
refrainfrom
quite
criminal,
and
this
different
when
doingso.
case,the
using
the
the overwhelming
instruments
climax
deadly
the sorts
ofthe
force
of

majority of people encountered bythe Ingalls family and their

neighborsare non­threatening and mostly concerned with earning a
living,
There raising
are numerous
theirchildren,
cases and
inwhich
findingscriptureis
some moments of leisure.
quoted in an

approving way, and, unlike the classical Western, which cheapens

dialogue,
invariably
scenes
while such
taketreatedwith
education,
locations
placeinside
would
and
approvalin
the only
general
economic
bethe
featured
storeor
series.[89]A
profit,such
inthe
inthe schoolhouse,
classical
greatnumber
concerns
Western
and,
are
of

as part of a prelude to a gunfight, schoolrooms the and shopsare the

so significantly
central
Onecould
theatreoffrom
reasonably
the humandrama
classical
arguethattheLittle
Western
forthepeople
films likeHouseseries
of Walnut
post­war
Grove.
differs
films
of John Ford because Little House was made for television viewing
by families while the films of Mann, Ford and Hawks were feature
films for adult audiences.
the intensity
and Television
Westerns of the Westerns
1950s
andgraphic
and60sistoned
dotendnature
tobe of
slightly
violence
different
in television
in tone,

down somewhat from what

one might find in the feature films of Ford and Mann. The story
hundreds,
lines
officials,
are
resultsin
while
more
of episodesfora
varied,
few
moresuch
story
given
story
lines
single
theneeds
lines
that
series.The
were
reflect
of found
filming
corrupt
needto
in dozens,
major
government
varymotion
ifnot
story

pictures of thefifties and early 60s. Programs such as Wagon Train

establishedlaw
Lone
themes
(1957–1962)
Ranger
were more
and
isade
enforcementthan
Rawhide
common
facto (1959–1965),
as
Texas
well,aRanger
since
typical
several
for
who
50sfilm,
example,rely
acts
mainalone.
although
characters
less
Family
The
on
in

however.
The Riflemanand
Theoverall
Rifleman;and
Killingsare
Bonanza
content
thea WagonTrain
frequentevent
were
and structure
family relations.
frequently
inRawhide,Bonanza
remains employs
largelysimilar
Indian
and

massacres asaplot device. Typicalstory lines in TV Westerns of

the of ofthefrontier
varieties
nature
50sand homicide.
60sinclude
are
The
kidnappings,
repeated,as
usual assumptions
rangewars,
in the pilotto
aboutthe
and TheLone
numerous
chaotic

Ranger television series in which the announcer states “here beyond

the reach of law and order, ‘might was right.’”[90]
from
prime­time
Prairie,
the typical
Bonanza,a
helps
Western
scheduling
to illustrate
long­running
set­up.
very
justsimilar
howtelevisionWestern
much
to thatof
LittleHouse
Little that
Houseonthe
differed
occupied

composedofmen.
family,
Thewhich
mainowns
cast
The
theof
seriesfollows
Ponderosa
Bonanza,Ranch
forinstance,is
the exploits
onthe California­Nevada
of theCartwright
completely

border. The family, however, has no living female members.

has
Followingthe
all male children
modelestablished
without the in
inconvenience
Red River, this
ofafamilypatriarch
wife.Thereis
of
stems
family fromthe
conflict, butitis
presence
all betweenmen,and
interlopers, criminals,
thedramacavalrymen,
frequently
Indians, gamblers, and other threats to the family and the ranch.
Gunplay is frequent while the presence of children, woman, and
schools are infrequently made known.
family
Thesetting
separated oftheseries,
from day­to­day
onatown
ranch
life,is
controlled
farmore
by reminiscent
a powerful

of the classical Westernthananything found inthe Little House

series. The difference intoneand violence between the Little House
1970s
seriesInand
explored
explainedsimply
bigotry,
Inthisessay,
audience.
its
the
intreatmentof
the
Little
original
classical
bythe
But,
House
Ihave
in
bookswritten
some
difference
Westerns
series
general,
contended
contemporary
shows
inmedia.
the
thatcame
byWilder.
signs
series
thatthe
issuessuchas
ofholds
before
being
classicalWestern
tothe
updated
it cannot
raceand
themes
fora
be

values
discounts
of free
andcommerce,
undermines
small
nineteenth­century
government, liberalism,family,
bourgeois liberal
and

religious
Westerns
Thecontrast
faith.
illustrates
between theLittle isthe
just howgreat Houseseries
difference
and betweenthe
theclassical

not
commerce
fiction.
typical
theonly
TheLittle
Western
TheLittle
apartway
House
from
and
House
offrontier
violence.
series
addressingthe
remindsus
fiction which
American
thatfeatures
theWesternformulais
frontier
family life
through
and

stories offer an alternate model, as do the

frontier storiesof Willa Cather, for example.
contends
the Western,the
Westward
In spite
thatofa
theexpansion
LittleHouse
thoroughly
expansionofwas
different
series
American
farless
doesnot
focuscivilization.
from
question It valueof
that the
provided
simply
by

violent and chaotic than

what isshownin the classical Western. Wilder’s books, and the
Little
of
settlers
model
optimism
House
ofthemselves.
Thetelevision
Wild
aboutBunch
Little
Westward
seriesas
or
House
Highexpansionand
well,
isnot
Plains
exhibit
a Drifter.
revisionist
a substantial
sympathy
Westernamount
forthe
inthe

Coupled with an examination ofthe importance ofcommerce

century
and local
American
self­reliance,
frontierthe
society
focusonthe
foundin theLittle
virtuesofHouse
nineteenth­
series

bears the marks ofthe influence ofRose Wilder Lane.

 The true extent of Lane’s involvement in the writing of the
Little House stories has long been debated, but John E. Miller,
author of Laura Ingalls Wilder and Rose Wilder Lane: Authorship,
support
Place,
author.”[91]
much Time,
more isCulture,
of laissez­faire
and
It
than “collaborator,”
significant
economics
proposes
that but
thatLane’s
Lane,who
andstill
small is
lessthan
involvementwas
andknown
decentralized
“composite
forher
as

in
government,
AccordingtoMiller,
“would
Hurricane
what isfound
follow
Roar
would
the
inthe
practice
and
push
in
typical
working
her
a shehad
muchdifferent
Missouri
Westernwithits
ontheLittle
established
book–injecting
viewof
House
traditional
[her
thenovel]
books,
frontierthan
doses
themes.
Letthe
Lane
of

her
ideology
conservativepolitical
Miller
ownLockean
displays
here,butanhebrand
inexact
ideology...for
is likely
of understanding
suggesting
liberalism
the benefit
that her was
intoofLane’s
of
Lane
the Little
readers.”[92]
injecting
political
House

stories.[93]
socialLane’sbourgeois
House structureofthe
stories andseries.
American
liberal
Unlike
philosophy
frontier,asfeatured
the classical in theLittle
is alsoreflected
Western, inthe
which

creates a myth of atotally self­sufficient gunfighterormilitary man

education,
who
the Little
islargely
House
cooperation,
untouchable
seriesemphasizes
and lives
the apart
need fromcivilized
for communitysociety,
action,

and family, which arise, incidentally, out of

an order established by the settlers independent of any powerful
defines
Powell,
government
rootsAsperhaps
innostalgic
theBanks
devouredthe
Pawriting
masculinity
wasthe
institution.
inafinal
primitivism,
The
greathero
ofalong
wheatandhay
PlumCreek
Triumph
repudiation
much
ofthe
TheLittle
ofLiberty:
different
stories.For
told
which
oftheWestern
how,
Houseseries of On
lines.According
hehad
after
example,
grown
locusts
genre
booksre­
inand
toJim
its

Minnesota,
inhisold patchedboots,to
hetwicewalked more than 200 mileseast
earn money harvesting
other people’s crops. On another occasion, walking
home from town,he was caught inasudden blizzard
and lost hisway,but hesurvivedthree days ina hole
 until the blizzard was over. Again and again, Pa
renewed everybody’s spirits when he picked up his
fiddle and filled their home with music.[94]

of coercive
In the classicalWestern,
power, while inthe
virtueisdefined
Little House
bythe
stories,
competent
asinthe
use

television series, virtue is defined by one’s ability to earn aliving,

make music, and persevere though physical hardships.
writing
Lane’s
Powell
ofthe
libertarian
attributed
books.leanings
theseand
themesinthe
toher sizable
Little
influence
House series to
overthe

on the
InPrairie,”
a 2012 article
Judithinthe
Thurmannotedthis
New Yorker titled
emphasis
“A Libertarian
oncommunity
House

states
Lane’s
in Lane’s
that
contemporary
Rand
workand
took recalledthat
exception
and occasional
with
it Lane’s
wasa
associate
sourceof
denial
Aynthat
Rand.
conflict
unrestrained
Thurman
with

self­interestwas beneficial to society.[95]

observing
construction
Taking
thatone
for
of granted
theLittle
can “hear
thatLane
House
the congenial
was
stories,
instrumental
echo
Thurman
of Lane’s
inthe
concludes by
polemics
thematic

in [the Little House stories], though tempered by something more

humane...[t]hey
rather
have perished(in
plaintivelyexaltrugged
greater
inher numbersthan
argument
self­reliance,
withRand,
they did)hadthey
butas
the Lanesuggested
pioneers would

of embraced
the philosophy every man for himself.”
themed
there,
of commerce,family,
womenThe
the
filmandfiction
did
LittleHouse
series
not instead
exist and theprovides
series
on
focuses
looks
self­government.
frontier,or
likewhen
on themore
a glimpse
opento
that
Far
mundane
frompretending
crime
into
bourgeois
what
challenges
wasrampant
frontier­
themes
that
of

with who
daily
for dramatic
dealt
the least­violent
life,whilenevertheless
throughthe
effect.Crime
solutions
intervention
possible.
didplayingup
exist,of
Militarism,
ofcourse,and
private
conflictswithinthe
citizens
Indian
this wasoften
sought
town

massacres,
abusive capitalists,and spineless villagers are asmarginal in Little
HouseAswith
as theyare
frontiersman
front and center
Charlesinthe
Goodnight’s
typicalclassical film Old
frontierWesterns.

Texas (1916), the Little House series, writtenbyawoman of the

historical frontier,does notrely on a myth inwhichthe nation­state
and its literary stand­in, the gunfighter, are necessary for order.
Order was formed in Walnut Grove out of the self­interest and long­
term planning and cooperative efforts of citizens. In Walnut Grove,
gunfighter
about
a world
making
withwould
few
moneyand
kidnappings,
findlittle
having
tomassacres,
doexcept
childrenlike
robberies,and
settle
everyone
downelse.
and
killings,
worrya

Little Housedoesn’t directly compete with classical Westerns,

violence
of
thecourse,ofbecause
sweepingsense
thefinal
it ofepic
does
showdown.
notadventure,
fillthesame
Such stories the cathartic
norniche.Thereis
is there
havealways noneof
been

itis
the
liberalism.
popular
odd far
that
[88]
moremundane,
in
their
Lane
fiction
defenders
is remembered
and will
commercial,
continue
likely
with
always
toand
Isabel
associatesuch
domestic
continue
Patterson
values
toadventures
and
be so,
of
Aynclassical
butRand
with

Brian
“Three
as one
[89]
Doherty,
Furies”
ofthe
Charles
ofthe
“Founding
inRadicals
libertarian
Mothers”
for movement.
Capitalism,refers
of the libertarian
tothemas
movement.
the

Ingalls is portrayed as a man who attempts to live

up to aChristian standard. Sometimes his wife will quote Scripture
in order to make a point about household chores or the important
capitulate to her demands.
role of womenin the family, atwhichpoint Charles will usually
1,
“Enter
[90]
[91]Miller,
the The
LoneLone
Ranger.”
JohnE.
Ranger
Laura
(1949–1957),
IngallsWilder
Episode
andRose
1, Season

Wilder
Lane: Authorship, Place,Time and Culture. University of Missouri
Press.[92]
Columbia.
Ibid. 2008.

although
Lane [93]
ismore
it Miller
is doubtfulthat
recognized
referstoLane
asalibertarian,
Lane’s
wouldself­identify
ideology as“conservative”
as conservative.

and was not closely

affiliated with the nationalistic and militantly anti­communist
movement that more,
movement.For came to
seebe
BrianDoherty’s
known asthe AmericanConservative
Radicals for Capitalism
of
or Justin
[94]Raimondo’s
Powell, Jim.The
Reclaiming
Triumphthe American
Liberty. The
Right.
FreePress. New
York. 2000.
[95] Thurman, Judith. “A Libertarian House on the Prairie.”
The New Yorker, August 17, 2012.
 XVII. Conclusion
Writing in the early 1960s,Frank Chodorov,thehighly­
influential libertarian andproponentof laissez­fairecapitalism,
declared in a light­hearted but sincere column that he watches
Westerns, probably due to a “bad case of ‘juvenilism.’”[96]
Chodorov
‘messages’”andthat
He
under
nobody,”
all
“sturdy,
concludes
the
alsohumbuggery
all
claims
self­reliant,
andthat
goesonto
thatthe
manner issoWesterns
that“nobodypreaches
Western
of
the
ofand
assert
thereis“nothing
his
charactersin
adverseconditions,”
self­responsible,”
day.
that pleasurable
Westerns
‘togetherness.’”
in thembut
are“singularly
says
because
ask
“fend
Chodorov,
“for
entertainment.”
for
“Everybody
itthemselves
help
repudiates
devoidof
and
from
he
is

In all of these statements, Chodorov is demonstrably wrong.

Obviously,the Western can’t be both devoid of “messages” while
simultaneously
sense asChodorovencouraging
imagines.self­reliance
The genre isperhapsoneofthe
andplain­talking common
most

message­laden genresextantdue to its statusasatypeof American

origin story. There’s much morein a Westernthan mere
entertainment.
Additionally, so muchof thegenreis dominatedby weak
citizens inneedof protection from battle­hardened gunfighters that
the
as
nobody.”
it would One of thecentral
peoplewhofendfor
needbewholly
forhelpfrom
inaccurate
athemselveswhile
gunfighter,
conceitsof
to describe
who
numerous
thesometimes
askingforhelp
characters
Western
ofWesterns
is a filmsis
private
“from

citizen butisjustasoften amilitary officer or lawman. In the post­

World
gunfighterwas.Hewas
War II, Cold War World, the audience knew who the
the American state, and he had a big gun.
From thefarmersinShane to the townsfolk of True Grit or The
the
badly.
togetherness
interests.
Man Who
hardly Theheroes
self­reliant.
Shotwhile
Liberty
They
ofTwoRode
theValance,
townsfolk
needed the
thegunman,
Together
look
settlers
outfortheir
and
ofandHighNoonownpreach
old frontier
theyneededhimpetty
were
 Additionally, the Western served to reinforce so much of what
Chodorov would have considered the humbuggery of his day.
Chodorov specifically opposed the militaristic anti­communism of
reinforced
the Cold War,yettheWestern,
Engelhardt,wasone
American prejudices
ofthe chief
about thejustice of prosecuting
elementsofpopular
asdemonstrated repeatedlyby
culturethat
the

Cold War through superior firepower. The massacres of

for
treacherous,
War,
the
widespreadkillingof
need
whiletherole
aback­stabbing
strongofthefrontier
American
Japanese
Indians
state
civilians
gunmanas
in
inthe
filmhelped
during
“anarchic”
peacemaker
theSecond
tointernational
justifythe
illustrated
World

world that included Soviet communism.[97]

Yorke.
would
characters
if FrankChodorov
worldAsadefenderof
certainly
of
Instead,
the
are classical
he
virtually
notwouldbe
hadsomehow
have
classicalliberalism
Western
been
non­existent
portrayedas
cast
(which isclassical
beenmagically
asaSheriff
inaRansomStoddardor
andlearned
unlikely
Chance
transported
Westerns),
man
since
ora
of Jewish
letters,
Kirby
tothe
he

one
He to
and
possible
of
from
charactermight
or
be the
perhaps
ofstrong
any
aviolent
cowering
bythe
value
unappreciative
former
U.S.Army,
on
townsfolk
and
finally
thefrontier.
outlaw
horribledeath.
recognize
toward
lacking
who
the man
paves
the
theimportant
wouldbe
that
with
gunfighter
Inthe
the
yes,civilization
the
way
depicted
badge
end,the
for
skills
who
or
prosperity
as
protectshim
by
necessary
prejudiced
Chodorov
thesilent
is made
and

freedom
misconception
system
an earlier
Chodorov’s
Farpromotedby
onthe
frombeing
America,
frontier.
among
enthusiasm
the
thegenre.
anexemplarofthe
many
Western
forWesterns
ofits
inveighs
defenders
bourgeois
illustrates
against
regardingthe
free­markets
liberal
the widespread
valuesof
value
and

defends
intellectuals,
Americanswho
instead
Farfrom
seeks
thepower
Christian
tooverturn
preserving
actually
ofthe
civilization,
settledthe
the
so­called
nation­state.
valuesystem
and
traditional
peace.
Itattacks
of theAmerican
nineteenth
domestic
values,
century
life,
it

frontier.
literature
The Westernrepudiates
ofthe nineteenth century
theVictorian
by offering
bourgeoisculture
a verydifferent
and
vision. This vision reached its peak with the post­war classical
Westerns in which the people of the frontier, and by extension the
audience, were given a choice between the way of the gun and total
in
the
their
subjugation.As
elementspresent
mostdeveloped
aColdinthe
form
War early
fable,
which
Westerns
the the
Western
frontierisa
andatmid­century
expandedthem
violent took
and
to

forbidding
the gunfighter.
assumptions
filmmakers
Not confinedto
place
bythe
ofthe
made
proponents
Westernwere
the
habitable
politicsofonly
ofnostalgic
mid­century,
handed
with the
primitivism
downto
power
however,the
of mid­century
the
of gun
the core
late
and

nineteenth century. They emphasized a primitive lifestyle, anti­

capitalism, andmasculine virtue in a wild land over the Victorian
values
war AsWesternfilms
period,sodid
of the cities andthe
they
changed
evolve
bourgeois
fromthe
from
parlorsof
thesilent
classical
the
period
East.
period
tothetopost­
the

It
Watergateandthe
Americannation­state
revisionist
grew outofperiod.It
favor. Vietnam
was
is not
began
replaced
merelycoincidental
War,the
tobreak
by a revamped
classical
downinthe
thatasfaith
style
Western
of Westerns
wakeof
formula
in the

that saw corruption where the classical Western saw virtue, and
shifted
Victorians
despair
Among
awayfrom
where
became
the
the classical
Westerns
the
more
more
complex
Western inthe
established
still being
positedhope.
formulas.
later
madeWesterns
today,
The legacy
the
as the
original
ofthe
genre

formula
the
Little
need
origins.
point
nation’s
notbe
ofa
Houseseries
often
gun,
history
about
remains
that showdowns
image
andfrom
proved
largely
continues
that
where
intact,
and
adramatic
order
to
lawandorder
shape
however,
and
history
American
prosperity
andimposedatthe
ofalthough
the
ideas
have
frontier
about
their
the

superhero
Today,the
epics,Westernhas
and gritty police
been largelyreplaced
dramas. Zombieby films
zombieprovide
films,

similar story lines to the Indian extermination narratives of cavalry

powerful
stage.
Westerns,
viewerPolice
inthe
than
whilesuperheroes
dramas
these
faceof
other
continuetooffer
repugnant
genres,
actasmodern
however,
outlaws.
righteous
because
gunfighters
Theindignation
Westernis
it purports
on aglobal
forthe
more
to be
a type of American history. Although it does not reflect the reality
of the historical American frontier, the Western continues to form
the imaginations of viewers regarding the role of the American state
and American
[96] Chodorov,
society inthe modernworld.
Frank. “I Watch Westerns.”

http://mises.org/daily/4930
[97] Engelhardt. The Endof Victory Culture. Engelhardt
links
the common presence of “extermination” narratives in Westerns of
the periodwerelinkedtotheIndiansin
Japanese to the need tojustifythe war onJapanese civilians. The
wartime and post­wartime
popular cultureinordertoillustratethe incorrigible and alien nature
of Japanese society.
 Selected Filmography
Bad Company (1972)
The Ballad of Cable Hogue(1970)
Bend of the River (1952)
Bonanza (Television series, 1959–1973)
Bonnie and Clyde(1967)
Bronco Billy (1980) Kid
Butch Cassidy and the Sundance (1969)
Cheyenne Autumn (1964)
Chisum with
Dances (1970)
Wolves (1990)

Deadwood (Television series, 2004–2006)

Duck, You Sucker (1971)
El Dorado
The FarCountry
(1966)(1954)

Firefly (Television series, 2002)

Fistful ofDollars (1964)
For a Few Dollars More (1965)
Fort Apache(1948)
Geronimo:An AmericanLegend (1994)

The Good, TheBad, andThe Ugly (1966)

The Great Northfield Minnesota Raid (1972)
Hang ’Em High (1968)
High Noon(1952)
High Plains Drifter (1972)
How the West Was Won(1962)
Jesse James (1939)
Junior Bonner (1972)
Little
The LastoftheMohicans
House onthe Prairie(1992)
(Television series, 1974–1983)

Lonesome Dove (Mini­series, 1989)

LoneLongRiders
The Star (1996) (1980)

The Magnificent Seven (1960)

Major Dundee (1964)
The Man From Laramie (1955)
Man of the West (1958)
The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (1962)
The
My Darling
Naked Spur
Clementine
(1952) (1946)

Open RangeaTime
Once Upon (2003)inthe West (1968)

The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976)

Pale Rider (1985)
Pat Garrett andBilly the Kid (1973)
Ravenous (1999)
Red River (1948)
Rio
RideBravo
the High
(1959)
Country (1962)

Rio Lobo
Grande
(1970)
(1950)

The Searchers (1956)

Serenity (2005)
The Seven Samurai (1954)
Shane (1953)
She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (1949)
Silverado (1985)
Stagecoach (1939)
The Tin Star (1957)
Tombstone (1993)
The Treasureof theSierra Madre (1948)
3:10 toYuma (1957)
True Grit(1969)
Two Mules for Sister Sara (1970)
Two Rode Together (1961)
Unforgiven(1992)
The WildBunch(1969)
Winchester ’73 (1950)
Yojimbo (1961)
Young Guns(1988)
 Bibliography
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 ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Ryan W. McMakenisan economist and communications
professional, andhehasbeenteaching politicalscience atArapahoe
Community College since 2004. His writings have been published
in The American Conservative magazine, The Independent Review,
the
Scholar
popular
publications
oftheLudwig
libertarianweb
of theLudwigvon
vonMises in Auburn,
site LewRockwell.com.
Institute
Mises Institute,and
Heisan Alabama
Associated
at and
the

has a B.A.ineconomics andan M.A. in political science from the

University
three
Paul A.Cantor
children.
of Colorado.He
isClifton Waller
livesinColorado
Barrett ProfessorofEnglishat
withhis wife and
the

University
Culture in the
of Virginia,
Age of Globalization.
andthe authorForhis
ofGilligan
viewsonUnbound:
the Western,
Pop

see
vs. Authority
his newbook,
in American Film and TV. in Popular Culture: Liberty
The InvisibleHand