IEEE Guide For Loading Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers

IEEE Guide for Loading Dry-Type
Distribution and Power Transformers
IEEE Power and Energy Society
Sponsored by the
Transformers Committee
IEEE
3 Park Avenue IEEE Std C57.96™-2013
New York, NY 10016-5997 (Revision of
USA IEEE Std C57.96-1999)
Authorized licensed use limited to: PUC MG. Downloaded on October 15,2020 at 14:40:09 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE Std C57.96™-2013
(Revision of
IEEE Std C57.96-1999)

Sponsor
Transformers Committee
of the
IEEE Power and Energy Society
Approved 11 December 2013
IEEE-SA Standards Board
Abstract: General recommendations for the loading of dry-type distribution and power
transformers installed in ventilated, non-ventilated, and sealed type enclosures are included in
this standard.
Keywords: ambient temperature, constant load, hottest-spot temperature, IEEE C57.96™,

loading capability, loading transformer, rated output, resin-encapsulated, solid-cast transformer,
time constant, transient loading
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Participants
At the time this IEEE guide was completed, the Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformer Loading
Working Group had the following membership:
Richard P. Marek, Chair
James Antweiler Charles Johnson Lewis Powell

Robert Ballard Aleksandr Levin Mangesh Rajadhyaksha
Carl Bush Donald MacMillan Anil Sawant
Terry Drees Rogelio Martinez Sanjib Som
Derek Foster Aniruddha Narawane David Stankes
Juan Gutierrez Martin Navarro Kerwin Stretch
Timothy Holdway Dhiru Patel Vijay Tendulkar
Mike Iman Paulette Powell Robert Thompson
John John Albert Walls
The following members of the individual balloting committee voted on this guide. Balloters may have
voted for approval, disapproval, or abstention.
James Antweiler Roger Hayes Lorraine Padden

Robert Ballard Gary Heuston Bansi Patel
Peter Balma Timothy Holdway Wesley Patterson
Jeffrey Benach Jill Holmes Paulette Powell
Wallace Binder Philip Hopkinson Brian Penny
Thomas Bishop John Houdek Alvaro Portillo
Thomas Blackburn John John Iulian Profir
Carl Bush Charles Johnson Michael Roberts
William Byrd Laszlo Kadar Charles Rogers
Thomas Callsen Sheldon Kennedy Oleg Roizman
Paul Cardinal Yuri Khersonsky John Rossetti
John Crouse Jim Kulchisky Thomas Rozek
Glenn Davis Saumen Kundu Bartien Sayogo
Ray Davis John Lackey James Smith
Gary Donner Chung-Yiu Lam Jerry Smith
Henry Earle Stephen Lambert David Stankes
Dan Evans Aleksandr Levin Gary Stoedter
Rabiz Foda Thomas Lundquist Radoslaw Szewczyk
Joseph Foldi Richard P. Marek David Tepen
Marcel Fortin Omar Mazzoni Robert Thompson
Derek Foster Daniel Mulkey John Vergis
Doaa Galal Jerry Murphy Jane Verner
Jalal Gohari K. R. M. Nair Tony Weekes
Randall Groves Martin Navarro Kenneth White
Bal Gupta Arthur Neubauer Roger Wicks
Ajit Gwal Michael Newman James Wilson
Charles Haahr Raymond Nicholas Jian Yu
David Harris Joe Nims Kipp Yule
vi
Copyright © 2014 IEEE. All rights reserved.
When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this guide on 11 December 2013, it had the following
membership:
John Kulick, Chair

David J. Law, Vice Chair
Richard H. Hulett, Past Chair
Konstantinos Karachalios, Secretary
Masayuki Ariyoshi Mark Halpin Gary Robinson

Peter Balma Gary Hoffman Jon Walter Rosdahl
Farooq Bari Paul Houzé Adrian Stephens
Ted Burse Jim Hughes Peter Sutherland
Stephen Dukes Michael Janezic Yatin Trivedi
Jean-Philippe Faure Joseph L. Koepfinger* Phil Winston
Alexander Gelman Oleg Logvinov Yu Yuan
Ron Petersen
*Member Emeritus
Also included are the following nonvoting IEEE-SA Standards Board liaisons:
Richard DeBlasio, DOE Representative

Michael Janezic, NIST Representative
Patrick Gibbons
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Document Development
Erin Spiewak
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Technical Program Development
vii
Introduction
This introduction is not part of IEEE Std C57.96-2013, IEEE Guide for Loading Dry-Type Distribution and Power
Transformers.
This guide covers the loading of dry-type distribution and power transformers and has been developed to
cover modern dry-type transformers through 10 000 kVA. The insulation systems referred to in this
document meet the thermal evaluation criteria established by the now withdrawn IEEE Std C57.12.56™-
1986 a or the replacement document, IEEE Std C57.12.60™.
Work completed by the IEEE Insulation Life Subcommittee, comprising life test on transformer models, is
the basis for the insulation life versus temperature relationship, designated as minimum life expectancy in
IEEE Std C57.12.56-1986 and IEEE C57.12.60, which in turn are based on the Arrhenius reaction rate
theory. To avoid ambiguity, this guide will use the term “life expectancy” to indicate the life to be expected
at a given temperature. The “normal life expectancy” at rated hottest-spot temperature in a 30 °C ambient is
expected to be 20 years. For calculation purposes, 180 000 h is used as the expected lifetime.
This revision of the guide combined the content for all dry-type transformers, including those with solid-
cast and/or resin-encapsulated epoxy windings into the main body of the document. In addition, the
computer programs in Annex B have been updated to include all transformer types, and detailed examples
of loading and aging have been provided in Annex C. Moreover, the document has been updated to reflect
the current IEEE Style Guide format.
a
Information on references can be found in Clause 2.
viii
Contents
1. Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Purpose ................................................................................................................................................ 1
2. Normative references.................................................................................................................................. 1
3. Definitions .................................................................................................................................................. 2
4. Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 2
4.1 General information ............................................................................................................................. 2
4.2 Transformer life expectancy ................................................................................................................ 3
4.3 Transformer rated output ..................................................................................................................... 3
4.4 Aging of insulation .............................................................................................................................. 4
4.5 Ambient temperature ........................................................................................................................... 4
5. Loading equations ...................................................................................................................................... 5

5.1 Continuous loading .............................................................................................................................. 5
5.2 Transient loading ................................................................................................................................. 6
5.3 Time constants ..................................................................................................................................... 7
5.4 Calculation of loading capability ......................................................................................................... 8
6. Loading based on life expectancy ............................................................................................................ 12

6.1 Basic conditions ................................................................................................................................. 12
6.2 Factors affecting transformer life ...................................................................................................... 12
6.3 Lifetime ............................................................................................................................................. 13
6.4 Example deriving lifetime calculation constants ............................................................................... 14
6.5 Method of converting actual load cycle to equivalent constant load ................................................. 15
6.6 Temperature limits for loading above rating ..................................................................................... 17
6.7 Daily load calculations ...................................................................................................................... 18
6.8 Other limitations ................................................................................................................................ 19
Annex A (informative) Bibliography ........................................................................................................... 20
Annex B (informative) Computer programs................................................................................................. 21

B.1 Short time loading based on nameplate rating .................................................................................. 21
B.2 Loading above rating to give normal life expectancy during a one-day period ................................ 23
Annex C (informative) Example calculations .............................................................................................. 27

C.1 Overloads at constant temperature .................................................................................................... 27
C.2 Short time overload for a step change in load ................................................................................... 28
C.3 Life analysis with variable loads ....................................................................................................... 31
ix
IMPORTANT NOTICE: IEEE Standards documents are not intended to ensure safety, security, health,
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This IEEE document is made available for use subject to important notices and legal disclaimers.
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1. Overview
1.1 Scope
This guide covers general recommendations for the loading of dry-type distribution and power transformers
installed in ventilated, non-ventilated, and sealed type enclosures.
1.2 Purpose
This document provides users with guidelines and limitations for loading dry-type transformers according
to nameplate rating. Guidance is also provided for assessing the risks and consequences of loading above
nameplate rating.
2. Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document (i.e., they must
be understood and used, so each referenced document is cited in text and its relationship to this document is
explained). For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of
the referenced document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies.
1
IEEE Std C57.96-2013
IEEE Guide for Loading Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers
IEEE Std C57.12.01™, IEEE Standard General Requirements for Dry-Type Distribution and Power
Transformers, Including Those with Solid-Cast and/or Resin Encapsulated Windings.12
IEEE Std C57.12.56™-1986, IEEE Standard Test Procedure for Thermal Evaluation of Insulation Systems
for Ventilated Dry-Type Power and Distribution Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.12.60™, IEEE Standard Test Procedure for Thermal Evaluation of Insulation Systems for
Dry-Type Power and Distribution Transformers, Including Open-Wound, Solid-Cast, and Resin-
Encapsulated Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.94™, IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation, Application, Operation, and
Maintenance of Dry-Type General Purpose Distribution and Power Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.110™, IEEE Recommended Practice for Establishing Liquid-Filled and Dry-Type Power
and Distribution Transformer Capability When Supplying Nonsinusoidal Load Currents.
IEEE Std C57.134™, IEEE Guide for Determination of Hottest-Spot Temperature in Dry-Type
Transformers.
3. Definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply. The IEEE Standards
Dictionary Online should be consulted for terms not defined in this clause. 3
dry-type transformer: A transformer in which the core and coils are in a gaseous or dry compound
insulating medium.
non-ventilated dry-type transformer: A dry-type transformer that is so constructed as to provide no

intentional circulation of external air through the transformer and operating at zero gauge pressure.
sealed transformer: A dry-type transformer with a hermetically sealed tank.
ventilated dry-type transformer: A dry-type transformer that is so constructed that the ambient air may
circulate through its enclosure to cool the transformer core and windings.
4. Overview
4.1 General information
The recommendations given in this guide are based solely on the thermal characteristics of dry-type
transformers. The insulation systems referred to in this document meet the thermal evaluation criteria
established by the now withdrawn IEEE Std C57.12.56-19864 or the replacement document, IEEE Std
C57.12.60.
1
The IEEE standards or products referred to in this clause are trademarks of The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
2
IEEE publications are available from The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854,
USA (http://standards.ieee.org/).
3
IEEE Standards Dictionary Online subscription is available at:
http://www.ieee.org/portal/innovate/products/standard/standards_dictionary.html.
4
Information on references can be found in Clause 2.
2
Loads above rating, based on this guide, may be applied only after a thorough study has been made of all
the other various limitations that may be involved. Among these limitations are gas expansion and pressure
in sealed dry-type units; the thermal capability of associated equipment, such as bushings, leads,
connections, tap changers in all dry-type transformers; and ancillary equipment, such as cables, reactors,
circuit breakers, disconnecting switches, and current transformers. Also, limitations may be imposed by
voltage regulation necessary for satisfactory operation of connected apparatus and by the increased
operating costs due to the higher losses accompanying loads above nameplate rating. These may constitute
the practical limit on load-carrying ability and should be considered before applying loads in excess of
nameplate rating.
It is intended that dry-type transformers be installed based on the recommendations given in

IEEE Std C57.94. If dry-type transformers are installed in subsurface vaults or areas of minimum size
where the natural ventilation will significantly raise ambient temperature with changes in transformer
losses, the increase in effective ambient temperature for expected increased transformer losses must be
determined before loading limitations can be estimated.
Dry-type transformers are generally designed to permit loading in line with these guides, but if there are
any questions as to the capability of a particular transformer to carry the desired load, the manufacturer
should be consulted for specific recommendations.
4.2 Transformer life expectancy
Recommendations in this guide are based on the life expectancy of transformer insulation as affected by
operating temperature and time and do not consider other factors that may affect transformer life, such as
voltage stress or mechanical stress especially due to system voltage fluctuations or system faults.
The loading capability of transformers is related to properties of the insulating materials and insulation
systems. Transformer life expectancy is not accurately known for many reasons, but primarily due to
varying loads and operating temperatures over the life of a typical unit. However, the information given
regarding loss of life of the insulation is better understood, is considered to be conservative, and is the best
that can be produced from present knowledge of the subject. (The word “conservative” is used in the sense
that the expected loss of insulation life for recommended load will not be greater than the amount stated.)
4.3 Transformer rated output
The rated kilovolt-ampere output of a transformer is the load that it can deliver continuously at rated
secondary voltage and rated frequency without exceeding the specified temperature rise under usual service
conditions, as described in IEEE Std C57.12.01. The term “rated output” or “rated load” used in this guide
refers to nameplate rating of continuously rated transformers. For transformers that do not have a
continuous rating or when such information is not indicated on the nameplate or the transformer operating
manual, the manufacturer should be consulted for additional information.
The temperature rise on which the rating is based takes into consideration industry experience regarding the
insulation life as affected by operating temperature and the ambient temperature assumed to exist
throughout the life of the transformer. The actual output that a transformer can deliver at any time in
service without undue deterioration of the insulation may be more or less than the rated output, depending
upon insulation temperature rating, the ambient temperature, altitude, and other attendant operating
conditions.
3
4.4 Aging of insulation
Aging or deterioration of insulation is a function of time and temperature. Since in most apparatus the
temperature is not uniform, the part that is operating at the highest temperature will ordinarily undergo the
greatest deterioration. Therefore, aging studies consider the aging effects produced by the highest
temperature. In the transformer winding, this is known as the hottest-spot temperature. Additional
information on how to determine the hottest-spot temperature for dry-type transformers may be found in
IEEE Std C57.134.
Practically all of the data in reference to the aging of insulation at different temperatures has been obtained
in laboratory tests in which the changes in mechanical or electrical properties, or both, have been measured.
The relation between the life expectancy of insulation as indicated by laboratory tests and the actual life of
a transformer is largely theoretical. Thus, loading based on such information should be tempered by sound
judgment based on experience.
Because the cumulative effects of temperature and time in causing deterioration of transformer insulation
are not thoroughly established, it is not possible to predict with a great degree of accuracy the length of life
of a transformer, even under constant or closely controlled conditions, much less under widely varying
service conditions. However, the cumulative effects of repeated or long-time higher-than-normal operating
temperatures can lead to deterioration of the mechanical and dielectric properties of the insulation. If this
deterioration proceeds far enough, it may significantly reduce the life of the transformer, particularly if the
apparatus is subjected to system short-circuits or over-voltage stresses.
The change in rate of deterioration with change in temperature has been widely studied, but the amount of
change in actual transformer life with a change in operating temperature remains debatable. However, there
is agreement that, in all of the methods of calculating the effect of operating temperature on insulation life,
higher than normal operating temperatures, whether they are due to loads above rating or to high ambient
temperatures, result in some reduction in transformer life.
The many variables mentioned, and particularly the many varying conditions of load and ambient to which
a transformer can be subjected in service, make it impossible to give precise rules for the loading of
transformers. However, it is possible to give suggested loading under specified conditions to assist the user
in making informed loading decisions.
4.5 Ambient temperature
Ambient temperature is an important factor in determining the load capability of a transformer, since the
temperature rise for any load must be added to the ambient to determine the operating temperature.
Whenever the actual ambient temperature can be determined from readings taken at the time of the load
pattern being considered, such temperatures should be used to determine the winding hottest-spot
temperature and the load capability of the transformer. It is often necessary to predict the load that a
transformer can carry with no sacrifice of life expectancy at some future time when the actual ambient
temperature is unknown. For dry-type transformers used in indoor installations, the ambient temperature
can be approximated from heating or air conditioning records of the installation. For transformers used
outdoors, the ambient temperature for the month in which the expected load is anticipated can be obtained
from reports gathered by the Climatic Services Branch of the National Climatic Data Center, which is a
part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [B6]. These reports are available for areas
throughout the world.
These ambient temperatures should be used as follows:
 For loads with normal life expectancy, use the average temperature over a period of years for the
month involved.
4
 For short-time loads above rating with moderate sacrifice of life expectancy, use the average of the
daily maximum temperatures for the month involved averaged with similar values for the same
month over a period of years.
5. Loading equations
5.1 Continuous loading
The hottest-spot winding temperature may be calculated by Equation (1):
ΘHS = Θa + Δ ΘHS (1)
where,
ΘHS is the hottest-spot winding temperature, in °C

Θa is the ambient temperature, in °C
∆ΘHS is the hottest-spot temperature rise over ambient, in °C
The hottest-spot temperature rise as a function of load for steady-state conditions and self-cooled operation
may be calculated by Equation (2) through Equation (4):
Δ Θ HS = Δ Θ HS ,r × [L ]
2m
(2)
where,

∆ΘHS,r is the rated hottest-spot temperature rise over ambient at 1.0 per unit load, in °C
L is the per unit load
m is an empirical constant (0.8 is suggested unless another value can be justified by test
data)
Fan-cooled operation is calculated as follows:
[
Δ Θ HS = Δ Θ HS ,r × L2 KT ]X
(3)
where,

KT is the temperature correction for resistance change with temperature
X is an empirical constant used in forced-air calculation (1.0 is suggested unless another
value can be justified by test data)
5
Tk + Δ Θ HS
KT = Tk + Δ Θ HS , r (4)
where,

Tk is the temperature constant for conductor (225 for aluminum and 234.5 for copper)
Test data indicates that Equation (2) through Equation (4), although only approximate, should result in
conservative predictions of the hottest-spot temperature. The m exponent of 0.8 for self-cooled operation
and the X exponent of 1.0 for forced-air operation are derived from heat transfer correlations for natural and
forced convection. Test data indicates that a temperature correction for resistance given by Equation (4) is
required to predict hottest-spot temperatures during forced-air loading due to the higher losses present at
forced-cooled operation.
Equation (2) and Equation (3) ignore eddy losses in the winding, which vary inversely with temperature.
Eddy losses are usually less than 10% of the load losses unless harmonic currents are present. Equation (3)
requires an iterative calculation procedure. Using the suggested exponents and considering the resistance
change with temperature for fan-cooled operation should result in conservative calculations of the hottest-
spot temperature rise even when eddy losses are ignored. If harmonic currents are present, the increased
eddy losses during overloading may need consideration in accordance with IEEE Std C57.110.
5.2 Transient loading
The hottest-spot temperature due to transient overloading may be determined by Equation (5) and
Equation (6):
[
∆Θt = (∆ΘU − ∆Θi )× 1 − exp − τt + ∆Θi ( )]r
(5)
where,
∆Θt is the hottest-spot temperature rise at some time t after the overload, in °C
∆Θi is the initial hottest-spot rise at some prior load Li, in °C
∆ΘU is the ultimate hottest-spot rise if the per unit overload LU, continued until the hottest-spot
temperature stabilized, in °C
t is the time, in minutes
τr is the time constant in minutes for the transformer at rated load
ΘHS = Δ Θt + Θa (6)
where,
ΘHS is the hottest-spot temperature, in °C

6
5.3 Time constants
The concept of a transformer time constant is based on the assumption that a single heat source supplies
heat to a single heat sink and that the temperature rise of the sink is an exponential function of the heat
input. The time constant is the time required for the temperature of the winding to reach 63.2% of a
stabilized temperature at any load. In this context, the time constant is the time required for the temperature
rise over ambient to change 63.2% after a step change in load. For loading purposes, it is desirable to have
as large a time constant as possible. Hottest-spot temperature calculations for loading should be made on
both the low-voltage and high-voltage windings, since published test data indicates that the time constants
may be different. Insulation system temperature classes for the two windings may also be different.
The time constant of a winding at rated load may be estimated by the Equation (7):
(
C ∆ΘHS , r − Θe )
τr = Pr (7)
where

C is the effective thermal capacity of winding, in watt-minutes per K (Wmin/K),
[15.0 × mass of aluminum conductor in kilograms (kg)] + [24.5 × mass of epoxy and/or
other winding insulation in kilograms (kg)], or
[6.42 × mass of copper conductor in kilograms (kg)] + [24.5 × mass of epoxy and/or
other winding insulation in kilograms (kg)]
Pr is the I2R loss of a winding at rated load and rated temperature rise, in watts
Θe is the core contribution to winding hottest-spot temperature rise at rated load, in °C
(5 °C for outer winding, other values may be used if test data is available)
(25 °C for inner winding, other values may be used if test data is available)
The time constant for any load and for any starting temperature for either a heating cycle or a cooling cycle
may be estimated by Equation (8).
( ∆ΘU
∆Θ HS ,r
)− ( ∆Θi
∆Θ HS ,r
)
τ = τr ×
( ∆ΘU
∆Θ HS ,r
1
m ) −( ∆Θi
∆Θ HS ,r
1
m ) (8)
where,
τ is the time constant in minutes for the transformer at any load

∆ΘHS,r is the rated or tested hottest-spot temperature rise over ambient at 1.0 per unit load, in °C
m is an empirical constant, which is equal to 0.8 (suggested unless test data is available)
Time constants may also be estimated from the hot resistance cooling curve obtained during thermal tests.
The manufacturer may also be consulted for more accurate estimations of the winding time constants than
7
estimated by Equation (7) and Equation (8). Consideration may be given to specifying that time constants
be shown on test reports when supplied.
5.4 Calculation of loading capability
5.4.1 Loading in standard conditions
Equation (1) through Equation (8) may be used to determine hottest-spot temperatures during overloads.
They may also be used to determine the short-time or continuous loading.
The initial hottest-spot rise for prior load Li may be obtained from Equation (2). It is determined in
Equation (9):
∆Θi = ∆ΘHS , r × [Li ]2m (9)
where,
∆Θi is the hottest-spot temperature rise at the prior per unit load, in °C
Li is the prior per unit load
From Table 1, select the rated hottest-spot winding temperature.
Table 1 — Constants for lifetime equation

Insulation Rated hottest- Arrhenius’ equation constants
system spot winding
6 °C 8 °C 10 °C
temperature temperature
°C °C ln(a) b ln(a) b ln(a) b
130 120 –34.011 18 129 –22.656 13 665 –15.844 10 986
150 140 –36.321 20 006 –24.389 15 076 –17.230 12 118
180 170 –39.787 22 994 –26.988 17 322 –19.309 13 919
200 190 –42.098 25 102 –28.721 18 907 –20.696 15 190
220 210 –44.408 27 302 –30.454 20 560 –22.082 16 515
For the ambient temperature, determine the permissible hottest-spot temperature rise at time t from
Equation (1), as shown in Equation (10).
∆Θt = ΘHS − Θa (10)
where,
∆Θt is the hottest-spot temperature rise at time t, in °C

ΘHS is the hottest-spot winding temperature, in °C
Determine the ultimate hottest-spot temperature rise from Equation (5), as shown in Equation (11).
8
 ∆Θ − ∆Θ 
∆ΘU =  t i
t )
+ ∆Θi (11)
 1 − exp ( − 
τ 
where,
t is the duration of the overload, in minutes
τ is the time constant in minutes for the transformer
From Equation (2), the overload corresponding to these conditions may be obtained as in Equation (12):
LU = [ ]
∆ΘU
∆Θ HS ,r
1
2m
(12)
where,
LU is the overload in per unit load

A similar derivation based on Equation (3) results in the Equation (13) for forced air operation:
1
 ∆ΘU  X
 ∆Θ HS , r 
LU = KT (13)
where,
LU is the overload in per unit load

X is an empirical constant used in forced-air calculation, which is 1.0 (suggested unless test
data available)
9
5.4.2 Influence of ambient temperature
The average ambient temperature should cover periods not exceeding 24 h, with the maximum temperature
not more than 10 °C greater than the average temperature. For each degree Celsius that the average
temperature of the cooling air is above or below 30 °C, a transformer may be loaded below or above its
nameplate kilovolt-ampere rating for any period, as specified in Table 2. Loading based on ambient
temperature with the loads permitted by Table 2 can give approximately the same life expectancy as if the
transformers had been operated at nameplate rating and standard ambient temperatures over the same
period. The operation of transformers in cooling air above 50 °C or below 0 °C is not covered by Table 2,
and the manufacturer should be consulted for these operating conditions. Since the ambient temperature is
an important factor in determining the load capability of a transformer, it should be controlled for indoor
installations by adequate ventilation, and it should always be considered in outdoor installations.
Table 2 —Continuous per unit loading capability as a function of ambient temperature

24 h average ambient Insulation temperature class
Cooling temperature
mode °C 130 150 180 200 220
0 1.20 1.16 1.13 1.11 1.10
10 1.13 1.11 1.09 1.08 1.07
AA, 20 1.07 1.06 1.04 1.04 1.03
ANV
30 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
40 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.96
50 0.85 0.88 0.91 0.92 0.93
0 1.15 1.13 1.10 1.09 1.08
10 1.11 1.09 1.07 1.06 1.05
AA/FA,
AFA 20 1.05 1.04 1.04 1.03 1.03
30 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
40 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.97
50 0.88 0.90 0.93 0.94 0.94
NOTE—Cooling mode designations may be found in IEEE Std C57.12.01.
Table 2 per unit AA and ANV loading capability values are calculated from Equation (15) which is derived
from Equation (1) and Equation (2) as in Equation (14):
Θ HS =Θ a + ΔΘ HS ,r × [L]2 m (14)
Solving for the per unit load L, the equation then becomes:
L= [ Δ Θ HS ,r
]
Θ HS − Θ a 0.625
(15)
where,
ΘHS is the hottest-spot winding temperature, in °C, as defined in Table 1

Θa is the ambient temperature, in °C, equal to the 24-h average ambient temperature in
this case
10
ΔΘHS,r is the rated or tested hottest-spot temperature rise over ambient at 1.0 per unit load, in °C
Table 2 per unit AA/FA and AFA loading capability values are calculated in a similar fashion from
Equation (1) and Equation (3). Note, however, that the resistance temperature correction factor KT was not
used to develop the table values, since these factors are intended to be estimates, and it would not be
possible to properly vary the correction factor for the different temperature classes in a single table. More
accurate load factors may be calculated for specific application conditions by using the reference equations
with the proper resistance temperature correction factor.
5.4.3 Influence of altitude on loading
Because dry-type transformers are dependent on air for dissipation of heat loss, the effect of decreased air
density due to high altitude is to increase the temperature rise of the transformers. Transformers may be
operated at rated kilovolt-amperes at altitudes greater than 1000 m without exceeding temperature limits,
provided the average temperature of the cooling air does not exceed the values of Table 3 for the respective
altitudes. The cooling air temperatures are based on an increase in average winding temperature rise of
0.5% for every 100 m above 1000 m altitude for natural cooling and 1.0% for forced-air cooling. The data
included in Table 3 apply to ventilated dry-type and non-ventilated dry-type transformers only and are not
applicable to sealed or gas-filled transformers. An altitude of 4500 m is considered a maximum for dry-type
transformers conforming to IEEE Std C57.12.01.
Table 3 — Maximum allowable 24-h average temperature of cooling air in °C for operation
at rated kilovolt-amperes with normal loss of life under unusual altitude conditions
Insulation Rated average winding Altitude
temperature class temperature rise
AA, ANV cooling °C
1000 m 2000 m 3000 m 4000 m
130 75 30 26 23 19
150 90 30 26 21 17
180 115 30 24 19 13
200 130 30 24 17 11
220 150 30 23 15 8
Insulation Rated average winding Altitude
temperature class temperature rise
AA/FA, AFA cooling °C
1000 m 2000 m 3000 m 4000 m
130 75 30 23 15 8
150 90 30 21 12 3
180 115 30 19 7 -5
200 130 30 17 4 -9
220 150 30 15 0 -15
NOTE—Cooling mode designations may be found in IEEE Std C57.12.01
Transformers may be operated in a 30 °C ambient at altitudes greater than 1000 m without exceeding
temperature limits, provided the load to be carried is reduced below rating by the percentages given in
Table 4 for each 100 m that the altitude exceeds 1000 m. IEEE C57.12.01 only recognizes dry-type
11
transformer applications up to 4500 m. The transformer manufacturer should be consulted for applications
above this altitude.
Table 4 — Rated kilovolt-ampere derating factors for altitudes

greater than 1000 m at 30 °C average ambient temperature
Type of cooling Derating factor for each 100 m %
Self-cooled (AA, ANV) 0.3
Forced-air-cooled (AA/FA, AFA) 0.5
6. Loading based on life expectancy
6.1 Basic conditions
The basic loading conditions of a transformer for normal life expectancy are as follows:
 The transformer is continuously loaded at rated kilovolt-amperes and rated delivered voltage.
 The average temperature of the cooling air during any 24-h period is equal to 30 °C, and the
temperature of the cooling air at no time exceeds 40 °C.
 The altitude does not exceed 1000 m.
The hottest-spot temperature of the winding is the sum of the ambient temperature, the average temperature
rise, and the hottest-spot allowance. For dry-type transformers operating continuously under the foregoing
conditions, the rated hottest-spot temperature is 10 °C less than the temperature class, based on a 30 °C
ambient temperature. IEEE Std C57.12.60 is the document that defines the test procedure for thermal
evaluation of dry-type transformer insulation systems. Although the end point was arbitrarily set to
40 000 h, it should not be interpreted that this is also the life of the corresponding transformer. The
resulting thermal index allows the comparison of different insulation systems in response to a very severe
accelerated life test, intentionally designed to precipitate a failure within a reasonable length of time. Years
of experience have indicated that a transformer rated in accordance with IEEE Std C57.12.01 and operated
under the foregoing conditions are estimated to yield a normal life expectancy of 20 years or more.
6.2 Factors affecting transformer life
Dry-type transformers may be loaded above rated kilovolt-amperes under conditions other than those
specified in the preceding clauses, with a sacrifice of life expectancy dependent on the load capability of
the transformer and on the actual operating conditions.
The overload capability of dry-type transformers varies widely and is affected by the following
characteristics:
 Hottest-spot winding conductor rise over ambient

 Ratio of load losses to no-load losses
 Time constant
 Ambient temperature
12
Operating conditions for dry-type transformers are so variable that no single set of practical loading data
can be presented for all possible combinations of conditions and loading. However, methods are outlined in
this clause whereby the user can estimate allowable loads for the user’s own conditions by taking into
account the probable number and nature of such loads during the life of the transformer and the
approximate percentage of life expectancy that the user is willing to sacrifice.
Dry-type transformers may be loaded above their rated kilovolt-amperes, with a sacrifice of life
expectancy, dependent upon the load capability of the transformer and on the actual operating conditions.
When heat, which is mainly due to the transformer losses, is transferred to the insulation system, a
chemical process begins. This process changes the molecular structure of the materials that form the
insulation system. The aging rate increases with the amount of heat transferred to the system. This process
is cumulative and irreversible, which means that the materials do not regain their original molecular
structure when the heat supply stops and the temperature decreases. It is assumed that failing insulation due
to aging is one of the causes of end of life of the transformer.
It is also assumed that the aging rate varies with temperature according to the Arrhenius equation. The two
constants in Arrhenius’ equation should ideally be determined by means of thermal endurance testing
according to IEEE Std C57.12.60. Where such test data is not available, this guide provides estimated
constants, which are calculated on the basis of the following assumptions:
a) General consensus is that a temperature increase of 6 °C for solid-cast and 10 °C for resin-
encapsulated transformers doubles the aging rate and are good estimated values for the whole
winding linked with the value of specific materials used in the winding
b) A tested value for this doubling rate should be used when determined by thermal endurance tests on
the complete electrical insulation system
c) 180 000 h is taken as the normal life expectancy of approximating 20 years life operating at the
rated hottest-spot temperature.
6.3 Lifetime
The expected lifetime tLife of a transformer at a constant hottest-spot temperature T in Kelvin (K) can be
calculated by means of the following Arrhenius equation [Equation (16)]:
b
t Life = a×e T
(16)
This equation can be more conveniently written as Equation (17):
b
t Life = a × exp  (17)
T 
where
tLife is the expected lifetime in hours

a is a constant for different insulation system temperatures (ln(a) is given in Table 1 for ease of
calculation)
b is a constant, given in Table 1, for different insulation system temperatures
T is the hottest-spot temperature in Kelvin (K)
e is the base of natural logarithms with the approximate value of 2.718 282
NOTE— Degrees Celsius may be converted to degrees Kelvin by adding 273.15.
13
Rearranged, this equation becomes Equation (18):
b
ln(t Life ) = ln(a) +   (18)
T 
6.4 Example deriving lifetime calculation constants
The following illustrates the procedure for calculating the constants ln(a) and b for the rated hottest-spot
temperature T, for the different insulation system temperatures in Table 1. Equation (20) and Equation (21)
are taken from the base Equation (19), beginning with the assumed lifetime of 180 000 h and the half-life
of 90 000 h. For a 220 insulation system with a halving constant of 10 °C, the hottest-spot temperature at
180 000 h is 210 °C and the hottest-spot temperature at 90 000 h is 220 °C. The constants for a range of
insulation systems are shown in Table 1 with a 6 °C halving constant, corresponding to a typical solid-cast
insulation system and a 10 °C halving constant, corresponding to a typical resin-encapsulated insulation
system. The constants for a halving constant of 8 °C are also shown as an example of an insulation system
with a non-typical halving constant.
b
ln(180 000) = + ln(a ) = 12.100712 (19)
210 + 273.15
b
ln(90 000) = + ln(a ) = 11.40756 (20)
210 + 10 + 273.15
Equation (19) and Equation (20) then become Equation (21) and Equation (22):
ln(a) = 12.100712 − 483b.15 (21)
ln(a) = 11.40756 − 493b.15 (22)
Subtracting Equation (22) from Equation (21) results in:
0 = 12.100712 − 11.40756 − 483b.15 + b

493.15 (23)
b = 16 515.4 (24)
Substituting b into Equation (21) results in:
ln(a) = 12.100712 − 34.1827 = − 22.082 (25)
14
6.5 Method of converting actual load cycle to equivalent constant load
Permissible loading is a function of the initial load, the peak load and their durations. Each loading
combination may be considered as a simple rectangular load cycle consisting of an essentially constant
initial load followed by a rectangular peak of the magnitude and time given in the tables, with the load
returning to the initial load at the end of the rectangular peak. The assumed loading for the calculations in
the tables is illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1 — Assumed load cycle
The daily load cycle is more often similar to the cycle represented by the solid line in Figure 2 throughout
the day and usually with one period in the daily load cycle when the load builds up to a considerably
greater value than any reached at other times. Generally, the maximum value or peak load is not reached
and passed suddenly but builds up and falls off gradually. To use the loading recommendations, the actual
fluctuating load cycle must be converted to a thermally equivalent, simple rectangular load cycle, such as
that represented by the dashed line in Figure 2. A transformer supplying a fluctuating load generates a
fluctuating loss, the effect of which is about the same as that of an intermediate load held constant for the
same period of time. This is due to the heat storage characteristics of the materials in the transformer. A
load, generating losses at the same rate as the average rate caused by the fluctuating load, is an equivalent
load from a temperature standpoint. Equivalent load for any portion of a daily load cycle may be expressed
by Equation (26).
LEQ
(L2 t + L2 t + ... + L2 t )
=  1 1(t +2t 2 + ... t ) n n 
0.5
 1 2 n  (26)
where
L1, L2, …, Ln are the various load steps in percent, per unit, or in actual kilovolt-amperes
t1, t2, …, tn are the duration of the loads, respectively.
Equivalent initial load is the root-mean-square (rms) load obtained by Equation (27) over a chosen period
preceding the peak load. Experience with this method of load studies indicates that quite satisfactory results
are obtained by considering the 12-h period preceding the peak in the determination of the equivalent initial
load. With a time interval of 1 h suggested as a further simplification, the equation for a 12-h period
becomes the following:
15
(
equivalent initital load = 0.29 × L12 + L22 + ... + L12
2
)0.5
(27)
where
L1, L2, …, L12 are the average load by inspection for each 1-h interval of the 12-h period
preceding peak load.
Figure 2 — Actual load cycle
Equivalent peak load for the usual load cycle is the rms load obtained by Equation (27) for the limited
period over which the major part of the actual irregular peak seems to exist. The estimated duration of the
peak has considerable influence over the rms peak value. If the duration is overestimated, the rms peak
value may be considerably below the maximum peak demand. To guard against overheating due to high,
brief overloads during the peak period, the rms value for the peak load should not be less than 90% of the
integrated 0.5-h maximum demand.
Loading factors greater than 2.0 per unit of the rated load are very severe and can cause many issues aside
from reducing transformer life. Such loading should only be used as a last resort and with great care. If this
situation arises, the user is advised to contact the manufacturer for analysis of the specific transformer and
to seek expert advice. For this reason, a 2.0 per unit load is used as a limiting factor in this guide.
Table 5 shows per unit load calculation results for a range of situations for various insulation temperature
classes. The calculations are the result of the basic computer program detailed in B.1. The limiting factors
are the 2.0 per unit load and a maximum hottest-spot temperature equal to the insulation system
temperature class.
16
Table 5 — Examples of short-time overload based on rating not

exceeding maximum hottest-spot temperature
Max hottest-
spot
temperature
Insulation Insulation Peak Prior Peak Time Ambient
reached
system system load stabilized load constant tempera-
during load
type temper- per load duration min ture
cycle
ature class unit per unit min °C
°C
1.00 0.5 120 15 40
150 1.10 0.7 60 30 30 150
1.39 0.9 30 60 20
1.00 0.5 120 15 40
Resin-
180 1.09 0.7 60 30 30 180
encapsulated
1.34 0.9 30 60 20
1.00 0.5 120 15 40
220 1.08 0.7 60 30 30 220
1.30 0.9 30 60 20
1.03 0.5 120 45 40
130 1.39 0.7 60 90 30 130
2.00 0.9 30 180 20
1.03 0.5 120 45 40
Solid-cast 150 1.37 0.7 60 90 30 150
2.00 0.9 30 180 20
1.03 0.5 120 45 40
180 1.34 0.7 60 90 30 180
1.90 0.9 30 180 20
6.6 Temperature limits for loading above rating
The actual output that a dry-type transformer can deliver at any time in service may be more or less than
the rated kilovolt-ampere output depending upon the ambient temperature, altitude, and other attendant
operating conditions. If the load and ambient temperatures are below rated, then an overload may be
sustained at the hottest-spot temperature rating of the insulation class of the windings. This is described as
rated temperature loading and should provide normal life expectancy.
Loading that results in hottest-spot temperatures above the insulation temperature class is defined as
loading above rating and can result in reduced life expectancy. The life expectancy decreases due to the
total cumulative effect of operation at a hottest-spot temperature above rating and the time at elevated
hottest-spot temperature. The manufacturer should be consulted for recommendations for maximum
permissible hottest-spot temperatures for loading above rating for a specific transformer. However, Table 6
provides guidelines in the absence of specific information. Note that while solid-cast transformers perform
very well in short time overload events due to the typically very long time constants, these transformers are
susceptible to epoxy cracking during sustained excessive overloads, which could lead to catastrophic
failure. Resin-encapsulated transformers typically overheat much more quickly and will survive very long
periods of excessive overload but with the consequence of drastically reduced insulation life. Table 6
reflects these typical characteristics with different recommended maximum limiting hottest-spot
temperatures for these two types of transformers.
17
Table 6 — Recommended temperature limits when loading beyond nameplate rating

Insulation Maximum hottest-spot Maximum hottest-spot temperature,
temperature class rated temperature loading above rating, °C
°C Solid-cast Resin-encapsulated
130 120 155 200
150 140 175 220
180 170 205 250
200 190 225 270
220 210 N/A 290
6.7 Daily load calculations
6.7.1 Loading on the basis of short-time loads
The permissible load on dry-type transformers may be increased above rated load for short times by the
multipliers derived from the equations of Clause 5 and the computer program in Annex B.1, provided that:
 The short-time peak load occurs not more than once in any 24-h period.
 The short-time peak load follows and is followed by either a constant load or an equivalent constant
load.
 The limitations of 6.6 and the basic conditions of 6.1 are met.
6.7.2 Effects of various factors existing at one time
When two or more of the following factors affecting loading for normal life expectancy exist at one time,
the effects are cumulative, and the increase in loads due to each may be added to secure the maximum
suggested load. (Each increase must be based on rated kilovolt-amperes.)
 Loading on basis of ambient temperature

 Loading on basis of measured temperature rise
 Loading on basis of short-time loads above rating
6.7.3 Loading above rating to give normal life expectancy
The data for Table 7 was determined by the computer program listed in Annex B.2 and was based on the
following limitations:
 Maximum 1.0 per unit daily life

 Maximum 2.0 per unit load
 Maximum hottest-spot temperature per Table 6
18
Table 7 — Examples of daily loads above rating to give normal life expectancy
Insulation Insulation Load in Prior Peak Time Ambient Max hottest-spot
system system excess stabilized load constant temperature temperature
type temperature of rating load duration min °C reached
class PU % min during load cycle
°C
1.18 0.5 120 15 40 183
150 1.38 0.7 60 30 30 214
1.45 0.9 30 60 20 219
1.14 0.5 120 15 40 219
Resin-
180 1.32 0.7 60 30 30 248
encapsulated
1.36 0.9 30 60 20 249
1.11 0.5 120 15 40 253
220 1.25 0.7 60 30 30 287
1.28 0.9 30 60 20 287
1.17 0.5 120 45 40 156
130 1.49 0.7 60 90 30 200
1.54 0.9 30 180 20 200
1.14 0.5 120 45 40 176
Solid-cast 150 1.40 0.7 60 90 30 218
1.45 0.9 30 180 20 219
1.12 0.5 120 45 40 208
180 1.32 0.7 60 90 30 248
1.36 0.9 30 180 20 249
6.8 Other limitations
6.8.1 Magnetic leakage field in structural metallic parts
The magnetic leakage field increases with increasing current. This field may cause excessive temperatures
in structural metallic parts that may restrict the overloading. It should be noted that when the hot-spot
temperature exceeds the highest temperature in Table 6 according to the insulation classes of the
transformer, the characteristics of the insulation system may decrease to a level below the minimum value
for the dielectric withstand of the transformer.
6.8.2 Accessories and other considerations
Aside from the windings, other parts of the transformer, such as bushings, cable-end connections, tap-
changing devices, the tap changer, temperature measurement devices, surge arresters, and leads may restrict
the operation above the rated current.
6.8.3 Thermal relays
A transformer thermal relay is a device that, when operated, indicates that predetermined time-temperature
limits in the transformer windings have been reached. It is calibrated for use with specific transformer
apparatus and automatically takes into account the hottest-spot temperature of the windings, the ambient
temperature, and previous conditions of loading. Higher loads are permitted for short periods of operation
than for long periods of operation. The relay can be adjusted to give indication at loads that can produce
practically normal life expectancy or some predetermined moderate sacrifice of such expectancy. The
device has one or more contacts that may be used for various functions, such as starting fans, giving a
signal or an alarm, or disconnecting the transformers.
19
Annex A
(informative)
Bibliography
Bibliographical references are resources that provide additional or helpful material but do not need to be
understood or used to implement this standard. Reference to these resources is made for informational use
only.
[B1] den Outer, F. R., “The loading of solid-insulation distribution transformers with special reference to
the cast resin type,” Proceedings of the International Conference on Electricity Distribution (CIRED 1977),
London, Part I, pp. 75–79, Discussion Part II, pp. 31–32, 37, 41–42, May 1977.
[B2] Featheringill, W. E., “Power transformer loading,” IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol.
IA-19, no. 1, pp. 21–27, Jan./Feb. 1983.
[B3] IEC 60076-12, Power Transformers—Part 12: Loading Guide for Dry-Type Power Transformers. 5
[B4] IEEE Std C57.12.59™, IEEE Guide for Dry-Type Transformer Through-Fault Current Duration.
[B5] Montsinger, V. M., and Cooney, W. H., “Temperature rise of stationary electrical apparatus as
influenced by radiation, convection, and altitude,” Annual Convention of the AIEE, Edgewater Beach,
Chicago, IL, June 1924.
[B6] National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Climatic Data Center Climate
Information. 6
[B7] Pierce, L. W., “An investigation of the temperature distribution in cast-resin transformer windings,”
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 920–926, April 1992.
[B8] Pierce, L. W., “Hottest spot temperatures in ventilated dry type transformers,” IEEE Transactions on
Power Delivery, vol.9, no.1, pp. 257-264, January 1994.
[B9] Pierce, L. W., “Predicting hottest spot temperatures in ventilated dry type transformer windings,”
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol.9, no.2, pp. 1160-1172, April 1994.
[B10] Pierce, L. W., “Thermal considerations in specifying dry-type transformers,” IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, vol.30, no.4, pp. 1090-1098, July/August 1994.
[B11] Pierce, L. W., “Transformer design and application considerations for nonsinusoidal load currents,”
XXXVII Conference Record of the IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference, pp. 35-47, June 1995.
[B12] Ristow, R. J., and McCann, F. J., “Problems of impact loading on unit transformers supplying
chipper motor drives,” Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual IEEE Pulp and Paper Conference, June 1970.
[B13] Whitman, L. C., “Loading of ventilated dry type transformers,” AIEE Transactions, vol. 76, Part III,
pp. 1077–1084, December 1957.
5
IEC publications are available from the Sales Department of the International Electrotechnical Commission, 3 rue de Varembé, PO
Box 131, CH-1211, Geneva 20, Switzerland (http://www.iec.ch/). IEC publications are also available in the United States from the
Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, 4th Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA
(http://www.ansi.org).
6
Available at: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/climate-information
20
Annex B
(informative)
Computer programs
B.1 Short time loading based on nameplate rating
B.1.1 Code
The following computer program coded in BASIC language is an example of how to calculate the data for
short term loading.
10 REM THIS PROGRAM CALCULATES THE
20 REM SHORT TIME LOAD CAPABILITY OF
30 REM DRY-TYPE TRANSFORMERS
40 REM L1 = PRIOR PER UNIT LOAD
50 REM T1 = AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
60 REM T2 = RATED HOT SPOT RISE
70 REM T6 = MAXIMUM LIMITING HS TEMP
80 REM T9 = WINDING TIME CONSTANT, MIN.
90 REM HV & LV HAVE DIFFERENT TIME CONSTANTS
100 REM CHECK BOTH AND USE SHORTEST VALUE
110 READ L1,T1,T2,T6,T9
120 REM T3 = INITIAL HOTTEST-SPOT RISE
130 REM T4 = MAXIMUM LIMITING HS RISE
140 REM T5 = ULTIMATE HOTTEST-SPOT RISE
150 REM M = EXPONENT FOR HEATING
160 REM L2 = SHORT-TIME LOAD CAPABILITY
170 REM DEPENDS ON SELECTION
180 REM OF MAXIMUM LIMITING HS
190 REM TEMPERATURE, T6
21
200 OPEN "\CLCAP.TXT" FOR OUTPUT AS #1
210 PRINT #1,"PRIOR LOAD = ",L1
220 PRINT #1,"AMBIENT TEMPERATURE = ",T1
230 PRINT #1, "RATED HOTTEST-SPOT RISE = ",T2
240 PRINT #1,"MAX. LIMITING HS TEMP = ",T6
250 PRINT #1,"TIME CONSTANT, MINUTES = ",T9
260 T4 = T6 - T1
270 M = 0.8
280 T3 = T2*(L1^(2*M))
300 PRINT #1,"SHORT-TIME LOAD CAPABILITY, SELF-COOLED"
310 PRINT #1," ","TIME, MIN.","LOAD, PU"
320 FOR T8 = 15 TO 240 STEP 15
330 X = 1 - EXP(-T8/T9)
340 T5 = ((T4 - T3)/X) + T3
350 X2 = 1/(2*M)
360 L2 = (T5/T2)^X2
370 IF L2>2 THEN L2 = 2
380 PRINT #1," ",T8,L2
390 NEXT T8
400 DATA 0.70,30,90,130,180
410 END
22
B.1.2 Example program output
The following is sample program output from the code in B.1.1
PRIOR LOAD = 0.7

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE = 30
RATED HOTTEST-SPOT RISE = 90
MAX. LIMITING HS TEMP = 130
TIME CONSTANT, MINUTES = 180
SHORT-TIME LOAD CAPABILITY, SELF-COOLED
TIME, MIN. LOAD, PU
15 2
30 2
45 2
60 1.769101
75 1.621648
90 1.519323
105 1.444161
120 1.386684
135 1.341396
150 1.304876
165 1.274882
180 1.249877
195 1.228774
210 1.21078
225 1.195303
240 1.18189
B.2 Loading above rating to give normal life expectancy during a one-day period
The following computer program coded in BASIC language is an example of how to determine the aging of
a dry-type transformer over a one-day period. The aging is based on some initial load less than 100% until
temperature equilibrium is reached. The load is then increased to some value greater than 100% for some
chosen period, after which the load is reduced to the original load value. Time intervals of 1 min are used to
improve the calculation accuracy, and the summation of the age for 1440 1-min periods gives the daily total
age in per unit of one day. The program may be used to determine for a given period what value the
transformer may be overloaded and then allowed to return to the initial load without exceeding the
equivalent aging of one day. This equivalent aging is the amount a transformer would undergo in a one-day
period at 100% continuous load in a 30° ambient.
100 PRINT "TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT AGING"
110 PRINT "THIS PROGRAM IS DESIGNED TO DETERMINE THE AGING OF A DRY-TYPE"
111 PRINT "TRANSFORMER OVER A ONE-DAY PERIOD OF TIME. THE TRANSFORMER"
112 PRINT "IS LOADED TO SOME INITIAL VALUE LESS THAN 100 PERCENT UNTIL"
113 PRINT "TEMPERATURE EQUILIBRIUM IS REACHED. THEN THE TRANSFORMER"
114 PRINT "IS LOADED GREATER THAN 100 PERCENT FOR SOME CHOSEN PERIOD"
115 PRINT "OF TIME. THE LOAD IS THEN REDUCED TO THE ORIGINAL VALUE."
23
116 PRINT ""
117 PRINT "THIS PROGRAM WILL DETERMINE, FOR A GIVEN OVERLOAD"
118 PRINT "PERIOD, WHAT VALUE THE TRANSFORMER MAY BE OVERLOADED AND"
119 PRINT "THEN ALLOWED TO RETURN TO THE INITIAL LOAD WITHOUT EXCEEDING"
120 PRINT "THE EQUIVALENT AGING. THIS AGING IS EQUIVALENT TO THAT WHICH"
121 PRINT "A TRANSFORMER WOULD UNDERGO IN A ONE-DAY PERIOD AT 100 PERCENT"
122 PRINT "CONTINUOUS LOAD IN A 30 DEGREE AMBIENT."
130 PRINT "PARAMETERS ARE AS FOLLOWS:"
131 PRINT "A AND B VALUES ARE THE ARRHENIUS CONSTANTS IN BASE e"
132 PRINT "FOR A GIVEN INSULATION SYSTEM."
133 PRINT "C = RATED HOTTEST-SPOT TEMPERATURE RISE"
134 PRINT "DELT = 1 (MINUTE)"
135 PRINT "T = TIME (MINUTES)"
136 PRINT "TAU = TIME CONSTANT (MINUTES)"
137 PRINT "AMB = AMBIENT TEMPERATURE (CELSIUS)"
138 PRINT "LI = PER UNIT INITIAL LOAD LESS THAN 1.0"
139 PRINT "LU = PER UNIT OVERLOAD GREATER THAN 1.0"
140 PRINT "X = PERIOD OF TIME IN MINUTES THAT OVERLOAD OCCURS"
141 PRINT "RA = AGING FACTOR FOR DELT PERIOD OF TIME"
142 PRINT "SUMRA = PER UNIT AGE SUMMATION FOR 1440 MINUTES (ONE DAY)"
143 PRINT "WHEN SUMRA = 1.00, THEN THE CALCULATED AGING EQUALS"
144 PRINT " ONE DAY AT 100 PERCENT LOAD."
145 PRINT "TEMPI = INITIAL TEMP RISE DUE TO CONSTANT LOAD < 1.0"
146 PRINT "TEMPU = ULTIMATE TEMP RISE TRANSFORMER WOULD REACH IF OVERLOAD
WERE"
147 PRINT "CONTINUOUSLY APPLIED"
148 PRINT "TEMPR = MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RISE OF TRANSFORMER (CELSIUS)"
149 PRINT "NOTE: VALUE OF TEMPR IS PRINTED AT THE END OF OVERLOAD"
24
150 PRINT "ABST = ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE (CELSIUS)"
151 PRINT "TEMPF = FINAL TEMPERATURE AFTER 1440 MINUTES (CELSIUS)"
200 INPUT ; "A,B,C,TAU,AMB"; A, B, C, TAU, AMB
210 INPUT ; "LI = "; LI
220 INPUT ; "X = "; X
230 INPUT ; "LU = "; LU
240 T = 0
245 DELT = 1
250 SUMRA = 0
260 TEMPI = LI ^ 1.6 * C
270 PRINT "TEMPI = "; TEMPI
280 TEMPU = LU ^ 1.6 * C
290 PRINT "TEMPU = "; TEMPU
292 TAU1 = TAU * ((TEMPU - TEMPI) / ((TEMPU ^ 1.25) - (TEMPI ^ 1.25))) * C ^ .25
300 T = X
302 RD = EXP(-1 * T / TAU1)
304 RE = 1 - RD
310 TEMPR = (TEMPU - TEMPI) * RE + TEMPI
312 TAU2 = TAU * ((TEMPI - TEMPR) / ((TEMPI ^ 1.25) - (TEMPR ^ 1.25))) * C ^ .25
313 T = 0
314 FOR T = 0 TO X
315 RD = EXP(-1 * T / TAU1)
316 RE = 1 - RD
317 TEMPR = (TEMPU - TEMPI) * RE + TEMPI
320 ABST = TEMPR + 273.15 + AMB
322 RB = -1 * (A + B / ABST)
324 RC = 2.7183 ^ RB
330 RA = 122 * DELT * RC
25
340 SUMRA = SUMRA + RA
345 NEXT T
360 FOR T = X TO 1440
362 RF = -1 * (T - X) / TAU2
364 RG = EXP(RF)
366 RH = 1 - RG
370 TEMPF = (TEMPI - TEMPR) * RH + TEMPR
380 ABST = TEMPF + 273.15 + AMB
382 RB = -1 * (A + B / ABST)
384 RC = 2.7183 ^ RB
390 RA = 122 * DELT * RC
400 SUMRA = SUMRA + RA
410 NEXT T
420 PRINT "TEMPR = "; TEMPR
430 PRINT "TEMPF = "; TEMPF
440 PRINT "SUMRA = "; SUMRA
442 PRINT "TAU1 = "; TAU1
444 PRINT "TAU2 = "; TAU2
450 GOTO 230
26
Annex C
(informative)
Example calculations
C.1 Overloads at constant temperature
C.1.1 Scenario
Each resin-encapsulated transformer in a double-ended substation is loaded to 60% of capacity. A

malfunction causes the removal of one transformer from the system and one unit is forced to supply both
loads. The outage is expected to last ten days. What is the expected hottest-spot temperature and what is the
estimated loss of life for the ten-day period of overload?
C.1.2 Assumptions
The calculations in C.1.3 are based on the following assumptions:
 Insulation thermal class 220

 Site ambient temperature 25 °C (constant)
 Maximum rated ambient temperature 40 °C
 Per unit overload (2 × 60%) 1.20
 Length of time for overload 10 days
C.1.3 Calculations
C.1.3.1 Using Equation (1):
Rated hottest-spot temperature rise over ambient = 220 – 40 = 180 °C
Hottest-spot temperature rise = 180 × 1.201.6 = 241 °C
C.1.3.3 Using Equation (1) and the constant site ambient temperature of 25 °C:
Actual hottest-spot temperature = 25 + 241 = 266 °C
As a crosscheck, the overload is within the guidelines, since the hottest-spot temperature does not exceed
the recommended maximum temperature of 290 °C as shown in Table 6.
27
C.1.3.4 Using Equation (17) to calculate estimated loss of life
The estimated loss of life due to this event is calculated using Equation (17) and the factors of Table 4 for a
halving factor of 10 °C for the 220 insulation system.
Ln(a ) = −22.082
a = exp(− 22.082 ) = 2.570E − 10
b = 16 515
t Life = 2.57 E − 10 × exp(16 515 (266 + 273.15)) = 5 165 h
C.1.3.5 Using Equation (17) for the rated hottest-spot temperature of 210 °C
By comparison, using Equation (17) for the rated hottest-spot temperature of 210 °C results in:
t Life = 2.570E − 10 × exp(16 515 (210 + 273.15)) = 179 869 h
or approximately 180 000 h.
C.1.3.6 Calculation results
Therefore, operation at a hottest-spot temperature of 266 °C, rather than the rated hottest-spot temperature
of 210 °C, results in an accelerated loss of life by the ratio of 179 869/5 165, or 34.8 times the normal rate
of loss of life. In other words, this is the equivalent of 34.8 h lost for each hour. Operating at the rated
hottest-spot temperature of 210 °C, results in only 1 h of life lost for each hour of operation.
10 × 24 × 34.8 = 8 352 total equivalent hours of life lost during the ten-day or 240- h overload event. This
is approximately equal to 8 352 /180 000 = 4.6% loss of life for this event. Normal loss of life for this same
period would be approximately equal to: 240/180 000 = 0.13%
C.2 Short time overload for a step change in load
C.2.1 Scenario
A solid-cast transformer is loaded to 50% of its capacity when it sees a step change in load for 2 h at the
end of a 24-h period at 130% of rated capacity. What is the hottest-spot temperature after the 2-h event?
What is the estimated loss of life for the overload period?
C.2.2 Assumptions

 Site ambient temperature 20 °C (constant)
28
 Per unit overload 1.30

 Length of time for overload 2h
 Shortest time constant for two windings 67 min
C.2.3 Calculations
The rated hottest-spot temperature rise over ambient = 150 – 40 = 110 °C
C.2.3.2 Using Equation (2) for initial hottest-spot temperature rise:
The initial hottest-spot temperature rise = 110 × 0.51.6 = 36.3 °C.
C.2.3.3 Using Equation (2) for the ultimate hottest spot temperature rise:
The ultimate hottest-spot temperature rise if allowed to stabilize = 110 × 1.301.6 = 167 °C
The adjusted time constant at overload = 67 ×

( )( )
167
110
−
36.3
110
= 67 × 0.828 = 55.5 min .
1 1
( ) ( )
167 0.8
110
−
36.3 0.8
110
The hottest-spot temperature rise after the event = (167 – 36.3) × (1 – exp (-120/55.5)) + 36.3 = 152 °C.
Adding the site ambient temperature of 20 °C, results in a hottest-spot temperature of 172 °C. The hottest-
spot temperature does not exceed the recommended maximum temperature of 175 °C. This is a quick check
using a fixed time constant. A spread sheet calculation provides a more accurate picture using a dynamic
time constant that changes with the changing winding temperature. The estimated loss of life may also be
calculated using Equation (18) and the factors of Table 4 for a halving factor of 6.
Ln(a) = -36.321
a = 1.683E-16
b = 20006
C.2.4 Calculation results
Table C.1 shows the spreadsheet results of the calculations. The aging rate and the hottest-spot temperature
are plotted in Figure C.1. The total loss of life over the 2-h period is equal to the area under the aging rate
curve, which can be calculated several ways. The simple summation shown at the bottom of Table C.1 is
29
the simplest calculation, but the accuracy depends on the size of the increment selected. In this case, an
increment of 0.1 h, or 6 min, results in a loss of life of 136 h for the 2-h period. An increment of 1 min
results in a summation of 135 h for the same period.
Other options for estimating the area under the curve also include graphical estimation. Figure C.1 shows a
dotted line drawn to approximate this area. The area of the triangle then is:
Loss of life = 0.5 × 290 per unit × (2.0 – 1.12) h = 128 h
Another method is to determine the equation of the line and then mathematically integrate the equation.
However, in this case the equation is:
y = −29.739 x 4 + 179.57 x 3 − 196.17 x 2 + 62.204 x − 3.1245
Mathematical analysis becomes very difficult, and numerical integration methods such as the trapezoidal
rule, Durand’s rule, and Simpson’s rule all lend themselves very well to computer analysis.
Table C.1— Tabulated calculations for step load change

Time Hottest-spot Hottest-spot Aging Loss of
Time constant temperature rise temperature rate lifetime
(h) (min) (°C) (K) per unit (h)
0.0 67.0 36.3 329 0.00000454 0.000000454
0.1 55.5 51.8 345 0.0000694 0.00000694
0.2 54.2 66.3 359 0.000723 0.0000723
0.3 53.1 79.7 373 0.00533 0.000533
0.4 52.3 91.9 385 0.0292 0.0 0292
0.5 51.6 103 396 0.124 0.0124
0.6 51.0 113 406 0.421 0.0421
0.7 50.5 122 415 1.20 0.120
0.8 50.1 129 422 2.93 0.293
0.9 49.8 136 429 6.28 0.628
1.0 49.5 142 435 12.1 1.21
1.1 49.2 148 441 21.2 2.12
1.2 49.0 153 446 34.4 3.44
1.3 48.8 157 450 52.3 5.23
1.4 48.7 160 453 75.0 7.50
1.5 48.5 164 457 103 10.3
1.6 48.4 166 460 135 13.5
1.7 48.3 169 462 170 17.0
1.8 48.2 171 464 209 20.9
1.9 48.1 173 466 250 25.0
2.0 48.1 175 468 292 29.2
Total loss of life in hours 136
30
Figure C.1—Plot of aging calculation data
C.3 Life analysis with variable loads
C.3.1 Scenario
A transformer has a repeating 24-h load cycle that includes variations in both the ambient temperature and
the load. What is the maximum hottest-spot temperature achieved, and what is the estimated loss of life for
the 24-h period? Normal loss of life would be 24 h.
C.3.2 Assumptions

 Site ambient temperature variable
 Percent load variable
 Length of time for load period 24 h
 Shortest time constant for two windings 25 min
31
C.3.3 Calculations
Spreadsheet analysis is well suited to more complicated combinations of varying load and ambient
temperature. In this example, the first three columns of Table C.2 illustrate the time in increments of 1-h,
the varying percent load, and the changing ambient temperature. The key results are also plotted in Figure
C.2 and Figure C.3. The area under the aging curve is calculated using Simpson’s rule, which takes the
following form:
1
AS = h [( y 0 + y n ) + 4( y1 + y 3 +  + y n −1 ) + 2( y 2 + y 4 +  + y n − 2 )]
3
where
AS is the area by approximation, or the loss of life in this case, in hours

h is the time increment, in hours
y is aging rate
n is an even number
32
Table C.2— Loss of life calculations for variable loads

Time Load Ambient Ultimate Time Hottest-spot Hottest Aging Simp- Simpson’s
h % temper- hottest-spot constant temperature -spot rate per son’s expansion
ature temperature minutes rise temper- unit factor
°C rise, °C achieved ature
°C °C
0 50 20 46.2 26.4 46.5 66.5 0.0000696 1 6.96E-05
1 50 20 46.2 33.0 46.2 66.2 0.0000674 4 0.000269
2 50 20 46.2 33.0 46.2 66.2 0.0000670 2 0.000134
3 55 20 53.8 31.8 52.6 72.6 0.000144 4 0.000576
4 55 20 53.8 31.8 53.6 73.6 0.000161 2 0.000323
5 60 20 61.8 30.7 60.7 80.7 0.000359 4 0.00144
6 65 20 70.3 29.7 69.0 89.0 0.000888 2 0.00178
7 70 25 79.1 28.8 77.9 103 0.00366 4 0.0146
8 70 25 79.1 28.8 79.0 104 0.00408 2 0.00816
9 80 25 98.0 27.3 95.8 121 0.0198 4 0.0794
10 100 30 140. 25.0 136 166 0.750 2 1.50
11 110 30 163 24.1 161 191 4.09 4 16.4
12 110 30 163 24.1 163 193 4.67 2 9.34
13 110 35 163 24.1 163 198 6.48 4 25.9
14 110 35 163 24.1 163 198 6.48 2 13.0
15 95 40 129 25.5 132 172 1.17 4 4.67
16 80 40 98.0 27.3 102 142 0.118 2 0.236
17 80 40 98.0 27.3 98.4 138 0.0895 4 0.358
18 75 35 88.4 28.0 89.5 124 0.0275 2 0.0551
19 70 30 79.1 28.8 80.4 110 0.00759 4 0.0304
20 70 25 79.1 28.8 79.3 104 0.00421 2 0.00842
21 65 25 70.3 29.7 71.5 96.5 0.00193 4 0.00772
22 60 20 61.8 30.7 63.2 83.2 0.000474 2 0.000948
23 50 20 46.2 33.0 48.9 68.9 0.0000932 4 0.000373
24 50 20 46.2 33.0 46.6 66.6 0.0000706 1 0.0000706
71.6
Total loss of life in hours 23.8
The maximum hottest-spot temperature achieved during the loading period is 198 °C, which is well below
the 250 °C limit recommended in Table 6 for a resin-encapsulated transformer. The estimated loss of life is
23.85 h or nearly one day for the 24-h period.
33
250
200
% Load / Temperature °C
Hottest Spot Temperature
150
% Loading
100
50 Ambient Temperature
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time (hours)
Figure C.2— Variable load
7.00
6.00
5.00
Aging Rate (per unit)
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time (hours)
Figure C.3— Aging rate for variable load
34

IEEE Guide For Loading Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers

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IEEE Guide For Loading Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers

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IEEE Guide for Loading Dry-Type

Distribution and Power Transformers

IEEE Power and Energy Society

IEEE Guide for Loading Dry-Type

Approved 11 December 2013

IEEE-SA Standards Board

Keywords: ambient temperature, constant load, hottest-spot temperature, IEEE C57.96™,

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Copyright © 2014 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

PDF: ISBN 978-0-7381-8831-7 STD98484

IEEE prohibits discrimination, harassment, and bullying.

Comments on standards should be submitted to the following address:

Secretary, IEEE-SA Standards Board

Laws and regulations

Richard P. Marek, Chair

James Antweiler Charles Johnson Lewis Powell

James Antweiler Roger Hayes Lorraine Padden

John Kulick, Chair

Masayuki Ariyoshi Mark Halpin Gary Robinson

Richard DeBlasio, DOE Representative

5. Loading equations ...................................................................................................................................... 5

6. Loading based on life expectancy ............................................................................................................ 12

Annex A (informative) Bibliography ........................................................................................................... 20

Annex B (informative) Computer programs................................................................................................. 21

Annex C (informative) Example calculations .............................................................................................. 27

non-ventilated dry-type transformer: A dry-type transformer that is so constructed as to provide no

sealed transformer: A dry-type transformer with a hermetically sealed tank.

4.1 General information

It is intended that dry-type transformers be installed based on the recommendations given in

4.2 Transformer life expectancy

4.3 Transformer rated output

4.4 Aging of insulation

4.5 Ambient temperature

These ambient temperatures should be used as follows:

5.1 Continuous loading

The hottest-spot winding temperature may be calculated by Equation (1):

ΘHS = Θa + Δ ΘHS (1)

ΘHS is the hottest-spot winding temperature, in °C

∆ΘHS is the hottest-spot temperature rise over ambient, in °C

Fan-cooled operation is calculated as follows:

∆ΘHS is the hottest-spot temperature rise over ambient, in °C

KT is the temperature correction for resistance change with temperature

5.2 Transient loading

ΘHS is the hottest-spot temperature, in °C

5.3 Time constants

τr is the time constant in minutes for the transformer at rated load

τ is the time constant in minutes for the transformer at any load

5.4 Calculation of loading capability

5.4.1 Loading in standard conditions

∆Θi = ∆ΘHS , r × [Li ]2m (9)

From Table 1, select the rated hottest-spot winding temperature.

Table 1 — Constants for lifetime equation

∆Θt = ΘHS − Θa (10)

∆Θt is the hottest-spot temperature rise at time t, in °C

LU is the overload in per unit load

LU is the overload in per unit load

5.4.2 Influence of ambient temperature

Table 2 —Continuous per unit loading capability as a function of ambient temperature

ΘHS is the hottest-spot winding temperature, in °C, as defined in Table 1

5.4.3 Influence of altitude on loading

Table 4 — Rated kilovolt-ampere derating factors for altitudes

6. Loading based on life expectancy

6.1 Basic conditions