OUP - Chemistry For CSEC

Chemistry
for
®
CSEC
Anne Tindale
Elizabeth Ritchie
Dianne Luttig
Sarah Chapman
Jennifer Murray
Anna Bowman
s s er P
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2nd Edition
08/08/2014 15:43
Chemistry
for
®
CSEC
Anne Tindale
2nd Edition
Elizabeth Ritchie
Dianne Luttig
Sarah Chapman
Jennifer Murray
Anna Bowman
1
3
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Text © Anne Tindale, Elizabeth Ritchie, Dianne Luttig, Sarah Chapman 2014
Original illustrations © Oxford University Press 2014
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First published by Nelson Thornes Ltd in 2014
This edition published by Oxford University Press in 2014
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Acknowledgements
Cover photograph: iStockphoto
Illustrations: GreenGate Publishing and Tech-Set Ltd, Gateshead
Page make-up: Tech-Set Ltd, Gateshead
Thanks are due to Anna Bowman and Jennifer Murray for their contributions in the
development of this book.
Photo credits: Alamy/Helene Rogers 2.2.2, /Photoshot Holdings Ltd 20.5.6; Anne
Tindale 1.1.2, 1.2.10a, 1.2.10b, 1.2.9, 1.3.2, 2.1.3c, 2.2.3b, 2.5.2, 2.5.3, 5.5.4a, 8.1.1b, 8.1.5,
8.2.1, 8.4.2, 8.4.8, 9.1.2, 9.3.1, 9.3.2a, 9.3.2b, 15.1.9, 16.1.4, 16.2.12a, 16.2.12b, 17.1.2, 17.3.1,
18.3.1, 18.3.2, 18.3.4, 18.3.5, 19.2.1, 20.4.3, 20.6.1, 21.2.2, 22.2.2; Corbis 20.4.1; Corel (NT)
4.4.2; Corel 340 (NT) 5.5.4b; Corel 501 (NT) 20.4.2; Fotolia 20.5.3; Greg Evans
(greg@gregevans.net) 2.1.3a; Ingram PL V1 CD2 (NT) 19.1.1; iStockphoto 15.3.10,
15.3.8; James Lauritz/Digital Vision C (NT) 18.3.7; Leslie Garland Picture Gallery/
Andrew Lambert 4.4.1c; Martyn Chillmaid 1.1.3, 2.2.1a, 17.2.2, 20.5.1, 21.1.4; Mike
van der Volk 2.2.1b, 2.2.3a, 2.5.1, 10.5.2, 16.1.5, 17.1.1, 17.1.3, 18.3.3, 18.3.8, 20.4.4, 20.4.5;
PA Photos 4.4.1a, /Shirley Bhadur/AP 14.1.4; Sandy Marshall 20.3.4; Science Photo
Library/Andrew Lambert Photography 6.1.2, 8.1.1a, 8.4.6, 17.2.1, 22.1.1, /Astrid and
Hanns-Frieder Michler 11.2.4, /JERRY MASON 18.1.1, /LAGUNA DESIGN 15.3.5,
/Maximilian Stock Ltd 4.4.1b, /Pascal Goetgheluck 3.3.2, /Sue Baker 20.5.2; Shawn
Banton 9.1.1; Shutterstock 2.1.3b, 21.2.1; www.tropix.co.uk/V. and M. Birley 3.3.3.
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this work.
Contents
Introduction 1 A5.5 Str ucture and proper ties of solids 80
Key concepts 86
Section A Principles of chemistry 2

Practice exam-style questions 88
A1 States of matter 2
A6 Chemical equations and reactions 89
A1.1 The par ticulate nature of matter 2
A6.1 Writing and balancing chemical
A1.2 Evidence for t he par ticulate
equations 89
t heor y of matter 4
A6.2 Types of chemical reactions 96
A1.3 The t hree states of matter 9
Key concepts 99
Key concepts 14
A7 The mole concept 101
A2 Mixtures and their separation 16
A7.1 The mole and mass 101
A2.1 Elements, compounds and mixtures 16
A7.2 The mole and gas volumes 106
A2.2 Solutions, suspensions and colloids 19
A7.3 The mole and concentration of
A2.3 Solubility 22
solutions 108
A2.4 Separating mixtures 25
A7.4 The mole and chemical formulae 111
A2.5 Extraction of sucrose from
A7.5 The mole and chemical reactions 113
sugar cane 30
Key concepts 119
Key concepts 32
A8 Acids, bases and salts 121
A3 Atomic structure 34
A8.1 Proper ties and reactions of acids 121
A3.1 The str ucture of atoms 34
A8.2 Proper ties and reactions of bases 128
A3.2 The electronic configuration of
A8.3 Strengt h of acids and alkalis 132
an atom 37
A8.4 Salts 135
A3.3 Isotopes and radioactivity 40
A8.5 Neutralisation reactions 145
Key concepts 44
A8.6 Volumetric analysis 148
Key concepts 152
A4 The periodic table and periodicity 46 Practice exam-style questions 154
A4.1 Arrangement of elements in t he
A9 Oxidation–reduction reactions 156

periodic table 46
A9.1 Oxidation and reduction – an

A4.2 Trends in Group II of t he periodic
introduction 156
table 51
A9.2 Oxidation numbers 159

A4.3 Trends in Group VII of t he
A9.3 Oxidising and reducing agents 164

periodic table 55
Key concepts 170

A4.4 Trends in Period 3 of t he periodic

table 60
Key concepts 62
A10 Electrochemistry 173
A10.1 The electrochemical series 173
A5 Structure and bonding 65 A10.2 Electrical conduction 176
A5.1 Chemical bonding 65 A10.3 Electrolysis 179
A5.2 Formation of ionic bonds 69 A10.4 Quantitative electrolysis 188
A5.3 Writing chemical formulae of A10.5 Industrial applications of
ionic compounds 72 electrolysis 191
A5.4 Formation of covalent and Key concepts 195
metallic bonds 76 Practice exam-style questions 197
iii
Contents
A11 Rates of reaction 198 C18 Reactivity, extraction and uses of
A11.1 Measuring rates of reaction 198 metals 294
A11.2 Factors affecting rates of reaction 202 C18.1 The reactivity of metals 294
Key concepts 209 C18.2 The extraction of metals 299
Practice exam-style questions 210 C18.3 Uses of metals and t heir alloys 302
Key concepts 307
A12 Energetics 212

A12.1 Energy changes during reactions 212
A12.2 Calculating energy changes 217 C19 Metals in living systems and the
Key concepts 223 environment 309
Practice exam-style questions 224 C19.1 The corrosion of metals 309
C19.2 The impact of metals on living
systems and t he environment 311
Section B Organic chemistry 226
Key concepts 313
B13 Introduction to organic chemistry 226 Practice exam-style questions 315
B13.1 Organic compounds 226
C20 Non-metals 316

B13.2 Homologous series 230
C20.1 Physical proper ties of non-metals 316

Key concepts 236
C20.2 Chemical proper ties and

reactions of non-metals 318
C20.3 Laborator y preparation and uses

B14 Hydrocarbons – alkanes and alkenes 239
of gases 321
B14.1 Sources and extraction of
C20.4 The uses of non-metals 324

hydrocarbons 239
C20.5 Harmful effects of non-metals

B14.2 Alkanes: C H 242
n 2n  2
and t heir compounds 326

B14.3 Alkenes: C H 246
n 2n
C20.6 Green chemistr y 330

Key concepts 251
Key concepts 334

B15 Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters 255
C21 Water 338

B15.1 Alcohols: C H OH 255
n 2n  1
C21.1 The unique proper ties of water 338

B15.2 Alkanoic acids: C H COOH 260
n 2n  1
C21.2 The treatment of water for

B15.3 Esters: RCOOR 263
domestic pur poses 342

Key concepts 269
Key concepts 345

B16 Polymers 272
C22 Qualitative analysis 347
B16.1 Addition polymers 272
C22.1 Identification of cations 347
B16.2 Condensation polymers 275
C22.2 Identification of anions 351
Key concepts 279
C22.3 Identification of gases 354
Key concepts 356
Section C – Inorganic chemistry 282
The periodic table 360
C17 Characteristics of metals 282
C17.1 Physical proper ties of metals 282 Index 361
C17.2 Chemical proper ties and
reactions of metals 283
C17.3 Reactions of metal compounds 288
Key concepts 291
iv
Introduction
To the student To the teacher
The writing of Chemistr y for CSEC® has been driven by experienced

Chemistr y for CSEC® is a comprehensive course designed to help
Caribbean science educators to ensure t hat bot h t he requirements of

you achieve your best in t he examination. It has been written by
t he CSEC® syllabus are met, and t hat t he content is appropriate and

experienced teachers who have included features to make it easier
relevant for Caribbean students.

for you to master t he key concepts.
It provides a complete coverage of t he CSEC® syllabus wit h t he

The Chemistr y syllabus is divided into t hree sections; Section A,
material presented in t he order of t he syllabus and divided into

Principles of Chemistry, Section B, Organic Chemistry, and
chapters based on t he topics in t he syllabus. To help t he students

Section C, Inorganic Chemistry. Chapters 1–12 of t his book cover
grasp impor tant concepts, and for you as a teacher to manage your
topics in Section A, Chapters 13–16 cover topics in Section B, and
teaching, each chapter is t hen broken down into several clearly

Chapters 17–22 cover topics in Section C.
dened units, each of which develops one of t hese impor tant
Key terms are highlighted t hroughout t he text to help you to ‘home
concepts.
in’ on t he key concepts. Impor tant denitions and laws which you
All impor tant denitions and laws which t he students are expected
must be able to quote are given in Key fact boxes. Each chapter also
to be able to quote are given in ‘Key fact’ boxes for students to clearly
includes Did you know? boxes which contain facts to stimulate
identify and t hen learn.

your interest, and Exam tip boxes which contain valuable tips to
help you pass your examination.

A range of practical activities which closely relate to t hose suggested
in t he syllabus can be found t hroughout t he text. You can use t hese

You will also nd a large number of clear diagrams and colour
to help you develop a practical approach to your teaching and also to

photographs to enliven and enrich your learning, and a wide
assess t he School-Based Assessment (SBA) skills of your students.

range of different practical activities. These activities have been
designed to help you develop your practical skills and to enhance

Clear, explanator y diagrams and colour photographs which are
your learning using a ‘hands-on’ approach. Your teacher may also

designed to help students gain a better understanding of each topic
use some of t hese activities to assess your School-Based Assessment

are found in all chapters.
(SBA) skills.
‘Did you know?’ boxes wit h facts to stimulate t he student’s interest,
Each chapter is broken down into several clearly dened units. and ‘Exam tip’ boxes containing valuable tips to prepare students for
The learning objectives for each unit are clearly given at t he t heir examination appear t hroughout t he text.
beginning of t he unit so t hat you can see what you are expected to
Each unit begins wit h a list of learning objectives for students to
learn in t he unit. These learning objectives relate fully to t he specic
clearly see what t hey are expected to master in t he unit. These relate
objectives given in t he syllabus. Each unit t hen ends wit h a selection
fully to t he specic objectives in t he syllabus.
of summary questions to test your comprehension of t he material
covered in t he unit. Revision questions are provided at t he end of each unit which are
designed for students to consolidate t heir knowledge of t he key
At t he end of each chapter you will nd a list of t he key concepts
material found in t he unit.
to help you to revise t he impor tant content of t he chapter. This list
A list of key concepts is given at t he end of each chapter to help

is followed by a variety of multiple-choice questions and usually
students revise t he key content of t he chapter.

two exam-style questions to help you to apply t he knowledge you
gained in t he chapter to answer t he different question types t hat you

Multiple-choice, str uctured and extended response questions similar
will encounter during your examination. The rst of t he exam-style

to t hose on t he CSEC® Examination are included at t he end of each
questions is a str uctured question requiring shor t answers and in

chapter for students to test t heir knowledge and understanding of
your CSEC® Examination you will be given spaces on t he question

t he mater ial covered in t he chapter and hone t heir examination
paper for your answers. The second is an extended response question

skills.
requiring a greater element of essay writing in your answers. The
A complete 60-question multiple-choice test wit h answers is to

marks allocated for t he different par ts of each question are clearly
be found on t he CD. This will enable your students to test t heir

given.
knowledge and understanding of t he material covered in t he entire
On t he CD you will nd a complete multiple-choice test composed of

text.
60 questions to test your knowledge and understanding of material
A Data Analysis section on t he CD provides information on answering
taken from all sections of t he syllabus. If you work t hrough all t he
t he Data Analysis question toget her wit h t hree practice questions for
end of chapter questions and t he complete multiple-choice test you
students to develop t he skills required in answering t his question.
will be well prepared for your examination.
The CD also includes a section which provides detailed information
On t he CD you will also  nd a section on Data Analysis whic h
about SBA for students to gain an understanding of what is required
provides you wit h det ails about t he Data Analysis question you
from t hem over t heir two-year programme of study.
will be required to answer as well as t hree questions wit h mark
allocations for you to practise. There is also a section whic h gives Chemistr y for CSEC® adopts a practical approach wherever possible.
you infor mation about what is required from you in ter ms of Each practical activity begins wit h a suggestion indicating how t he
School-Ba sed Assessment (SBA). It is extremely impor t ant t hat activity may be used as a basis for SBA. The table which follows t he
you read t his section before you embark on your two-year course SBA section provides t he location in t he book of t he activities which
of study. may be used for t he different types of assessment.
1
Section A
States of matter
A1
Chemistry is the study of the structure and behaviour of

Objectives
matter. Everything around us is made of matter. Matter

By the end of this topic you will
be able to:
has both mass and volume. Air, water, sand, human
● give a denition of matter

beings and animals are all matter. Matter exists in
● give the four main ideas of the
various states. The three main states of matter are solid,

particulate theory of matter
● explain why scientists nd the liquid and gas.
particulate theory of matter
useful
identify the three main states of

A1.1 The particulate nature of matter
●
matter
● explain the relationship
Matter
between temperature and the
As far bac k as 460 BC a Greek philosopher called Democr itus developed t he

motion of particles.
idea t hat matter consisted of par ticles. He asked t his question: ‘f you cut
a piece of matter, for example, a piece of gold, in half and t hen cut it in
half again, how many cuts will you have to make before you can cut it no
fur t her?’ Democr itus t hought t hat it ended at some point, t he smallest bits
Exam tip
✔
of matter, and t hat t hese smallest bits of matter, or particles , would be t he
It is important that you know the basic building bloc k s of matter. Today scientists have added to Democr itus’
definitions of key terms used in idea and now descr ibe matter and its proper ties using t he par ticulate t heor y
Chemistry. These definitions are

of matter.
provided for you in the ‘Key fact’
boxes throughout the book.
The particulate theory of matter
The particulate theory of matter states t hat all matter is made of par ticles.
This t heor y is ver y useful because it helps us to explain bot h t he physical
Key fact
! proper ties of matter and also t he differences between t he t hree states of matter.
We will be looking at t he t hree states of matter in detail in Unit A1.3.

Matter is anything that has mass
and occupies space.

The par ticulate t heor y of matter has four main ideas:
● all matter is made of par ticles
● t he par ticles are in constant, random motion
Key fact
!
● t here are spaces between t he par ticles
The particulate theory of matter

● t here are forces of attraction between t he par ticles.
states that all matter is made up of
particles.
matter is made par ticles are in there are spaces
of par ticles constant motion between par ticles
 Figure 1.1.1 The particulate theory of matter
The par ticulate t heor y of matter can be used to explain many physical
phenomena t hat we obser ve in our ever yday lives. Examples of some of t hese
are given on t he next page. t explains:
2
States of matter The particulate nature of matter
● The difference in density of solids, liquids and gases, e.g. why pebbles
sink and bubbles rise in water.
● How cooling a liquid can cause it to change into a solid, e.g. when water
is placed in a freezer it forms ice.
● Why a smell can move t hroughout a room, e.g. when chicken is fr ying,
it can be smelt at t he ot her side of t he kitchen.
● Why t he pressure of a gas increases wit h an increase in temperature,
e.g. car tyres get harder as you drive.
● Why cer tain vegetables become crisper when soaked in water,
e.g. raw potatoes.
● Surface tension in liquids, e.g. cer tain insects can ‘walk’ on water.  Figure 1.1.2 Pebbles sink in water
States of matter
Matter can exist in various forms or states. The t hree states of matter t hat are
t he most common are t he solid, liquid and gaseous states. The difference
between t hese states lies in t he energy and arrangement of t he par ticles.
Par ticles in t he solid state have t he least amount of energy, t hey simply
vibrate in t heir xed position and t hey are packed closely toget her. Par ticles
in t he liquid state have medium amounts of energy, t hey move about slowly
and t hey have small spaces between t hem. Par ticles in t he gaseous state have
t he greatest amount of energy, t hey move about rapidly and t hey have large
spaces between t hem. You will study t his in greater detail in Unit 1.3.
The energy of t he par ticles is directly related to t he temperature of t he
par ticles and matter can change from one physical state to anot her by
changing its temperature. This change of state occurs because increasing
t he temperature of a substance increases t he kinetic energ y of t he par ticles
in t he substance. The g reater t he kinetic energy t he par ticles possess, t he
faster t hey move.
hanging state by changing temperature is a physical change. A physical
change occurs when t he form of t he substance is changed wit hout changing
its chemical composition, for example, water as a solid, i.e. ice, has exactly
t he same chemical par ticles as water in t he liquid state and as water in t he

 Figure 1.1.3 The drinks illustrate the
gaseous state, i.e. water vapour. three states of matter
Summary questions
1 State the three main ideas of the particulate theory of matter.
2 If a crystal of potassium manganate( VII ) is dropped into a beaker of
water, the purple colour spreads throughout the water. What features
of the particulate theory of matter does this observation provide
evidence for?
3 Explain why scientists nd the particulate theory of matter useful.
4 What are the three states of matter?
5 What is the relationship between temperature and the movement of
particles?
3
Evidence for the particulate theory of matter States of matter
Objectives A1.2 Evidence for the particulate theory of matter
n t he previous unit we mentioned t hat scientists nd t he par ticulate t heor y

be able to:
of matter ver y useful because it allows t hem to explain t he physical proper ties
● explain evidence which
of matter. At t he same time t hough, scientists have to provide evidence to
supports the particulate theory
suppor t t heir ideas. There are simple practical activities involving d iffusion
of matter
and osmosis which we can perform to provide evidence for t he existence
● explain the processes of
and movement of par ticles.
diffusion and osmosis
● describe experiments which
Diffusion
demonstrate diffusion and
osmosis
We have all had experience of being aware of a smell, whet her it is walking
● explain the uses of salt and

into a baker y, a cosmetic shop or climbing into a car t hat contains an air
sugar to control garden pests

freshener. All of t hese smells are produced at a point in t he shop or car, but
and preserve food items.

t he smell seems to travel t hrough t he air. This process of t he smell travelling
t hrough t he air is as a result of d iffusion. Diffusion occurs because par ticles
of matter are in constant motion and will move from a region of higher
concentration to one of lower concentration.
Key fact
Diffusion is the movement of
particles from an area of higher
Investigating the particulate theory of matter

concentration to an area of lower
concentration until they are evenly

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:
distributed.
● observation, recording and reporting
● analysis and interpretation.
You will be supplied with a straw, a beaker containing distilled water and a
potassium manganate( VII) crystal.
Method
1 Place the straw vertically in the beaker of water until it touches the
bottom of the beaker.
2 Drop the crystal of potassium manganate( VII) into the straw without
moving the straw.
3 Very carefully remove the straw trying to disturb the water as little as
possible.
4 Observe how the purple colour immediately begins to spread throughout
Exam tip
✔ the water.
5 Leave the beaker and observe after a few days. Note that the purple
It is very important when answering
colour has spread throughout all the water in the beaker. What
questions in tests or examinations to
distinguish between observations conclusion can you draw about:
and conclusions. If you are asked

a the spaces between the water particles
to give your observations, then you
b the movement of the potassium manganate( VII) particles?
must describe what you would
see while the experiment is being
performed. If you are asked to state

The potassium manganate(VII) cr ystal and t he water used in t he experiment
what you would conclude from the

illustrated in Figures 1.2.1 and 1.2.2 are bot h composed of minute particles.
experiment, then you must give

The par ticles in t he cr ystal are packed closely toget her and t hose in t he water
what you can deduce from the
have ver y small spaces between t hem. When t he cr ystal is in t he water, t he
observations. A deduction is made
minute cr ystal par ticles slowly separate from each ot her and diffuse into t he
by using data from the experiment
spaces between t he water par ticles. This continues until all t he par ticles have
to arrive at a conclusion.
separated from t he cr ystal and have diffused between t he water par ticles.
4
States of matter Evidence for the particulate theory of matter
straw
beaker
of water
the water becomes a
potassium
purple colour throughout
manganate(VII)
crystal
 Figure 1.2.1 Potassium manganate(v II)

 Figure 1.2.2 After a while the purple
crystal being placed in water

colour spreads throughout the water
The cr ystal gradually d issolves and an aqueous solution is formed, i.e. a
solution where water is t he solvent. Figure 1.2.3 illustrates t he process of
diffusion occurring in t he experiment.
water particles moving

water crystal particles separate
at random with small

from each other and
spaces between
diffuse into the spaces
between the water
crystal particles particles
potassium
packed closely
manganate(VII)
together
crystal
before dissolving after dissolving

 Figure 1.2.3 Explanation of diffusion
Investigating diffusion in gases
Your teacher will perform the following experiment:
Method
1 Place a glass tube at least 1 m in length between two retort stands.
2 Soak separate pieces of cotton wool in concentrated ammonia solution and concentrated hydrochloric acid and
place them simultaneously at each end of the glass tube.
3 Seal the ends of the glass tube with rubber stoppers.
4 Allow time for the ammonia and hydrogen chloride vapours to diffuse. Observe any changes.
5 Use your observations to explain what happened during the experiment.
During t he experiment illustrated in Figures 1.2.4 and 1.2.5, t he ammonia
solution gives off a gas called ammonia gas and t he hydrochloric acid gives
off a gas called hydrogen chlor ide gas. The ammonia and hydrogen chloride
par ticles diffuse t hrough t he air in t he glass tube towards each ot her. When
t he par ticles meet, t hey collide and react to form a white solid known
as ammonium chlor ide . The ammonium chloride forms a ring inside t he
glass tube.
5
We can represent t he reaction between t he ammonia and hydrogen chloride

cotton wool soaked in
hydrochloric acid
as a chemical equation where (g) and (s) indicate t he state of t he chemicals
cotton wool soaked

involved, (g) indicating a gas and (s) a solid:
in ammonia
ammonia  hydrogen chloride ammonium chloride
NH (g)  Hl(g) NH l(s)

3 4
The ammonium chloride forms closer to t he cotton wool soaked in
hydrochloric acid because t he ammonia par ticles are lighter t han t he

glass tube
hydrogen chloride par ticles. Therefore, t he ammonia par ticles move much
 Figure 1.2.4 Ammonia and hydrogen
chloride gas diffuse towards each other faster t hrough t he air t han t he hydrogen chloride par ticles.
This experiment provides t he following evidence for t he par ticulate t heor y

cotton wool soaked in
hydrochloric acid
of matter:
cotton wool soaked

● Par ticles are able to move – t he ammonia and hydrogen chloride
in ammonia
par ticles must have moved towards each ot her to form t he white ring.
● There are spaces between par ticles – t here must have been spaces
between t he air, ammonia and hydrogen chloride par ticles to allow
t hem to move between each ot her.
white ring forms
 Figure 1.2.5 After a while a white ring
Osmosis
forms inside the glass tube
Osmosis is a special case of diffusion, which involves t he movement of
water molecules t hrough a d ifferenti ally permeable membrane from a
region wit h a lot of water molecules to a region wit h fewer water molecules.
Key fact
!
A differentially permeable membrane is a membrane t hat allows some
substances to pass t hrough but not ot hers. You may also nd t he membrane
Osmosis is the movement of water
being called a semi-permeable or selectively permeable membrane. The cell

molecules from a region with a lot
of water molecules, e.g. a dilute membrane t hat surrounds biological cells is differentially permeable.
solution or pure water, to a region
A differentially permeable membrane contains minute pores. Water molecules
with fewer water molecules, e.g. a
are able to pass t hrough t hese pores. However, t he par ticles of many
concentrated solution, through a
ot her substances, which may be dissolved in t he water, are unable to pass

differentially permeable membrane.
t hrough. When two solutions, e.g. sucrose solutions, which have different
concentrations, are separated by a differentially permeable membrane,
t he water molecules will diffuse t hrough t he pores in t he membrane from
t he more dilute solution to t he more concentrated solution. The sucrose
molecules, however, do not move because t hey are unable to pass t hrough
t he pores in t he membrane. The volume of t he more dilute solution decreases
and t he volume of t he more concentrated solution increases.
differentially permeable membrane
sucrose molecule
cannot pass
through the
differentially permeable
membrane
water molecule
diffuses through
the differentially
permeable
membrane
dilute sucrose concentrated sucrose
solution solution
 Figure 1.2.6 Theoretical explanation

net movement of
of osmosis water molecules
6
States of matter Evidence for the particulate theory of matter
Investigating osmosis in green paw-paw
● manipulation and measurement
You will be supplied with a piece of green paw-paw (the experiment may be done with potato or yam), one beaker
lled with distilled water and one beaker lled with concentrated sodium chloride solution.
Method
1 Cut the piece of green paw-paw into six strips of equal length.
2 Measure and record the length of each strip.
3 Place three of the strips into the beaker containing distilled water and place the other three strips into the beaker
containing the concentrated sodium chloride solution.
4 Allow the strips to remain in the solutions for one hour.
5 Remove the strips from the beakers. Feel the strips and take note of the texture of each strip.
6 Measure and record the length of each strip.
7 Explain why the paw-paw strips placed in distilled water become more rigid and have increased in length
(consider the direction in which the water molecules move, from the paw-paw into the distilled water or from the
distilled water into the paw-paw).
8 Explain why the paw-paw strips placed in concentrated sodium chloride solution become oppy and softer and
decrease in length (consider the direction in which the water molecules move, from the paw-paw into the sodium
chloride solution or from the sodium chloride solution into the paw-paw).
distilled
water
concentrated
beaker
sodium
chloride
paw-paw
 Figure 1.2.7 Paw-paw strips in
solution
strips
distilled water and concentrated
sodium chloride solution
concentrated sodium
distilled water chloride solution
paw-paw strips paw-paw strips
increase in size decrease in size
 Figure 1.2.8 After a while the strips in water increase in length and those in
the concentrated sodium chloride solution decrease in length
Did you know?
During t he experiment illustrated in Figures 1.2.7 and 1.2.8, t he cell
Osmosis works in the same way in
membranes of t he paw-paw cells act as differentially permeable membranes.
your cells as it does in the paw-
Water can pass t hrough t he cell membranes, eit her into or out of t he cells:
paw. If you sweat a lot you lose
● Distilled water has a higher water content (or lower sodium chloride water. This lowers the amount of
concentration) than the paw-paw cells, therefore water moves into the cells water in your blood and osmosis
takes place and starts to pull water

by osmosis, resulting in the paw-paw strip becoming longer and more rigid.
out of your cells. For this reason it is
● The paw-paw cells have a higher water content t han t he concentrated
very important to drink lots of water
sodium chloride solution, t herefore water moves out of t he cells by
on a hot day or when you exercise.
osmosis, resulting in t he paw-paw strip becoming shor ter and sof ter.
7
Practical uses of osmosis
We use t he principles of osmosis in various ways. These include controlling
garden pests and preser ving food items.
Controlling garden pests
Slugs and snails, being herbivores, are serious garden pests which ravage
many of our precious plants. The skin of t hese pests is a lot more permeable
t han t he skin of most ot her animals. This means t hat t hey need to keep
t hemselves moist to prevent water evaporating from t heir bodies causing
t hem to dehydrate and die. We make use of t hese facts to control slugs and
snails in our gardens by using sodium chloride (table salt).
 Figure 1.2.9 Snails are serious garden pests
Sodium chloride is deliquescent, which means t hat it absorbs water readily
and dissolves. When sodium chloride is sprinkled on slugs and snails, it
absorbs some of t he moisture surrounding t heir bodies and dissolves forming
a concentrated solution. This causes water inside t heir bodies to move out
and into t he solution by osmosis. f t he slugs and snails lose more water t han
t heir bodies can tolerate, t hey die from dehydration.
Preserving food items
ot h sodium chloride and sugar are used to preser ve food items, e.g. meat,
sh, fr uits and vegetables. We are all familiar wit h salt sh, salt pork,
cr ystallised fr uits, guava jelly and glacé cherries. ot h salt and sugar work in
t he same way to preser ve foods:
● They withdraw water from the cells of the food items by osmosis. This
makes the water unavailable for the chemical reactions in cells which cause
decay. Without these reactions occurring, the food items do not decay.
● They also wit hdraw water from t he microorganisms t hat bring about
decay, e.g. bacteria and fungi. This prevents t hese organisms from
growing and causing t he food items to decay.
(a) (b)
 Figure 1.2.10 (a) Salt sh and (b) crystallised fruits are examples of preserved food items
8
States of matter The three states of matter
Summary questions
1 For each of the experiments described below, state the feature(s) of the
particulate theory of matter for which the experiment provides evidence:
a If a crystal of potassium manganate(v II) is dropped into a beaker of
water, the purple colour spreads throughout the water.
b If bottles of concentrated ammonia solution and concentrated
hydrochloric acid are opened and placed next to each other, a white
cloud forms between the two bottles.
2 State any similarities and differences between osmosis and diffusion.
3 Why do we say that osmosis is a special case of diffusion?
4 When a 5.0 cm long raw potato chip was placed in water and left for
30 minutes, its length was found to have increased to 5.5 cm. Use your
knowledge of the particulate theory of matter to explain this.
5 Explain how sodium chloride is used:
a to control slugs in a garden
b to preserve sh.
Objectives
A1.3 The three states of matter
You have lear nt already t hat matter exists in t hree st ates: solid, liquid be able to:
and gas. The t hree st ates of matter have noticeable differences in t heir
● explain the difference
physical proper ties. Physic al properties are c haracter istics t hat can be
between the three states of
obser ved or measured wit hout c hanging t he c hemical composition of a
matter in terms of energy and
subst ance. Shape, volume, density, compressibility, solubility, melting
arrangement of particles, and
point and boiling point are all examples of physical proper ties. The
forces of attraction between
different physical proper ties of t he t hree st ates can be explained by t he
particles
par ticulate t heor y of matter.
● account for the physical
Table 1.3.1 summarises t he physical proper ties of t he t hree states of matter properties of the three states of
and t he arrangement of par ticles in t he t hree states. matter in terms of energy and
arrangement of particles, and
We can use t he arrangement of par ticles in t he t hree states of matter to
forces of attraction between
explain t he physical proper ties of t he different states:
particles
● Solids have a xed shape because t heir par ticles are arranged in a regular
● explain the changes of
way and t hey are unable to move out of t heir xed positions.
state in terms of energy and
● Solids have a xed volume and are ver y difcult to compress because arrangement of particles
t heir par ticles are packed ver y closely toget her and cannot be pushed ● understand melting,
any closer toget her. evaporation, boiling,
condensation, freezing and
● Liquids ow because t heir par ticles are able to move past each ot her.
sublimation
● Liquids can be compressed slightly because t heir par ticles have small
● understand and interpret
spaces between t hem enabling t hem to be pushed closer toget her.
heating and cooling curves.
● Gases take t he shape and volume of t he container t hey are in because
t heir par ticles move freely and rapidly. They have only weak forces of
attraction between t hem, t herefore t hey spread out to ll any available
space.
● Gases are easy to compress because t heir par ticles have large spaces
between t hem, t herefore t hey can be pushed closer toget her.
9
The three states of matter States of matter
 Table 1.3.1 The properties of the three states of matter
Property Solid Liquid Gas
Shape and volume Solids have a fixed Liquids do not have Gases do not have a
shape and a fixed a fixed shape, but fixed shape or volume.
volume. they have a definite A gas will take up the
volume. Liquids take space of the container it
the shape of the part of is placed in. The shape
the container that they and volume of a gas
occupy and the surface is, therefore, the shape
is always horizontal. and volume of the entire
container it is in.
Density Most solids have a high The density of liquids is Gases have a low
density. usually lower than the density.
density of solids.
Compressibility Solids are very difficult Liquids can be Gases are easy to
to compress. compressed very compress.
slightly when pressure
is applied.
Arrangement of the The particles are The particles are The particles are
particles packed closely randomly arranged randomly arranged
together, usually in a and have small spaces and have large spaces
regular pattern. between them. between them.
Forces of attraction The particles have The forces of attraction The particles have
between the particles very strong forces of between the particles very weak forces of
attraction between are not as strong as attraction between
them. those between the them.
particles of a solid.
Energy and movement Particles in a solid have Particles in a liquid have Particles in a gas have
of the particles very small amounts more kinetic energy large amounts of kinetic
of kinetic energy. The than particles in a solid. energy. The particles
particles vibrate in their The particles move move about freely and
fixed position. about slowly. rapidly.
Arrangement of
particles
Changing state
Did you know?
?
Matter can be changed from one state to anot her by heating or cooling.
A change of state is, t herefore, caused by a change in temperature and

SCUBA divers make use of the
consequently a change in t he kinetic energy of t he par ticles. For example, in

fact that gases are very easy
to compress. An average sized order to change water into ice we need to put t he water into t he freezer, i.e.
SCUBA diving tank holds about we need to remove heat energy. hanging t he state of a substance wit hout
2250 litres of compressed air.

changing its chemical composition is a physical change. The different
To understand this, think of a milk

changes of state are summarised in Figure 1.3.1.
carton. Most milk cartons hold one
add heat
litre of milk, therefore, a SCUBA
diving tank holds the same volume

evaporates/
of air as 2250 empty milk cartons! melts boils
SOLID LIQUID GAS
freezes condenses
sublimates
sublimates
 Figure 1.3.1 Summary of the changes
of state remove heat
We will now look in more detail at each of t he processes t hat cause t he
changes in state in Figure 1.3.1.
10
Melting
Key fact
When a solid is heated, t he par ticles gain kinetic energy and begin to vibrate !
more vigorously. Eventually t he par ticles are able to overcome t he strong
Melting point is the constant
forces of attraction between t hem and t hey move more freely and fur t her
temperature at which a solid
apar t forming a liquid, i.e. t he solid melts. The temperature remains constant
changes into a liquid.
while t he solid is melting because all t he heat energy being supplied is used to
overcome t he forces of attraction between t he solid par ticles. This constant
temperature is known as t he melting point
Evaporation
Did you know?

When a liquid is heated, t he par ticles gain kinetic energy and move faster.
?
Some of t he par ticles near t he surface of t he liquid have enough kinetic
When we sweat and the water in

energy to overcome t he forces of attraction between t hem and are able to
the sweat evaporates from our
leave t he liquid and become a vapour. These par ticles are said to evaporate.
skin, it takes energy with it causing
The par ticles t hat leave t he liquid take lots of energy wit h t hem, leading to a
our bodies to feel cooler. If we put
cooling of t he liquid.
alcohol on our skin, it evaporates
even faster than water because
Boiling
it has a lower boiling point than
When a liquid is heated its temperature eventually reaches a cer tain point
water. This makes our skin feel
where it star ts to boil. At t his point t he liquid par ticles have gained enough even colder than when we sweat.
kinetic energy and star ted to move fast enough to change into a gas bot h
wit hin t he liquid and at its surface. The temperature remains constant
while t he liquid is boiling because t he heat energy being supplied is used to
Key fact
overcome t he forces of attraction between t he liquid par ticles.This constant !
temperature is known as t he boiling point
Boiling point is the constant
temperature at which a liquid

oiling differs from evaporation in two ways.
changes into a gas.
● oiling occurs at a specic temperature, whereas evaporation can take
place at any temperature.
● oiling takes place t hroughout t he liquid, whereas evaporation takes
Exam tip
place only at t he surface of t he liquid.
✔
If you are asked to give a difference

Condensation
between two things, it is essential
When t he temperature of a gas is lowered, t he par ticles lose kinetic energy

that you describe the specific
and begin to move more slowly. The forces of attraction between t he par ticles
property of each, using the word
become stronger causing t he par ticles to move closer toget her forming a
‘whereas’ to link the two. Do not
liquid, i.e. t he liquid condenses.

describe just one.
Freezing
When t he temperature of a liquid is lowered, t he par ticles lose kinetic energy
Key fact
!
and begin to move more slowly. The forces of attraction between t he par ticles
become stronger causing t he par ticles to move even closer toget her forming
Freezing point is the constant
a solid, i.e. t he liquid freezes. The temperature at which t his occurs is called
temperature at which a liquid
t he freezing point
changes into a solid.
The freezing point of a pure substance has t he same value as t he melting
point, e.g. water has a melting point and a freezing point of 0 °.
Sublimation
When t he forces of attraction between t he par ticles in a solid are weak, t he
addition of a small amount of heat can cause t he solid to change directly into
a gas, wit hout passing t hrough t he liquid state. f t he gas is t hen cooled it will
change directly back to t he solid. When a substance changes directly from a
solid to a gas or a gas to a solid it is said to sublime
11
Examples of substances which undergo sublimation are iodine, carbon
dioxide (known as ‘dr y ice’), ammonium chloride and napht halene. Mot h
balls or camphor balls are made of napht halene. Solid air fresheners also
sublime releasing t heir fragrances into t he air.
 Figure 1.3.2 Solid air fresheners sublime
(a)
cotton wool
Observing sublimation in iodine
est tube
● observation, recording and reporting.

iodine crystals
iodine vapour
You will be supplied with a test tube, a small iodine crystal, a piece of
cotton wool and a pair of tongs.
Method
1 Place the iodine crystal into the test tube and place the cotton wool into
the mouth of the test tube.
2 Hold the test tube with tongs at a 45° angle and heat the bottom of
the tube in the ame of a Bunsen burner until all the iodine crystal has
Bunsen burner
sublimed.
3 Observe what happens as the iodine is heated.
4 Remove the tube from the ame and let it cool.
5 Observe what happens as the tube is cooling.

(b)
iodine crystals During the experiment illustrated in Figure 1.3.3, as the iodine cr ystal is
heated, it sublimes and forms purple iodine vapour which diffuses up the test
tube. The top of the tube is much cooler and when the vapour reaches the top,
it sublimes back to a solid, forming a ring of iodine cr ystals around the inside
 Figure 1.3.3 Iodine sublimes (a) when
heated and (b) when cooled of the tube.
Heating and cooling curves
f t he temperature of a pure solid is measured at inter vals as it is heated and
changes state to a liquid and t hen to a gas, and t he temperature is plotted
on a graph against time, a heating curve is obtained. The heating cur ve for
water is shown in Figure 1.3.4.
The cur ve shows t hat as heating occurs, t he temperature of t he substance
increases. However, t he graph has two horizontal sections where t he
temperature remains constant for a period of time even t hough heating
12
continues. These happen when t here is a change of state. The rst change of
state is where melting occurs and t he temperature remains constant at t he
melting point of t he substance until all t he substance has melted, e.g. for
water t his is 0 °. The second change of state is where boiling occurs and t he
temperature remains constant at t he boiling point of t he substance until all
t he substance has boiled, e.g. for water t his is 100 °.
140
)C°(
120
gas and liquid
boiling point
100
erutarepme
80
60
liquid
40
20
solid and liquid

T
melting point
0
20 solid (ice)
40
Time as heat is added
 Figure 1.3.4 The heating curve for water
f t he temperature of a gas is measured at inter vals as it is cooled and changes
state to a liquid and t hen to a solid, and t he temperature is plotted on a graph
against time, a cooling curve is obtained. The cooling cur ve for water is
shown in Figure 1.3.5.
140
gas (steam)
)C°(
120
gas and liquid
boiling point
100
erutarepme
80
liquid
60
40
20
T
melting point
0
solid
20
40
Time as heat is removed
 Figure 1.3.5 The cooling curve for water
Like heating cur ves, cooling cur ves have two horizontal sections. The rst is
where t he state changes from gas to liquid and t he second is where it changes
from liquid to solid.
Summary questions
1 Complete the table below. The rst row is completed as an example of
what is required.
Change of Name given to change Energy added or removed to
state of state change state
Solid to liquid Melting Added
Liquid to gas
Gas to liquid
Liquid to solid
Solid to gas
2 What are the main differences between evaporation and boiling?
3 a Explain what occurs during sublimation.
b Give three examples of solids which undergo sublimation.
4 Explain what a heating curve shows.
13
Key concepts
● Matter is dened as anyt hing t hat has mass and occupies space.
● The proper ties of matter can be explained by t he particulate theory of
matter, which states t hat:
– all matter is made of par ticles
– t he par ticles are in constant, random motion
– t here are spaces between t he par ticles
– t here are forces of attraction between t he par ticles.
● Matter exists in t hree states: solid, liquid and gas
● The difference between t he t hree states is due to t he arrangement and
energy of t he par ticles.
● The energy of t he par ticles is directly related to t he temperature of t he
par ticles.
● Diffusion and osmosis provide evidence to suppor t t he par ticulate
t heor y of matter.
● Diffusion is t he movement of par ticles from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration until t hey are evenly
distributed.
● Osmosis is t he movement of water molecules from a region wit h a
lot of water molecules, e.g. a dilute solution or pure water, to a region
wit h fewer water molecules, e.g. a concentrated solution, t hrough a
differentially permeable membrane.
● The principles of osmosis are used to control garden pests wit h sodium
chloride and preser ve food items wit h sodium chloride and sugar.
● The energy and arrangement of par ticles in solids, liquids and gases
account for t he physical proper ties of t he t hree states.
● Matter can change from solid to liquid to gas wit h t he addition of heat.
● Matter can change from gas to liquid to solid wit h t he removal of heat.
● The names given to t he processes which cause t he change from one state
to anot her are melting, evaporation, boiling, condensation, freezing and
sublimation.
● Melting and boiling occur at specic temperatures known as t he melting
point and t he boiling point, respectively.
● Evaporation of a liquid occurs at any temperature and leads to t he
cooling of t he liquid.
● Sublimation is t he change in state straight from a solid to a gas, or vice
versa, wit hout passing t hrough t he liquid state. t occurs in compounds
wit h weak forces of attraction between t heir molecules.
● When t he temperature of a pure substance is measured as it is heated and
changes state from solid to liquid to gas, and t he temperature is plotted
against time, a heating curve is obtained.
● When t he temperature of a pure substance is measured as it is cooled and
changes state from gas to liquid to solid, and t he temperature is plotted
against time, a cooling curve is obtained.
14
States of matter Practice exam-style questions
i) State what you would expect to have happened
Practice exam-style questions

to t he level of t he sucrose solution in t he t histle
funnel af ter 30 minutes. (1 mark)
Multiple-choice questions
ii) Explain t he reason for your obser vations.
(4 marks)
1 Which of t he following provide(s) evidence t hat matter
iii) Name t he process occurring in t he apparatus.

is made of par ticles?
(1 mark)
 Osmosis
b A second student measured t he temperature of an

 Decomposition
unknown substance X as it was heated from t he solid

 Diffusion
state t hrough t he liquid state to t he gaseous state. Her
A ,  and 
results are plotted in Figure 2. Use t he information in
B  and  only
t he Figure to answer t he following questions.
C  and  only
D  only
80
2 Par ticles in a solid:
70
A are packed closely toget her
)C°(
60
B are capable of random movement
50
erutarepme
C have large spaces between t hem
40
D have weak forces of attraction between t hem.
30
3 Liquids differ from gases in t hat:

20
T
A t he par ticles in a liquid can move more freely t han
10
t hose in a gas
B t he par ticles in a gas are closer toget her t han t hose in
10
a liquid
20
C t he par ticles in a liquid possess more kinetic energy

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
t han t hose in a gas

Time (min)
D t he par ticles in a gas have weaker forces of attraction
 Figure 2 Graph showing the temperature of substance
between t hem t han t hose in a liquid.
X during heating against time
4 The conversion of a gas to a liquid is described as:
i) What state is X in at 68 °? (1 mark)
A melting
ii) Over what temperature range does X exist in t he
B evaporation
liquid state? (2 marks)
C condensation
iii) From t he time X star ts to melt, how long does it
D boiling.
take until it has completely melted? (1 mark)
iv) Describe, in terms of energy and behaviour of

5 Which of t he following lists consist of substances which
par ticles, what is happening to substance X as it

show sublimation?
melts. (3 marks)
A Aluminium chloride, iodine, carbon dioxide.
v) Using o to represent a par ticle of substance X,

B Ammonium chloride, iodine, carbon monoxide.
draw T WELE par ticles as t hey would appear in

C Ammonium chloride, napht halene, iodine.
X at 15 °. (2 marks)
D Aluminium sulfate, carbon dioxide, napht halene.
Total 15 marks
Structured question
6 a n order to investigate t he par ticulate nature of

Extended response question
matter, a student set up t he apparatus shown in
7 a Describe T WO pieces of evidence to suppor t t he
Figure 1 below and lef t it for 30 minutes.
par ticulate t heor y of matter. (4 marks)
b Water can exist as a solid, a liquid and a gas. Explain

glass thistle funnel
t he differences between t hese t hree states in terms
of arrangement of t heir par ticles, forces of attraction
between t hem and t heir kinetic energy. (6 marks)
original level of sucrose solution
c y reference to par ticles, explain clearly t he reason
15% sucrose solution for EAH of t he following:
i) steam can be conver ted to liquid water by
35% sucrose solution
reducing its temperature (3 marks)
glass beaker
differentially permeable membrane
ii) a cr ystal of potassium chloride has a ver y denite
shape. (2 marks)
 Figure 1 Apparatus used to investigate the particulate nature
Total 15 marks
of matter
15
A2 Mixtures and their separation
Elements, compounds and mixtures form a part of our

Objectives
everyday lives. When we wrap our food in aluminium

be able to:
foil we are using an element. When we place salt on
● distinguish between pure

our food we are eating a compound. When we drink a
substances and mixtures
cold soda we are drinking a mixture. It may be useful to

● explain the difference between
an element, a compound and a know how to separate some of these mixtures into their
mixture
component parts. An example of this is the purification
● give examples of elements,
of drinking water.
compounds and mixtures
a homogeneous and a
heterogeneous mixture.
A2.1 Elements, compounds and mixtures
Matter can be classied into two main groups: pure substances and mixtures.
Pure substances have t he following general characteristics.
● They have a xed, constant composition.
● Their proper ties are xed and constant.
● The component par ts of a pure substance cannot be separated by
physical means.
Mixtures have t he following general characteristics.
● They have a variable composition.
● Their proper ties are variable since t heir components retain t heir own,
individual proper ties.
● The component parts of mixtures can be separated by physical means.
Pure substances can be fur t her classied into elements and compounds.
Mixtures can be fur t her classied into homogeneous mixtures and
heterogeneous mixtures . The tree diagram in Figure 2.1.1 shows t he
breakdown of t hese groups.
matter
pure
mixtures
substances
elements compounds
homogeneous heterogeneous
mixtures mixtures
 Figure 2.1.1 Classication of matter
Pure substances
A pure substance is composed of only one type of material and has t he
following xed proper ties:
● a shar ply dened, constant melting point or freezing point
● a shar ply dened, constant boiling point
● a constant density.
16
Mixtures and their separation Elements, compounds and mixtures
To determine if a substance is pure or not, its melting point or boiling point is
determined. Any impurities in a pure substance will usually lower its melting Did you know?
?
point and cause it to melt over a wider temperature range. mpurities will
In many countries where snow and

usually raise t he boiling point of a pure substance and cause it to boil over a
ice pose a problem on the roads in

wider temperature range.
winter, rock salt (sodium chloride)
Paper chromatography (Unit 2.4) may also be used. f a substance is pure it is spread on the roads to melt the
ice. The salt dissolves in the film

will produce only one single spot on a chromatogram. f it is not pure it will
of water on the surface of the ice,

produce more t han one spot.
this lowers its freezing point to
below the temperature of the ice
and the ice starts to melt. Salt can
lower the freezing point of water to
about 18 °C, the freezing point of

Comparing the boiling points of pure water and sodium
saturated sodium chloride solution.

chloride solution
Your teacher will perform the following demonstration.
Method
1 Place 2 cm of distilled water in a test tube.
2 Place an inverted closed end capillary tube into the test tube with the
open end facing downwards.
3 Place a thermometer in the tube.
4 Half ll a 250 cm beaker with oil and place the above test tube
assembly in the oil bath so that the surface of the water in the test tube
is beneath the surface level of the oil.
5 Heat the beaker gently over a Bunsen burner, stirring constantly to
ensure that heating is even. Continue heating until a rapid stream
of bubbles emerges from the capillary tube. This stream of bubbles
indicates that the water in the test tube is boiling.
thermometer
6 Remove the heat source and observe the stream of bubbles. When the
closed end capillary tube
last bubble emerges from the capillary tube, record the temperature.
stirring rod
7 Reheat the oil bath and repeat the cooling process twice more.
test tube
Record the temperature reading after each trial and average all three
beaker
temperatures. This is the boiling point of distilled water. oil
distilled water or
8 Repeat the procedure using a sodium chloride solution in place of
sodium chloride solution
the water.
heat
9 What conclusion can you draw about the boiling points of pure water
 Figure 2.1.2 Determining the boiling

and sodium chloride solution?
point of a liquid
Key fact
!
Elements
An element is a pure substance

An element is t he simplest form of matter. t cannot be broken down into
that cannot be broken down into
anyt hing simpler by ordinar y chemical or physical means. We say ‘ordinar y
any simpler substances by any
chemical means’ to exclude nuclear reactions. The smallest par ticle in
ordinary chemical or physical
an element t hat has t he same proper ties as t he element is an atom. Each
means.
element is composed of only one kind of atom.
17
Elements, compounds and mixtures Mixtures and their separation
Examples of elements are iron (Fe), which is composed of only iron atoms,
copper (Cu), which is composed of only copper atoms and oxygen (O ),

2
which is composed of only oxygen atoms.
Compounds
Key fact
! Compounds are composed of more than one kind of atom. These atoms
are combined toget her chemically, t hey are always present in t he same
A compound is a pure substance
propor tions by mass and t hey cannot be separated by physical means. A

that contains two or more different
compound can be represented by a chemical formula , which indicates t he

types of element which are bonded
elements t hat t he compound is made up of and t he ratio in which t hey have

together chemically in fixed
proportions and in such a way that combined, e.g. t he chemical formula of water is H O.
2
their properties have changed.
Examples of compounds are water, which is composed of hydrogen and
oxygen in a ratio of 2 : 1, sodium chloride (NaCl), which is composed of
sodium and chlorine in a ratio of 1 : 1 and met hane (CH ), which is composed
4
of carbon and hydrogen in a ratio of 1 : 4.
The proper ties of a compound are  xed and are different from t he proper ties
of t he individual elements t hat for m t he compound. For example,
hydrogen and oxygen are bot h gases at room temperature, however, water
is a liquid.
Mixtures
Key fact
!
Mixtures are composed of two or more substances which are not chemically
A mixture consists of two or more combined, t herefore t heir components can be separated by physical
substances (elements and/or

means. Some of t he physical met hods for separating mixtures, which we
compounds) physically combined

will be investigating in Unit 2.4, are ltration, evaporation, cr ystallisation,
together in varying proportions.

distillation, fractional distillation and chromatography. n a mixture t he
Each component retains its own
component par ts are not in a xed ratio and t hey retain t heir own, individual
independent properties and has
physical proper ties.
undergone no chemical reaction
with any other substance in the

Homogeneous mixtures
mixture.
A homogeneous mixture is one in which t he proper ties and composition
are uniform t hroughout t he mixture. The component par ts cannot be
distinguished from each ot her. A solution is a homogeneous mixture.
Examples of homogeneous mixtures are air, salt dissolved in water and metal
alloys such as brass, a mixture of copper and zinc.
Heterogeneous mixtures
A heterogeneous mixture is a non-uniform mixture, for example, a mixture
in which t he component par ts are in different states. The component par ts
can be distinguished from each ot her, alt hough not always wit h t he naked
(a)
eye. Suspensions and colloids are heterogeneous mixtures.
Examples of heterogeneous mixtures are salt and sand, mayonnaise, and
muddy water.
The diagrams in Figure 2.1.4 show how elements, compounds and mixtures
can be distinguished by looking at t he par ticles t hat make up t he substance.
● f t here is only one kind of atom, t hen it is an element.
(c)
(b)
● f t here are two or more kinds of atoms joined toget her in t he same ratio,
 Figure 2.1.3 (a) Gold is an example

t hen it is a compound.
of an element, (b) copper sulfate is an
● f t here is a combination of two or more elements and/or compounds,

example of a compound and (c) muddy
t hen it is a mixture.
water is an example of a mixture.
18
Mixtures and their separation Solutions, suspensions and colloids
n Figure 2.1.4, elements are represented in diagrams D, E and H, compounds
are represented in diagrams B, C and G and mixtures are represented in
diagrams A, F and .  is a mixture and not a compound because t he blue
atoms are not arranged regularly among t he green atoms.
A B C D E F
In the diagrams shown the atoms of different
G H I  Figure 2.1.4 Elements, compounds and mixtures
Summary questions
1 Copper is described as an element. What does this tell us about copper?
2 What is a compound?
3 What are the differences between a pure substance and mixture?
4 What is the difference between a homogeneous mixture and a heterogeneous mixture?
A2.2 Solutions, suspensions and colloids Objectives
Solutions, suspensions and colloids form par t of our ever yday lives. For
be able to:
example, sea water is a solution, muddy water is a suspension and milk and
● explain the terms solvent,
fog are bot h colloids.
solute and solution
● identify different types of
Solutions
solutions
A solution is a homogeneous mixture. The major component of a solution ● distinguish between a solution,
is known as t he solvent and t he minor component is known as t he solute. a suspension and a colloid
Some solutions may contain more t han one solute, e.g. sea water. The solute ● describe some of the
and solvent can be gases, liquids or solids. When a gas or a solid dissolves in distinguishing properties of a
a liquid, t he liquid is always t he solvent, e.g. in a mixture of salt in water, solution, a suspension and a
salt is t he solute and water is t he solvent. colloid
● give examples of solutions,
Table 2.2.1 gives examples of various types of solutions.
suspensions and colloids.
 Table 2.2.1 Examples of different types of solutions
Solute Solvent Example Components of the solution
solid liquid sea water sodium chloride in water

Key fact
!
gas liquid soda water carbon dioxide in water
A solution is a homogeneous
solid solid brass zinc in copper
mixture consisting of two or more
liquid liquid white rum ethanol in water components, one of which is
usually a liquid.
gas gas air oxygen, water vapour, argon and carbon dioxide in nitrogen
19
Solutions, suspensions and colloids Mixtures and their separation
A saturated solution is one t hat contains as much solute as can be dissolved
at a par ticular temperature in t he presence of undissolved solute. You will
study saturated solutions in more detail in Unit 2.3.
Suspensions
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture
cont aining minute par ticles whic h are
(a) (b)
visible to t he naked eye. f lef t undisturbed,
 Figure 2.2.1 (a) Soda water and
t he par ticles in a suspension eventually
(b) brass are examples of solutions
settle. The components of a suspension
can be separated by ltration.
Key fact
!
Examples of suspensions
A suspension is a heterogeneous
● Dust in air is a suspension of a solid
mixture in which minute, but visible,
in a gas.
particles are dispersed in another
 Figure 2.2.2 Muddy water is an
● Powdered chalk in water is an example

substance, usually a liquid.
example of a suspension
of a suspension of a solid in a liquid.
● Muddy water is anot her example of a solid suspended in a liquid.
Colloids
A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture cont aining par ticles t hat are
inter mediate in size between t hose of a solution and t hose of a suspension.
The par ticles in a colloid cannot be seen even wit h a microscope, and if lef t
undisturbed t hey do not settle. The proper ties of a colloid are inter mediate
Key fact
! between t hose of a solution and t hose of a suspension.
A colloid is a heterogeneous
mixture in which the particles of

Examples of colloids
one substance are dispersed in
● Smoke in air is a colloid of a solid in a gas, also known as a solid aerosol.
another substance, usually a liquid.
● Fog and aerosol sprays in air are colloids of a liquid dispersed in a gas,
The dispersed particles are smaller
also known as liquid aerosols.

than those of a suspension, but
larger than those of a solution. ● Milk and mayonnaise are colloids of a liquid dispersed in a liquid, also
known as emulsions.
● Gelatine and jelly are colloids of a solid dispersed in a liquid, also known
as gels.
Did you know?
? A comparison of t he distinguishing proper ties of solutions, suspensions and
6 colloids is given in Table 2.2.2.

1 nanometre  10 millimetres
1 000 000 nanometres  1 millimetre
 Table 2.2.2 A comparison of the properties of solutions, colloids and suspensions
Property Solution Colloid Suspension
Particle size very small (less than one nanometre greater than that of a solution but they large enough so that they are visible
in diameter) are not visible to the naked eye (between to the naked eye (greater than
1 and 1000 nanometres in diameter) 1000 nanometres in diameter)
Type of mixture homogeneous heterogeneous heterogeneous
Appearance generally transparent usually opaque, some are translucent opaque
Can the components be no no yes
separated by filtration?
Do the components separate no no yes
out after the mixture has been
standing for a while?
Transmission of light transmits light appearing transparent will scatter light does not transmit light; it is opaque
20
Mixtures and their separation Solutions, suspensions and colloids
Comparing the properties of a solution, a suspension and
a colloid
● manipulation and measurement.
You will be supplied with two beakers, a lter funnel held in a retort stand,
(a)
lter paper, distilled water, calcium hydroxide powder, copper( II) sulfate
and gelatine.
Method
1 Half ll the beaker with water.
2 Place a large spatula full of calcium hydroxide powder into the water and
mix vigorously.
3 Hold the mixture up to the light and look through it. Is it transparent or
opaque?
(b)
4 Place the lter paper in the lter funnel and place the second beaker below
 Figure 2.2.3 (a) Milk and
it. Filter half the mixture. Could you separate the components by ltering? (b) mayonnaise are examples of colloids
5 Leave the other half of the mixture for two hours. Does the mixture
settle out?
solution colloid suspension
6 Using your answers from points 3, 4 and 5, decide whether the mixture
is a solution, a suspension or a colloid.
increasing particle size
7 Repeat the experiment with the copper( II) sulfate and gelatine, making
sure that you stir each of the mixtures until there is no longer any solid  Figure 2.2.4 A comparison of the size
of particles in solutions, colloids and
remaining. You may need to heat the gelatine gently.
suspensions
8 Record your ndings in a table.
Summary questions
1 How does the particle size of:
a a solution compare with that of a suspension
b a suspension compare with that of a colloid?
2 Which of the following is true of a solution, a suspension or a colloid?
a does not transmit light
b can be separated by ltration
c will not settle out after standing?
3 Classify each of the following as a solution, a suspension or a colloid:
a mayonnaise
b chalk dust in water
c fog
d white vinegar.
21
Solubility Mixtures and their separation
Objectives A2.3 Solubility
The solubilit y of a solute is an indication of how muc h of t he solute can

be able to:
dissolve in a  xed mass of solvent at a par ticular temperature. For example,
● dene the term solubility
we can  nd t he solubility of sodium c hlor ide in water by deter mining
● explain what a saturated

3
how muc h sodium c hlor ide can dissolve in 10 cm of water at a par ticular
solution is
temperature. When no more solute can be dissolved in t he solvent, t he
● explain the effect of
solution reac hes saturation point and we say t he solution is saturated . f
temperature on solubility
any more solute is added to t he solvent, t he solute will remain in solid for m
● describe the solubility of a
and will be mixed wit h t he saturated solution. The solubility of a solute in
substance from a solubility
water is usually measured as t he mass of solute t hat will saturate 10 0 g of
curve
water. Eac h solute and solvent combination has a speci c solubility at a
● perform calculations using a
given temperature.
solubility curve.
The solubility of a solute in a solvent is determined by t he str ucture of t he
solute and solvent, and t he temperature.
Key fact
The effect of temperature on solubility
Solubility is the mass of solute that
will saturate 100 g of solvent at a

For most solid solutes in water, solubility increases as temperature increases.
given temperature.
This means t hat as t he temperature increases, a greater mass of solute
will saturate a xed mass of water. A solution which is saturated at one
temper ture will not be saturated at a higher temperature, and if a solution
Key fact
which is saturated at one temperature is cooled, cr ystals of t he solute will
!
form since less of t he solute can dissolve at a lower temperature.
A saturated solution is a solution
You learnt earlier in t his unit t hat solubility in water is usually measured as
which contains as much solute
as can be dissolved at a given t he mass of solute which will saturate 100 g of water. The unit for solubility
temperature, in the presence of is g per 100 g water . However, it is not practical to weigh 100 g of water.
undissolved solute.
n determining solubility of a solute in water in t he laborator y, we make
−3
use of t he fact t hat pure water has a density of 1 g cm . n ot her words,
3 3
1 cm of water has a mass of 1 g, or 1 g of water has a volume of 1 cm .

)retaw
70 This means t hat 100 g of water has a volume of 100 cm , and it is easy to
measure 100 cm of water in t he laborator y.

60
g 001
50
When we plot solubility of a solute against temperature, we draw a graph

rep
40
known as a solubility curve . The solubility cur ve for potassium chlorate(V),
g(
30
KClO , is shown in Figure 2.3.1.
ytilibuloS
20
Looking at t he solubility cur ve in Figure 2.3.1, you can see t hat t he solubility
10
of potassium chlorate(V) increases wit h an increase in temperature.
Solubility cur ves such as t his can be used to obtain various useful pieces of
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
information, for example:

Temperature (°C)
 Figure 2.3.1 Graph showing the
● The solubility of a solid at any temperature wit hin t he range of t he
solubility of potassium chlorate( V)
graph.
against temperature
Example
Exam tip
✔
What is t he solubility of potassium chlorate(V) at 78 °C?
Before reading any graph you must
Solubility of KClO at 78 °C  35 g per 100 g water

ensure that you can interpret the 3
scale of each axis. The scales of
● The temperature at which cr ystals would just star t to form if an
the two axes will not necessarily be
unsaturated solution containing a xed mass of solute is cooled to t he
the same.
point where it is just saturated.
22
Mixtures and their separation Solubility
Example
At what temperature would cr ystals just begin to form if an unsaturated
solution of potassium chlorate(V) containing 20 g of potassium chlorate(V)
dissolved in 100 g of water is cooled from 80 °C?
Temperature at which 20 g of KClO saturates 100 g of water  55 °C.

3
∴ temperature at which cr ystals just begin to form  55 °C
● The mass of solute t hat would cr ystallise out of a saturated solution if its
temperature is decreased.
Example
What mass of potassium chlorate(V) would cr ystallise out of a saturated
solution containing 100 g of water when t he temperature of t he solution
is decreased from 64 °C to 22 °C?
At 64 °C, 25 g of KClO saturates 100 g of water.

3

3
∴ mass of KClO cr ystallising out of a saturated solution containing 100 g

3
of water  25 g  7 g  18 g
● The mass of solute to be added to resaturate a solution if its temperature
is increased.
Example
What mass of potassium chlorate(V) must be added to resaturate a solution
containing 250 g of water if t he temperature of t he saturated solution is
increased from 32 °C to 82 °C?

3

3
∴ mass of KClO to be added to resaturate a solution containing 100 g

3
of water  38 g  10 g  28 g
and mass of KClO to be added to resaturate a solution containing

3
28
____
250 g of water   250 g  70 g
100
● The minimum mass of water required to dissolve a xed mass of solute at
a given temperature.
Example
What is t he minimum mass of water required to dissolve 40 g of potassium
chlorate(V) at 74 °C?

3
100
____
∴ 40 g of KClO saturate  40 g of water  125 g of water.

3
32
Minimum mass of water required  125 g
23
Solubility Mixtures and their separation
Investigating the effect of temperature on solubility
You will be placed in groups by your teacher and each group will be
supplied with a boiling tube, a thermometer, a beaker with water (for a
water bath), a burette, a balance and potassium nitrate.
Method
Each group will determine the temperature at which a specic mass of
potassium nitrate, varying from 6 g to 16 g, just saturates 10 g of water. Your
teacher will tell you the mass that your group is to use. You will then share
your results with the class.
1 Using the balance, weigh your group’s mass of potassium nitrate.
2 Using the burette, place 10 cm of distilled water in the boiling tube (this
is equivalent to 10 g).
3 Add the potassium nitrate you weighed to the boiling tube and,
using the thermometer, stir the solution carefully to dissolve as much
potassium nitrate as possible.
4 Carefully heat the solution in the water bath, stirring it constantly until
all the potassium nitrate has just dissolved.
5 Take the boiling tube out of the water bath and stir the solution gently.
6 Observe the solution as you stir it and as it cools. Look for signs of
crystallisation, especially at the bottom of the tube as that is where it is
easiest to see the crystals forming.
7 Note the temperature at which the crystals just start to form.
8 To ensure that your temperature is accurate, reheat the solution and cool
it again and note the temperature at which the crystals just start to form.
9 Average your two temperature readings and record it in the table
outlined on the board by your teacher (the table is given below).
Temperature (°C)
Mass of KNO saturating 10 g of water (g) 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
3
Solubility of KNO (g per 100 g water)

3
10 Once all the results from the class have been recorded, copy the table
and calculate the mass of potassium nitrate that dissolved in 100 g of
water at each temperature, i.e. the solubility of potassium nitrate at
each temperature. Record these solubilities in your table.
11 On a sheet of graph paper, draw a solubility curve for potassium nitrate.
Summary questions
1 Dene solubility.
2 What effect does temperature have on the solubility of solids in liquids?
3 What is the unit used for measuring solubility?
24
Mixtures and their separation Separating mixtures
A2.4 Separating mixtures Objectives
Since mixtures form a par t of our ever yday lives, t he separation of t hese
be able to:
mixtures into t heir component par ts is impor tant. Examples include t he
● identify suitable techniques to
purication of drinking water and t he making of lter coffee. f you were
separate the components of
stuck on a deser t island wit hout any drinking water, your knowledge of
mixtures
separating mixtures could help you to make pure water from sea water.
● describe the types of mixtures
Mixtures are a type of matter where t he components can be separated by

separated by ltration,
physical means. The met hod by which a mixture can be separated into its
evaporation, crystallisation,
component par ts is determined by t he physical properties of t hese par ts,

simple distillation, fractional
e.g. par ticle size, boiling point, solubility. Table 2.4.1 summarises t he
distillation, a separating funnel
met hods of separation t hat you will be studying, toget her wit h t he physical
and chromatography
proper ties of t he component par ts t hat allows t he mixtures to be separated

● describe the processes
by each met hod.

involved in separating
mixtures by ltration,
 Table 2.4.1 A summary of the methods used to separate mixtures
evaporation, crystallisation,
Separation method Physical properties of component parts
simple distillation, fractional
Filtration A mixture of a solid and a liquid where the solid does not dissolve in the
distillation, a separating funnel
liquid. The components are separated based on their different particle sizes.
and chromatography
Evaporation and A mixture of a solid which is dissolved in a liquid where the boiling point of
● explain the terms ltrate,
crystallisation the liquid is lower than that of the solid. The methods only allow for collection
residue and distillate
of the solid. The components are separated based on their different boiling

points.
miscible and immiscible

Simple distillation A mixture of a solid which is dissolved in a liquid where the boiling point of
the liquid is lower than that of the solid. Both the liquid and the solid can be liquids.
collected. The components are separated based on their different boiling
points.
Fractional distillation A mixture of two (or more) miscible liquids which have different boiling
points, i.e. there is a difference in volatility. Miscible liquids are ones that mix
completely. The components are separated based on their different boiling
points.
Separating funnel A mixture of two (or more) immiscible liquids which have different densities.
Immiscible liquids are liquids which do not mix. The components are
separated based on their different densities.
Chromatography A mixture of dissolved substances which will travel through a material. The
components are separated based on their different solubilities in a solvent
and attraction to the material.
Filtration
Filtration is used to separate a mixture of a solid and a liquid where t he solid
filter paper
does not dissolve in t he liquid, i.e. it is used to separate t he components of
a suspension. Filtration makes use of lter paper to separate t he solid from

filter funnel
t he liquid. The lter paper works like a sieve, keeping back t he solid par ticles.
The solid par ticles are too big to pass t hrough t he lter paper, whereas t he the solid remains
in the filter paper as
liquid par ticles are small enough to pass t hrough.
the residue
The par t of t he mixture t hat stays behind in t he lter paper is called t he
residue. The par t of t he mixture t hat passes t hrough t he lter paper is called
suppor t
t he ltrate
Filtration is one of t he steps used in t he purication of drinking water. Most
the liquid filters
simple water purication devices t hat you might use in your homes use
through: it is
called the filtrate

ltration as t heir main met hod of purifying t he water. They separate t he
solid impurities from t he water. A coffee machine makes use of a lter in t he
 Figure 2.4.1 Filtration apparatus

form of lter paper to separate t he coffee granules from t he coffee.
25
Separating mixtures Mixtures and their separation
Evaporation
solvent
evaporates quickly
Evaporation is used to separate a solution of a solid dissolved in a liquid, but it
into the air
only allows the solid to be collected. During evaporation, the solution is boiled
allowing the liquid to vaporise into the air. The solute is left behind in the
boiling solution
container. Evaporation is a fairly rapid process and if all the liquid evaporates,
the solid remaining lacks any cr ystalline str ucture . The method is not suitable
heat if the solid to be collected is decomposed by heat. Evaporation is useful to
obtain the sodium chloride from a sodium chloride solution.
Crystallisation
solute is left
Like evaporation, crystallisation is used to separate a solution of a solid dissolved

behind
in a liquid, and it only allows the solid to be collected. Unlike evaporation, the
 Figure 2.4.2 Evaporation
solution is not boiled, it is left in a container at room temperature for the liquid
to vaporise into the air. Crystallisation is a slow process and the solid remaining
has a distinct crystalline structure. t is used if a hydrated solid containing
solvent evaporates
water of crystallisation is required. Water of crystallisation is water that is

slowly at room
temperature incorporated within the crystalline structure and you will learn more about
this in Unit 8.4. Crystallisation is useful to obtain hydrated copper(II) sulfate
filter paper to prevent
crystals (CuSO .5H O) from a copper(II) sulfate solution.

impurities entering
4 2
solution
evaporating basin
Simple distillation
Simple distillation is also used to separate a solution of a solid dissolved in a
crystals of the solute
liquid. t allows both the solid and the liquid to be collected. Simple distillation is
are left behind
an appropriate method of separation only if the liquid has a lower boiling point
 Figure 2.4.3 Crystallisation
t han t he solid, i.e. t he liquid becomes a vapour before t he solid. One of t he
key components of t he apparatus used in distillation is a Liebig condenser.
The met hod by which t he distillation apparatus works is as follows:
● The mixture is heated in t he distillation ask until it boils and
vaporisation occurs.
● The vapour rises up t he distillation ask and as it passes into t he Liebig
condenser it cools and condenses back to a liquid. The liquid passes
down t he condenser and is collected as t he d istillate
● The concentration of t he solution in t he distillation ask gradually
increases and when most of t he liquid has vaporised, t he solution can be
poured into an evaporating basin and lef t to cr ystallise to obtain cr ystals
of t he solute if required.
 Figure 2.4.4 Apparatus for simple
distillation
thermometer
records boiling
point of liquid
Liebig condenser
distillation
water out
flask
anti-bumping
granules
assist smooth
boiling
receiver
cold water in
distillate
heat
26
The t hermometer is used to monitor t he temperature of t he vapour entering
t he condenser. f t he temperature remains constant at t he boiling point of
t he pure liquid, t hen t he distillate is pure.
Distillation is a ver y useful met hod of separation if you need to collect bot h
Exam tip
t he solid and t he liquid af ter separation. However, it is also used to make ✔
distilled water from tap water and can be used to obtain pure water from sea
It is very important that you are
water. n bot h t hese cases, any solution remaining in t he distillation ask is
able to draw line diagrams of the
discarded since it is not required.
apparatus used in the different
separation processes.
Fractional distillation
Fractional distillation is used to separate a mixture of two or more liquids
which are miscible and have different boiling points that are close together.
Miscible liquids are liquids that are able to mix. The apparatus used in fractional
distillation is similar to that used in simple distillation. However, a fractionating
column is attached between a round-bottomed ask and the Liebig condenser.
Fractional distillation can be used to separate a solution of ethanol and water
since the boiling point of ethanol is 78 °C and that of water is 100 °C.
 Figure 2.4.5 Fractional distillation
The fractionating column has a large using a fractionating column
thermometer.
surface area. Vaporisation followed
The temperature remains

by condensation of the vapour takes
constant at the boiling point of

place many times on the surface of the
each liquid as it distils separately

fractionating column. Vapours of the
liquid with the lowest boiling point reach
the top of the column first and enter the water out
condenser
Liebig condenser
cold
water in
distillation flask
receiver.
A fresh receiver
anti-bumping is used to catch
granules each distillate
heat
Did you know?
The process of fractional
The met hod by which t he apparatus for fractional distillation works is as

distillation is used in several
follows.
industries that you might have
come across. It is used in the rum

● The mixture boils and vapours of bot h liquids enter and move up t he
industry to separate the ethanol
fractionating column where t hey condense and vaporise many times.
from the fermentation mixture
● As the mixture of vapours moves up the fractionating column, it becomes

(Unit 15.1), and in the petroleum
increasingly richer in the more volatile component, i.e. the one with the
industry to separate crude oil into
lower boiling point (ethanol), until the vapour reaching the top of the
different fractions such as gasoline,
column consists only of the more volatile component. This vapour passes kerosene and diesel (Unit 14.1).
into the condenser, condenses and is collected as the distillate Also liquid air can be fractionally
distilled into oxygen and nitrogen

● The vapour of t he less volatile liquid, i.e. t he one wit h t he higher boiling
gases which have various uses
point (water), condenses in t he fractionating column and returns to t he
(Unit 20).
round-bottomed ask.
27
Separating mixtures Mixtures and their separation
● When almost all of t he more volatile liquid has distilled over, t he
temperature begins to rise, showing t hat a mixture of bot h vapours is
reaching t he top of t he column and distilling over. This is collected in a
second container and discarded.
● Once t he temperature reaches t he boiling point of t he less volatile
liquid, t hat liquid is t hen distilled into a t hird container.
Separating funnel
A separating funnel is used to separate a mixture of liquids that are immiscible
and have different densities. Immiscible liquids are liquids which are unable
oil
liquid
to mix. A separating funnel is a container that has a tap at the bottom, allowing
interface
water oil
one liquid to be drained off before the other. t is usually conical in shape to
reduce the amount of liquids lost at the interface of the two liquids. Oil and
water are two liquids that are immiscible and they have different densities. f
a mixture of oil and water is placed in a separating funnel, the oil with a lower
density oats on the water which has a higher density.
The met hod by which t he separating funnel works is as follows:
● The tap is opened to allow t he liquid wit h t he higher density (water) to
r un into t he container below.
● The tap is closed as t he liquid interface almost reaches it and t he rst
container is replaced wit h a second.
water runs out
of funnel
● The tap is opened again to allow a ver y small amount of t he liquid wit h
t he lower density (oil) to r un into t he container and t hen closed. The

 Figure 2.4.6 Separation using a
separating funnel contents of t he second container are discarded.
Paper chromatography
Paper chromatog raphy is used to separate a mixture of dissolved
Did you know?
? substances whic h are coloured or can be coloured, and whic h will
travel t hrough a mater ial, e.g. lter paper. The substances are separated
Chromatography is used
based on:
extensively by forensic scientists
● how soluble t hey are in t he solvent used

in their work. For example, they
use it to analyse body fluids for the

● how strongly t hey are attracted to t he paper.
presence of illegal drugs, to analyse
Many inks and food colourings are mixtures of two or more dyes, which can
blood from crime scenes, and, at
be separated by paper chromatography.
airports, to detect residues from
explosives. If the spots that form The met hod by which paper chromatography works is as follows:
are colourless, a locating agent is

● A drop of the dye mixture is placed 1 cm from the bottom of a rectangular
sprayed on the chromatogram. This
piece of absorbent paper, e.g. lter paper. The paper is then hung in a
reacts with the colourless spots,
beaker containing solvent so that the lower edge is below the surface of
making them coloured.
the solvent and the dye is above.
● The solvent moves up t he paper and dissolves t he dyes in t he mixture,
carr ying t hem wit h it. However, t he different dyes travel up t he paper at
different rates.
● The dyes t hat are t he most soluble in t he solvent and least attracted to
t he paper travel t he fastest and t he fur t hest distance.
● The dyes t hat are t he least soluble in t he solvent and most attracted to
t he paper travel t he slowest and t he least distance.
● Once t he solvent has completed its movement up t he paper, t he paper
is allowed to dr y. There will be a pattern of different coloured dyes on
t he paper, each one representing a par t of t he mixture. This pattern is
known as a chromatogram
28
Separating mixtures using chromatography

drop of dye
mixture, e.g. ink
● manipulation and measurement. datum line
You will be supplied with a piece of lter paper, a beaker, a capillary tube, solvent
two water-based markers of different colours and food colouring.
Method
solvent front –
edge of solvent
1 Measure the depth of the beaker with a ruler. The depth will be the fastest
moving
length of your lter paper.

different
dye
coloured
2 Cut the lter paper into a rectangular strip, 4 cm wide and the length as
dyes
slowest
measured in point 1 above.

datum line
moving
dye
3 Draw a pencil line across the strip 2 cm up from the bottom and mark
the line at 1 cm intervals with a pencil dot.

 Figure 2.4.7 Separation using paper
chromatography
4 Attach the top of the strip to a glass rod so that it can be suspended in
the beaker with its lower edge just above the bottom of the beaker.
5 Make a dot with one of the markers on the rst pencil dot. Make a dot
with the second marker on the second pencil dot. Use the capillary tube
to place a drop of food colouring on the third pencil dot.
6 Place enough water into the beaker so that when the strip of lter paper
is hung in the beaker, the bottom of the strip will be immersed in the Did you know?
?
water, but the coloured dots will be above the water.
Using chromatography it can be
7 Hang the strip of lter paper in the beaker so that the water wets the
shown that the green pigment in
bottom of the paper and watch the colours in the three dots separate plants, known as chlorophyll, is
actually made of three different

and spread up the lter paper as the water rises up the paper.
coloured pigments, orange, yellow
8 Compare the results from your two markers. Did they contain any
and green.
colours in common?
9 If members of the class used different coloured markers from you,
compare your results with theirs to see if different coloured markers had
any colours in common with yours.
Summary questions
1 Which properties of the components of a mixture are considered when
deciding on a separation technique?
2 What is the main difference between using distillation and evaporation
as a separation method?
3 For each of the following mixtures, explain how you would separate
them into their component parts:
a a mixture of salt, black pepper and water
b a mixture of oil, sugar and water.
29
Extraction of sucrose from sugar cane Mixtures and their separation
Objectives A2.5 Extraction of sucrose from sugar cane
Sugar cane was rst introduced to t he Caribbean by t he Dutch in about 1625

be able to:
and has been a ver y impor tant par t of its economy ever since. The production
● describe the extraction of
of sucrose from t he sugar cane plant is an industrial process t hat makes use of
sucrose from sugar cane
several separation techniques.
● draw a ow diagram showing
the steps which are involved in The processes involved in t he separation of sucrose from sugar cane are as
the separation of sucrose from follows:
sugar cane.
● The sugar cane stalks are har vested, transpor ted to t he factor y, cleaned
and cut into small pieces by revolving knives in t he shredder.
● The pieces are t hen crushed in t he cr ushers as water is sprayed on t hem
to dissolve t he sugar present. This produces cane juice and cane bre, or
bagasse. The bagasse is taken to t he boiler furnace where it is burnt to
supply heat for t he boilers.
● The cane juice, which is acidic and contains impurities, enters t he
clarier where precipitation occurs. The juice is heated and calcium
hydroxide is added which neutralises any acids in t he juice and causes
t he impurities to precipitate out, i.e. t hey are conver ted into larger,
insoluble par ticles.
● The juice t hen moves into t he rotar y lter where continuous ltration
takes place to remove t he insoluble impurities. This produces factor y
mud and claried juice. The factor y mud is returned to t he elds.
● The claried juice, which is about 85% water, goes into a series of t hree
or four boilers or evaporators where vacuum d istillation occurs. These
boilers are under successively lower pressures so t hat as t he juice passes
 Figure 2.5.1 Sugar

from one to t he next it boils at successively lower temperatures. n t his
way t he water evaporates and t he juice is concentrated but not charred
or caramelised by t he boiling process. The juice from t he last boiler is a
t hick syr up containing about 35% water.
 Figure 2.5.2 Sugar cane in ower

 Figure 2.5.3 Andrew’s Sugar Factory in Barbados
30
Mixtures and their separation Extraction of sucrose from sugar cane
● The t hick syr up moves into t he cr ystalliser where crystallisation takes
place. Here t he syr up is evaporated until it is saturated wit h sugar. As
soon as t he saturation point is exceeded, small grains of sugar, called
‘seed’, are added to ser ve as nuclei for t he formation of sugar cr ystals. As
t he cr ystals form, t he remaining syr up becomes t hick and viscous and is
called molasses. The mixture of cr ystals and molasses forms massecuite.
● The sugar cr ystals and molasses in t he massecuite are t hen separated by
centrifugation in t he centrifuges. Each centrifuge contains a perforated
basket. The massecuite is placed in t he basket and t his revolves at high
speed. The molasses are forced out t hrough t he holes in t he basket and
are collected in t he outer dr um of t he centrifuge. The sugar cr ystals
remain behind in t he basket.
● The damp, unrened sugar cr ystals are collected and dried by being
tumbled t hrough heated air.
sugar cane
(1) shredder
(2) crushers
bagasse
(fibre)
(3)
clarifier
(4) filter
cane juice
heat
water
molasses
seed
cr ystal
thick
syrup
(8)
collectors
(6) (5) boiler
cr ystalliser
heat
raw sugar
(7) centrifuge
 Figure 2.5.4 Flow diagram of the various stages in the extraction of sucrose
Summary questions
1 Draw a simple ow diagram of the steps which are involved in the
separation of sucrose from sugar cane.
2 Why is it important to use a series of boilers in the extraction of sucrose
from sugar cane?
31
Extraction of sucrose from sugar cane Mixtures and their separation
Key concepts
● Matter can be classied into pure substances and mixtures
● A pure substance is composed of only one type of material. t has a xed,
constant composition, its proper ties are xed and constant and t he
component par ts cannot be separated by physical means.
● Pure substances can be classied into elements and compounds
● An element is a pure substance t hat cannot be broken down into any
simpler substances by any ordinar y chemical or physical means.
● A compound is a pure substance t hat contains two or more different
types of element which are bonded toget her chemically in xed
propor tions and in such a way t hat t heir proper ties have changed.
● A mixture consists of two or more substances combined together in varying
proportions. Each component retains its own independent properties
and has undergone no chemical reaction with any other substance in the
mixture. The components of mixtures can be separated by physical means.
● Mixtures can be classied into homogeneous mixtures and
heterogeneous mixtures
● A homogeneous mixture is a mixture in which t he proper ties and
composition are uniform t hroughout t he sample and t he components
cannot be distinguished from each ot her.
● A solution is a homogeneous mixture consisting of two or more
components, one of which is usually a liquid. The par ticles in a solution
are extremely small.
● A heterogeneous mixture is a non-uniform mixture.
● A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which minute, but visible,
par ticles are dispersed in anot her substance, usually a liquid.
● A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture in which t he par ticles of one
substance are dispersed in anot her substance, usually a liquid. The
dispersed par ticles are smaller t han t hose of a suspension, but larger
t han t hose of a solution.
● Solubility is a measure of t he mass of solute which will saturate a xed
mass of solvent at a given temperature. The unit of solubility is g per
100 g water
● A saturated solution is a solution t hat contains as much solute as can be
dissolved at a given temperature, in t he presence of undissolved solute.
● Temperature also affects solubility. The solubility of most solids in water
increases as temperature increases.
● A solubility curve is a graph showing how t he solubility of a solute
varies wit h temperature.
● The physical proper ties of t he component par ts of a mixture are used to
determine t he met hod by which a mixture can be separated.
● Possible separation met hods are ltration, evaporation, cr ystallisation,
simple distillation, fractional distillation, a separating funnel and
chromatography.
● The extraction of sucrose from sugar cane involves t he following
processes: cr ushing, precipitation, ltration, vacuum distillation,
cr ystallisation and centrifugation.
32
Mixtures and their separation Practice exam-style questions
iv) At what temperature are t he solubilities of

X and Y t he same? (1 mark)
v) What is t he solubility of X at 46 °C? (1 mark)
vi) What mass of Y would cr ystallise out of a saturated
1 Which of t he following is correct?

solution containing 100 g of water if t his solution
A The components of a mixture can be separated by

is cooled from 62 °C to 24 °C? (3 marks)
physical means.
b Figure 2 shows t he main steps in t he extraction of
B A mixture contains two or more pure substances

sucrose from sugar cane.
chemically combined toget her.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
C A mixture has a xed melting point.
D The component par ts of a mixture are in a xed ratio.
Cutting and
Precipitation
crushing
2 The solubility of a solid in water usually:
A increases as temperature increases
B increases as temperature decreases
C remains constant as temperature increases
Step 6 Step 5 Step 4

D decreases as temperature increases
3 The following are all colloids except:
Vacuum
Centrifugation
A fog
distillation
B air
C milk
 Figure 2 Flow chart showing the extraction of sucrose
D mayonnaise
from sugar cane
4 The process of fractional distillation depends on a
i) Complete t he char t by labelling t he boxes in steps

difference in t he:
3 and 5. (2 marks)
A melting points of t he components of t he mixture
ii) Describe t he process taking place in step 2.

B densities of t he components of t he mixture
(2 marks)
C solubilities of t he components of t he mixture in water
iii) Why is it necessar y to have t he boilers under

D boiling points of t he components of t he mixture
successively lower pressures in step 4? (1 mark)
5 The best way to separate sodium chloride solution and
sand is by: Total 15 marks
A evaporation
B carefully pouring off t he sodium chloride solution

C ltering t he mixture
7 Chemical substances can combine in various ways to form
D simple distillation
mixtures, t he components of which can be separated by
various means.
Structured question
a What do you understand by t he term ‘mixture’?
6 a Figure 1 shows t he solubility cur ves for two ionic

(2 marks)
solids, X and Y. Use t his information to answer t he

b Solutions, suspensions and colloids are examples of
following questions.
mixtures. Explain t he differences between t hese t hree
mixtures in terms of par ticle size, sedimentation when
90
lef t to stand and transmission of light. (6 marks)
Y
)retaw
80 c You are given a mixture of t hree solid chlorides:
sodium chloride, lead chloride and silver chloride.

70
g 001
The solubilities of t hese t hree chlorides in water are

60
X
rep
given in t he table below.
50
g(
40
Compound Solubility in cold Solubility in hot
ytilibuloS
water water
30
sodium chloride soluble soluble
20
lead chloride insoluble soluble

10
silver chloride insoluble insoluble

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
i) Use t he information given in t he table to

Temperature (°C)
devise a scheme to separate t he mixture into its
 Figure 1 Solubility curves for ionic substances X and Y
component par ts. (5 marks)
i) Dene t he term ‘solubility’. (2 marks)

ii) Draw a labelled diagram to show one of t he
ii) Temperature has t he greatest effect on t he

pieces of apparatus you used in your separation
solubility of which compound? (1 mark)

scheme. (2 marks)
iii) Explain how you arrived at your answer to par t ii)
Total 15 marks
above. (2 marks)
33
A3 Atomic structure
For a long time, people believed that all matter

Objectives
consisted of the four basic elements: earth, fire, air and

be able to:
water. Scientists now know that the smallest identifying
● give the atomic symbols of the
particle of matter is an atom. Atoms are the basic
common elements
building blocks of matter. On a macroscopic scale we

● describe the structure of an
atom
classified matter into mixtures and pure substances; we
● give the relative charge and
are now going to investigate matter on a microscopic
mass of a proton, a neutron
and an electron scale by looking at the structure of the atom.
● dene the terms atomic
number and mass number
● represent atoms by nuclear

A3.1 The structure of atoms
notation
Regardless of whet her you have one kilogram, one gram or one atom of a
● interpret nuclear notation
par ticular element, all t hese masses will exhibit t he same proper ties. For
to determine the number of
example, if one gram of gold is broken into smaller par ts, it will still be gold.
subatomic particles in an atom.
The smallest identifying par ticle of an element is an atom.
Elements can be classied into metals and non-metals. The proper ties of
metals and non-metals are given in Units 4.4, 17.1 and 20.1. Each element
Key fact
! can be represented by an atomic symbol, which represents one atom of t he
element. The atomic symbols of some of t he commonest elements are given
An atom is the smallest component
in Tables 3.1.1 and 3.1.2.
of an element that can exist and still
have the same chemical properties

 Table 3.1.1 The atomic symbols of the common metals
as the element.
Metals
Element Atomic symbol Element Atomic symbol
Aluminium Al Lithium Li
Barium Ba Magnesium Mg
Beryllium Be Manganese Mn
Calcium Ca Mercury Hg
Chromium Cr Nickel Ni
Cobalt Co Potassium K
Copper Cu Silver Ag
Gold Au Sodium Na
Iron Fe T in Sn
Lead Pb Zinc Zn
 Table 3.1.2 The atomic symbols of the common non-metals
Non-metals
Element Atomic symbol Element Atomic symbol
Argon Ar Neon Ne
Boron B Nitrogen N
Exam tip
✔ Bromine Br Oxygen O
Carbon C Phosphorus P
It is essential that you know the

Chlorine Cl Silicon Si
atomic symbols of all the common
Fluorine F Sulfur S
elements and that you write them
Helium He
with care, making sure that you
Hydrogen H
form your capital and common
Iodine I
letters correctly.
Krypton Kr
34
Atomic structure The structure of atoms
We cannot see atoms because t hey are incredibly small. Compared to t he
t hic kness of a human hair, an atom is more t han a million times smaller.
Did you know?
?
7
The average diameter of an atom is about 2.5  10 mm, whic h means
The atomic symbols of some of

t hat, on average, an atom is 25 million times smaller t han a millimetre.
the elements are derived from the

However, t here are par ticles t hat are even smaller t han an atom. These
Latin name of the element. For

fundamental par ticles are called subatomic particles and atoms are made
example, the Latin name for iron is
up of t hese par ticles.
ferrum and the symbol for iron is Fe,
copper is cuprum and its symbol is
Cu, lead is plumbum and its symbol

Subatomic particles
is Pb, and silver is argentum,
Atoms are made up of t hree subatomic par ticles: protons, neutrons and
symbol Ag.
electrons.
● Protons and neutrons are found in t he centre of an atom in an area
electrons orbit
known as t he nucleus. Protons and neutrons are collectively known as

the nucleus
nucleons. Nearly all t he mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus.
● Electrons are found at quite a distance from t he nucleus, spinning
around t he nucleus in a series of levels known as energ y shells
(sometimes just called shells). Most of t he atom is in fact empty space,
but t he movement of t he electrons around t he nucleus constitutes t he
volume of an atom. When chemical reactions occur, it is t he electrons
t hat are involved in t he reaction.
Mass and charge of subatomic particles
the nucleus
Protons are positively charged par ticles and electrons are negatively charged.
contains protons
The size of t he charge on a proton is equal to t he size of t he charge on an

and neutrons
electron. Neutrons are electrically neutral so have no charge. In an atom, t he

 Figure 3.1.1 The structure of an atom
number of protons is always t he same as t he number of electrons. Therefore,
an atom is electrically neutral and has no charge.
The mass of a proton is equal to t he mass of a neutron. The mass of a proton is
24
extremely small, only 1.67  10 g. The mass of an electron is even smaller.
Comparing t he mass of a proton to t hat of an electron, a proton is about
1836 times heavier t han an electron.
The proper ties of a proton, neutron and electron are summarised in
Table 3.1.3.
 Table 3.1.3 The properties of a proton, a neutron and an electron
Subatomic particle Relative charge Relative mass
Proton 1 1
Neutron 0 1
1
_____
Electron 1
1836
Atomic number
Key fact
!
The number of protons in an atom is known as t he atomic number and
is unique to a par ticular element, i.e. t here are no two elements in t he Atomic number is the number of
protons in the nucleus of one atom

world t hat have t he same atomic number. For example, t he atomic number
of an element.
of hydrogen is 1, whic h means t hat ever y hydrogen atom has 1 proton.
The atomic number of calcium is 20, t herefore, ever y calcium atom has
20 protons.
35
The structure of atoms Atomic structure
In an atom, since t he number of electrons is always equal to t he number of
protons, t he number of electrons is equal to t he atomic number.
Mass number
Key fact
! The number of protons and neutrons in an atom is known as t he mass
number. The mass number is not unique to a par ticular element, for example
Mass number is the total number
polonium and astatine bot h have a mass number of 210.

of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of one atom of an element.
The number of neutrons can be calculated by subtracting t he atomic number
from t he mass number, i.e.
number of neutrons  mass number  atomic number
Nuclear notation
We can represent an atom (or ion) of an element using the nuclear notation:
X
Z
where X  atomic symbol, A  mass number and Z  atomic number.
This notation is ver y useful because it allows us to calculate t he number of
protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom.
● The number of protons is equal to Z
● The number of neutrons is equal to A  Z
● The number of electrons is equal to t he number of protons, which is
equal to Z
Examples are given in Table 3.1.4.
 Table 3.1.4 The number of subatomic particles in the atoms of three elements
Number of
Element Nuclear notation
Protons (Z) Neutrons (A–Z) Electrons
14
Nitrogen N 7 7 7
7
27
Aluminium AI 13 14 13
13
37
Chlorine Cl 17 20 17
17
The nuclear notations for all elements can be found in t he periodic table of
elements on page 360.
Summary questions
1 Which particle(s) in the atom is/are responsible for the:
a mass of the atom b volume of the atom?
2 Dene the following terms:
atomic number, mass number.
3 For each of the following nuclear notations, give the number of protons,
electrons and neutrons.
11 23 40
a B b Na c Ca
5 11 20
36
Atomic structure The electronic configuration of an atom
A3.2 The electronic configuration of an atom Objectives
Electrons spin around t he nucleus of an atom in a series of levels known as

be able to:
energ y shells. Each energy shell is a xed distance from t he nucleus of t he
● give the maximum number of
atom and t he electrons in t he same shell have t he same amount of energy.
electrons allowed in the rst
The electrons are arranged in t he energy shells in a specic way. We can
three energy shells of an atom
represent t he arrangement of electrons in an atom, known as t he electronic
● work out the electronic
conguration (or str ucture), using anot her scientic model.
conguration of the rst 20
electron
elements
proton
● represent the electronic
× conguration of an atom in
writing
● represent the electronic
conguration of an atom by a
energy
shells
shell diagram
● explain the term valence
electron.
neutron
nucleus
 Figure 3.2.1 Model of the arrangement of electrons in an atom
In t his scientic model, t he energy shells are drawn as concentric circles
around t he nucleus, but as t his is only a model, t his is not how t hey actually
Did you know?
?
look. The shells are numbered according to t heir distance from t he nucleus.
The shell closest to t he nucleus is assigned number 1, t he next fur t hest away The maximum number of electrons
is number 2, and so on. that an energy shell can hold is
given by the formula 2n , where n
Each shell can hold up to a cer tain maximum number of electrons:

is the shell number. Shell number
3 can, therefore, actually hold a

● shell number 1 can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
maximum of 18 electrons and shell
● shell number 2 can hold a maximum of 8 electrons

number 4 can hold a maximum
● shell number 3 may be considered to hold a maximum of of 32 electrons. However, when
filling up shell number 3, something

8 electrons.
unusual happens. When 8 electrons
Fur t her shells hold more electrons, but it is not necessar y to know t heir
have been placed in shell number
maximum numbers since you will not have to work out t he electron 3, the next 2 electrons are placed
conguration of an atom wit h more t han 20 electrons. in shell number 4. Only after these
2 electrons have been placed in
The negative electrons are constantly being attracted to t he positive nucleus

shell number 4 are any remaining
by an electrostatic force of attraction . The electrons maintain t heir spin

electrons (up to 10) placed in shell
around t he nucleus and t heir distance from t he nucleus because of t he number 3.
energy t hey possess. Electrons in t he shells closest to t he nucleus have less
energy t han t hose in t he shells fur t her from t he nucleus. In fact, electrons
can only occupy a specic shell if t hey have t he required energy.
Key fact
!
The chemical proper ties of an element depend on t he arrangement of
An electrostatic force of
electrons in an atom of t hat element, in par ticular, t he number of electrons
attraction is the force that exists
in t he outermost energy shell.
between two oppositely charged
particles.
37
The electronic configuration of an atom Atomic structure
Shell diagrams
Key fact
! The electronic conguration of an atom of an element can be represented
by drawing a shell diagram or in writing using numbers. In order to draw a

The electronic configuration of
shell diagram of an atom, t he following steps must be followed.

an atom is the arrangement of
electrons in the energy shells of the

1) Determine t he number of protons, neutrons and electrons in t he atom
atom.
using t he atomic number and mass number (Unit 3.1).
2) Draw a small circle for t he nucleus and write t he number of protons and
neutrons inside t his circle.
3) Work out t he electronic conguration by lling up t he shells wit h
electrons, in order, i.e. ll up shell 1 rst and, when t hat is full, star t to ll
up shell 2, and so on.
4) Represent t he electronic conguration by drawing concentric circles
around t he nucleus. The number of circles you should draw is determined
by t he number of shells t hat you are going to ll or par tially ll. Use crosses
or dots to represent t he electrons. Draw t he 2 electrons in shell number 1
as a pair. Draw t he electrons in t he ot her shells as pairs when t he shell
contains 5 or more electrons.
Examples
12
1 The str ucture of a carbon atom, C.

6
×
××
A carbon atom has:
6p 6 protons
× ×
6n
6 neutrons (12  6)
6 electrons.
12
 Table 3.2.1 Determining the electronic conguration of a carbon atom
carbon, C
6
Shell number Maximum number of electrons Number of electrons in carbon
 Figure 3.2.2 Electronic conguration
1 2 2
of a carbon atom
2 8 4
The electronic conguration of a carbon atom can be written by writing
t he symbol of t he element followed by t he number of electrons in each
shell separated by commas, i.e. C (2,4)
39
2 The str ucture of a potassium atom, K.

19
×
××
A potassium atom has:
××
19 protons
20 neutrons (39  19)

××
××
××
××
19p
19 electrons.
20n
 Table 3.2.2 Determining the electronic conguration of a potassium atom
××
Shell number Maximum number of electrons Number of electrons in potassium
××
1 2 2
39
potassium, K
2 8 8
19
 Figure 3.2.3 Electronic conguration

3 8 8
of a potassium atom
4 not necessary 1
The electronic conguration of a potassium atom is K (2,8,8,1)
38
Atomic structure The electronic configuration of an atom
3 The str ucture of ot her atoms.

Element Electronic configuration
hydrogen H (1)
Examples of t he electronic congurations of atoms of ot her elements are
boron B (2,3)
given in t he shell diagrams in Figure 3.2.4 and are written in Table 3.2.3.
oxygen O (2,6)
× ××
sodium Na (2,8,1)
argon Ar (2,8,8)
××
1p
×
5p 8p
×
calcium Ca (2,8,8,2)
0n
6n 8n
 Table 3.2.3 Written electronic
congurations of the atoms shown in
×
×
1
Figure 3.2.4
11 16
hydrogen, H boron, B oxygen, O
1 5 8
× ×× ××
×× ×× ××
××
××
××
××
××
××
××
××
××
××
18p 20p
11p
22n 20n
12n
Exam tip
×× ×× ×× ✔
×× ××
It is important that you can draw
23 40 40
sodium, Na argon, Ar calcium, Ca shell diagrams of atoms of atomic
11 18 20
numbers 1 to 20, i.e. hydrogen to
 Figure 3.2.4 Shell diagrams showing the electronic congurations of atoms of

calcium in the periodic table.
different elements
Valence electrons
The electrons in t he outermost energy shell are known as valence electrons .
For example, potassium (2,8,8,1) has one valence electron.
The outer most e le c t ro ns are t he on es t h at are involve d in c h emical
reactions, i.e. t he va le n ce e le ct ro n s. A dia g ram o f an a tom can b e drawn t h at
shows only t he va le n c e e le ct ro n s. E xa mple s a re g ive n in Fig ure 3.2. 5.
× ×× × ××
××
××
××
5p 8p 11p 18p
×
×
6n 8n 12n 20n
× × ××
boron, B oxygen, O sodium, Na argon, Ar
 Figure 3.2.5 Diagrams of boron, oxygen, sodium and argon atoms showing the
valence electrons only
Summary questions
1 What is the maximum number of electrons allowed in shell number 2?
2 Represent the electronic conguration of each of the following atoms
using both a shell diagram and writing:
24 35 20
a magnesium, Mg b chlorine, Cl c neon, Ne.

12 17 10
3 For each of the elements in question 2, give the number of valence
electrons.
39
Isotopes and radioactivity Atomic structure
Objectives A3.3 Isotopes and radioactivity
Isotopy
be able to:
The atomic number is unique to a particular element. For example, all atoms
● dene the terms isotope and
of magnesium have an atomic number of 12, i.e. they all have 12 protons and,
isotopy
therefore, 12 electrons. The number of neutrons in atoms of the same element
● dene relative atomic mass
is not unique. For example, most magnesium atoms have 12 neutrons, however,
● explain what is meant by a
some have 13 neutrons and others have 14 neutrons. Atoms with the same
radioactive isotope
number of protons and electrons but different numbers of neutrons are called
● describe the uses of
isotopes. The occurence of these different isotopes is known as isotopy
radioactive isotopes.
In ot her words, isotopes have t he same atomic number but different mass
numbers. Isotopes have:
Key fact
the same chemical properties and electrical properties because they have
!
●
the same number and arrangement of electrons, e.g. if the different isotopes
Isotopes are different atoms of the
of magnesium react with oxygen, the chemical reaction would be the same
same element that have the same
● slightly different physical proper ties because of t he different numbers

number of protons and electrons
of neutrons, e.g. t he different isotopes of magnesium have slightly

but different numbers of neutrons.
different masses.
Most elements have more t han one isotope, but not all of t hese isotopes
are stable. The unstable ones decay into ot her isotopes. The percentage of
Key fact
!
each isotope of an element in a sample of t he element is referred to as t he
abund ance of t he isotope.

Isotopy is the occurrence of atoms
of the same element that have
the same number of protons and Examples
electrons but different numbers of
1 Carbon
neutrons.
Carbon, atomic number 6, has three naturally occurring isotopes, one with
a mass number of 12, one with a mass number of 13 and one with a mass
number of 14. There are two main methods of representing these isotopes:
● Using nuclear notation:
12 13 14
C C C
6 6 6
● By name:
carbon-12 or C-12
carbon-13 or C-13
carbon-14 or C-14.
Carbon-12 has 6 neutrons, carbon-13 has 7 neutrons and carbon-14, which
is unstable, has 8 neutrons. Carbon-12 is the most abundant carbon isotope.
In fact 98.89% of all naturally occurring carbon is the carbon-12 isotope.
2 Hydrogen
Did you know?
?
Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes.
The deuterium isotope of hydrogen
is heavier than normal hydrogen
since it has an extra neutron. Water
made from deuterium in place
of normal hydrogen is known as
heavy water. This heavy water is
used in nuclear reactors to slow
1 2 3
H or protium H or deuterium H or tritium

down the fast-moving neutrons, 1 1 1
thus enabling a sustained chain

 Figure 3.3.1 The three isotopes of hydrogen
reaction.
Hydrogen is the only element that has different names for its isotopes.
These are given in Figure 3.3.1. Protium, or normal hydrogen as it is usually
40
Atomic structure Isotopes and radioactivity
called, has a single proton in its nucleus. It is the most abundant hydrogen
isotope, making up 99.985% of all naturally occurring hydrogen.
3 Chlorine
35
Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes, Cl, or chlorine-35, and

17
37
Cl, or chlorine-37. Approximately 75% of naturally occurring chlorine

17
is t he chlorine-35 isotope and 25% is t he chlorine-37 isotope.
Relative atomic mass
Chemists could use grams to measure t he mass of atoms, but because t he
mass of an atom is so small, it becomes ver y clumsy. They needed a much
smaller unit t han a gram to measure t he mass of atoms. They designed a
system t hat gives us numbers t hat are easier to work wit h, but t hey had to
ensure t hat t hese numbers are representative of t he mass of each atom and
in t he same ratio as t he actual masses of atoms.
To design t his system t he carbon-12 isotope was chosen as a basis to work
from because of its great stability and abundance in nature.
To make t he numbers representative of t he mass, t hey chose t he number for
carbon-12 to be 12, because carbon-12 has a mass number of 12, i.e. it has 6
protons and 6 neutrons. They dened t his new unit as one-twelf t h t he mass
of a carbon-12 atom. A carbon-12 atom was assigned a mass of 12.00 atomic
Key fact
mass units or amu. Therefore, one-twelf t h t he mass of a carbon-12 atom has
!
a mass of 1.00 amu.
Relative atomic mass, A , is the

r
The mass of an atom of an element compared to one-twelf t h t he mass of a average mass of one atom of an
carbon-12 atom was t hen assigned a value known as relative atomic mass . element compared to one-twelfth
the mass of an atom of carbon-12.

Relative atomic mass is given t he symbol A
r
Relative atomic mass, t herefore, compares t he mass of an atom of an element
to one-twelf t h t he mass of a carbon-12 atom. Because it is a comparative
value, relative atomic mass has no units Key fact
When calculating t he relative atomic mass of an element, t he relative
A radioactive isotope has an
abundance of each isotope is taken into account. For example, t he relative

unstable nucleus which decays
atomic mass of chlorine, which is 35.5, is t he average mass of t he two isotopes

spontaneously to a more stable
of chlorine according to t heir relative abundance. In a sample of chlorine

form by emitting particles and
gas, approximately 75% of t he sample consists of t he chlorine-35 isotope radiation.
and 25% consists of t he chlorine-37 isotope.
75 25
____ ____
Relative atomic mass of chlorine   35   37  35.5

( ) ( )
100 100
Did you know?
Relative atomic mass gives a rough idea of t he number of nucleons (protons

?
and neutrons) an atom has. However, because we are looking at a mixture of

The three main types of particles
isotopes when calculating relative atomic mass, t he relative atomic mass is

and radiation emitted by radioactive
not a whole number, e.g. t he relative atomic mass of carbon is 12.011, but no
isotopes are:
real atom of carbon has 12.011 nucleons. • alpha ( ) particles, which
consist of 2 protons and 2
neutrons and have a charge of

Radioactivity
2
Some isotopes have unstable nuclei. These are known as rad ioactive isotopes .
• beta ( ) particles, which
These isotopes undergo radioactive decay by spontaneously ejecting par ticles

consist of an electron and have
and radiation from t heir nuclei. Radioactive isotopes eject t hese par ticles
a charge of 1
to become more stable and in t he process t hey may produce an atom of a

• gamma ( ) radiation, which
different element. is a form of high energy
electromagnetic radiation and
The time taken for half of t he nuclei in a sample of a radioactive isotope to
has neither mass nor a charge.
undergo radioactive decay is known as t he half-life of t he isotope.
41
Uses of radioactive isotopes
Carbon-14 dating
Carbon-14 d ating is used to determine t he age of plant and animal remains,
up to about 60 000 years old, which have been discovered in places such as
archeological sites. It makes use of t he fact t hat t he half-life of radioactive
carbon-14 is 5700 years.
All living organisms contain carbon-14 and carbon-12 in a specic ratio by
mass. This is t he same ratio as in carbon dioxide in t he atmosphere. As t he
carbon-14 present in a living organism’s body decays, it is replaced because
t he organism constantly takes in molecules containing carbon in t he form
of food (animals) or carbon dioxide (plants).
When a living organism dies, it stops taking in t hese carbon containing
molecules and t he carbon-14 is not replaced as it decays. The ratio of carbon-14
to carbon-12, t herefore, decreases. The age of a specimen can be determined
by comparing t he ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in t he specimen wit h t he
expected ratio for t hat organism if it was alive. For example, if t he amount
 Figure 3.3.2 Carbon-14 dating is used of carbon-14 was half of t he expected amount, t hen t he specimen would be
to determine the age of some fossils

5700 years old, if it was a quar ter of t he expected amount, t hen t he specimen
would be 11 400 years old.
Radiotherapy
Radiotherapy uses radiation to cure or control cancer. Cancerous growths or
tumours are composed of rapidly dividing cells and these cells are particularly
sensitive to damage by radiation. They can be controlled or eliminated by
irradiating the area containing the growth with external or internal radiation.
External irradiation can be carried out by directing a beam of gamma
radiation from a radioactive cobalt-60 source at t he cancerous growt h.
Internal irradiation involves eit her injecting a radioactive isotope, usually a
gamma or beta emitter, into t he target area, or placing a radiation source in
a tiny protective capsule or wire (a radioactive seed) directly at t he site of t he
cancerous tumour. For example, iodine-131 is used to treat t hyroid cancer

 Figure 3.3.3 Radiotherapy is used to
treat cancerous growths and radioactive seeds containing iridium-192, palladium-103 and iodine-125
are used to treat breast and prostate cancer and brain tumours.
Tracers
Radioactive isotopes are used as tracers in the medical eld as a diagnostic
tool. These tracers generally have a short half-life so they do not remain in the
body for ver y long. A small amount of the tracer is usually injected into the
bloodstream and as it moves around the body it emits gamma rays which can
be obser ved using special equipment. This allows the physician to obser ve the
functioning of specic organs. Examples of medical tracers are:
● Technetium-99 is used to produce images and carr y out functional
studies of most organs in t he body, especially t he brain, hear t muscle,
skeleton, lungs, liver, gall bladder and kidneys.
● Iodine-131 is used to image and carr y out functional studies of t he
t hyroid gland.
Another example of the use of radioactive tracers is in determining the uptake of
atmospheric carbon dioxide by plants. Plants can be grown in an environment
containing radioactive carbon dioxide, i.e. carbon dioxide that has been made
by replacing the carbon-12 atoms in the molecules with carbon-14 atoms.
42
Atomic structure Isotopes and radioactivity
Using a Geiger counter (a machine that detects radiation) the parts of the plant
that absorb the radioactive carbon dioxide can be identied.
Energy generation
Radioactive isotopes are used to generate electricity in nuclear power stations.
The isotopes used are ones that release ver y large amounts of energy when
they undergo nuclear ssion, i.e. when the nucleus splits, usually into two
smaller nuclei. Nuclear power stations use uranium-235 or plutonium-239. If
an atom of either uranium-235 or plutonium-239 is str uck by a free neutron,
it splits into two smaller atoms and releases two or three neutrons and a large
amount of energy. The released neutrons can then strike other atoms, which
also split releasing more neutrons and energy. This sets up a chain reaction
which releases enormous amounts of energy.
Did you know?
Ba
energy One type of atom bomb derives

235
U
neutrons
Ba Kr
its destructive force from nuclear
fission. Only two atom bombs have

neutron
Ba
235 235
been used during warfare, both by
U energy U
Kr the USA towards the end of World
War II. The first, a uranium fission
Kr Ba
235
U bomb, code named ‘Little Boy’,

energy
was exploded over the Japanese

Kr
city of Hiroshima on 6 August,
 Figure 3.3.4 The chain reaction in splitting a uranium atom

1945. The second, a plutonium
fission bomb, code named

If t he chain reaction is controlled, t he energy produced can be used to
‘Fat Man’, was detonated over
generate electricity. If t he chain reaction is not controlled, it results in a
Nagasaki in Japan three days later.
nuclear explosion such as occurs in an atom bomb.
Heart pacemakers
A pacemaker is a medical device t hat is used to regulate t he beating of
Did you know?

t he hear t. It is implanted under t he skin just below t he collar bone and is
?
connected to t he hear t muscle by electrodes.
It is thought that only about 50
In the early 1970s, some pacemakers were developed that were powered by
to 100 people living today have
batteries containing plutonium-238. As the plutonium-238 undergoes natural pacemakers that are powered
radioactive decay, it emits energy. In the pacemaker batter y, this energy is used by plutonium-238 batteries. Their
use was never really developed

to generate an electric current which delivers about 0.2 milliwatt of power.
for several reasons, one of the

Pacemakers powered by chemical batteries have a lifespan of about 10 years.
main ones being the reluctance of

To replace the batteries, the pacemaker has to be surgically removed and then
people to have a device containing
replaced. Since the half-life of plutonium-238 is about 87 years, pacemakers
radioactive plutonium in their body
powered by plutonium-238 batteries should be able to deliver current for a
for life.
patient’s lifetime without having to be replaced.
Summary questions
1 Dene the following terms:
a isotope b relative atomic mass.
2 Give the similarities and differences between the two isotopes of
sodium, Na-23 and Na-22.
3 Explain why relative atomic mass has no units.
4 Explain what a radioactive isotope is.
5 How is carbon-14 used in the dating of fossil samples?
43
Key concepts
● Atoms are t he basic building blocks of matter. An atom is t he smallest
identifying par ticle of an element t hat has t he proper ties of t he element.
● Atoms consist of t hree fundamental par ticles, known as subatomic
par ticles: protons, neutrons and electrons
● Protons and neutrons are found in the centre of t he atom in an area
known as t he nucleus. Protons and neutrons are collectively known as
nucleons
● Electrons are found at quite a distance from t he nucleus in a series of
levels known as energ y shells. Electrons in t he same shell have t he same
amount of energy.
● Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged and
neutrons have no charge.
● The size of t he charge on a proton is equal to t he size of t he charge on
an electron. In an atom, t he number of protons equals t he number of
electrons.
● The mass of a proton is equal to t he mass of a neutron. An electron has a
1
____
mass of t he mass of a proton or a neutron.
1836
● Protons and neutrons are responsible for t he mass of an atom. Electrons
are responsible for t he volume of an atom.
● The number of protons in an atom is known as t he atomic number
● The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is known as t he
mass number
● The electrons are arranged in t he energy shells in a specic way known
as t he electronic conguration
● Each electron shell can hold up to a cer tain maximum number of
electrons.
● Shells closest to t he nucleus ll up rst.
● The electronic conguration of an atom can be represented in writing
using numbers or by a shell diagram.
● Electrons in t he outermost shell are known as valence electrons
● The chemical proper ties of an element depend on t he arrangement of
electrons in t he atoms of t he element.
● Isotopes are different atoms of t he same element t hat have t he same
number of protons and electrons but different numbers of neutrons.
They have t he same atomic number but different mass numbers.
● Isotopy is t he occurrence of atoms of t he same element t hat have
t he same number of protons and electrons but different numbers of
neutrons.
● Isotopes of an element have t he same chemical proper ties but different
● The relative atomic mass, A , is a number t hat compares t he average

r
mass of an atom wit h one-twelf t h t he mass of a carbon-12 atom.
● Some isotopes have unstable nuclei. These are known as rad ioactive
isotopes
● Radioactive isotopes have many uses. Some of t hese are carbon-14
dating, radiot herapy, tracers, energy generation and pacemakers.
44
Atomic structure Practice exam-style questions
Structured question
6 a i) Complete t he following table by lling in t he
Multiple-choice questions gaps.
1 If t he mass number of an atom is 59 and t he number Particle Mass Atomic Number Number
number number of of
of neutrons in t he nucleus of t he atom is 32, t hen t he
neutrons electrons
atomic number is:
56
Fe 26
A 27
58
B 32 Fe
C 59
(7 marks)
D 91
ii) A sample of iron was found to contain a mixture
39 56 58
2 A potassium atom is written as K. Which of t he of Fe and Fe in a ratio of 7 to 3. Calculate t he

19
following statements about a potassium atom are tr ue? relative atomic mass of t he sample of iron.
I It has an atomic number of 19. (2 marks)
II It has 20 neutrons. b Students were asked questions based on t he
III It has 19 electrons. information given in t he table below.
IV The total number of protons and electrons is 39.
Element Mass Atomic Electron
A I and IV only number number configuration
B II and III only

A 25 — 2,8,2
C I, II and III only
B 17 8 —
D I, III and IV only
The following statements were taken from one
3 Which of t he following is t he electronic conguration of
of t he student’s exercise books. These statements
19
uorine, F?
9
are INCORRECT. In each case, explain why t he
A 2,8,8,1
statement is incorrect and t hen give t he correct
B 2,8,1
statement.
C 2,8
i) INCORRECT STATEMENT:
D 2,7
‘The atomic number of element A is 2 because it
has 2 valence electrons.’

4 Isotopes of an element have:
– Explain why t he statement is incorrect.

I t he same atomic number but different mass numbers
– Give t he correct statement. (3 marks)

II t he same number of electrons but different numbers
ii) INCORRECT STATEMENT:

of neutrons
‘The electron conguration of element B is 2,8,7

III t he same physical proper ties but different chemical
because it has a mass number of 17.’

proper ties
– Explain why t he statement is incorrect.
A I only
– Give t he correct statement . (3 marks)
B I and II only
Total 15 marks
C II and III only
D I, II and III
5 Which of t he following is not a use of radioactive
7 a The following nuclear notations refer to atoms of
isotopes?
aluminium and uorine:
A energy generation
27 19
Al and F
B carbon dating 13 9
C chemot herapy
Draw shell diagrams to show t he str ucture of an
D radiot herapy
aluminium atom and a uorine atom. (4 marks)
b A naturally occurring element X consists of 85%
21 22
X and 15% X.
10 10
i) What can you deduce about naturally occurring
element X? (2 marks)
ii) Determine t he relative atomic mass of naturally
occurring element X. (2 marks)
c i) What is a radioactive isotope? (2 marks)
ii) Explain how:
– uranium-235 is used to generate electricity
– carbon-14 is used to determine t he age of plant
and animal remains. (5 marks)
Total 15 marks
45
The periodic table and
A4
periodicity
Elements are arranged in the periodic table in increasing

Objectives
order of atomic number. The arrangement of the

be able to:
elements in specific rows and columns provides a
● describe the historical

wealth of information about the properties of elements
development of the periodic
in the same group and in the same period of the

table
● explain how elements are periodic table. One of the main values of the periodic
arranged in the modern
table is the ability to predict the chemical properties of
periodic table
an element based on its location in the table.

● identify metals, non-metals and
metalloids in the periodic table
A4.1 Arrangement of elements in the

groups and periods
● give the similarities in the

periodic table
electronic conguration of
elements in the same group Ever yone is familiar wit h t he period ic table of elements as most chemistr y
● give the similarities in the labs have one on t he wall. The periodic table is a classication of all t he
electronic conguration of elements and it is incredibly impor tant to chemists. It shows t he symbol, full
elements in the same period name, mass number and atomic number of each element and it organises
● explain how the properties of t he elements into columns and rows based on t he str ucture of t heir atoms
elements change down a group and t heir proper ties.
and along a period.
Elements in t he periodic table show period icity. When all t he elements are
arranged in order of increasing atomic number, elements t hat are physically
and chemically similar to each ot her occur at regular inter vals, i.e. t hose
wit h similar proper ties recur per iodically t hroughout t he series.
Key fact
Historical development of the periodic table

Periodicity is the recurrence of
elements with similar physical and

Early in t he 19t h centur y, scientists star ted to tr y to classify elements based on
chemical properties at regular
t he similarities between t hem. Four scientists made impor tant contributions
intervals in the periodic table.
to t he development of t he modern periodic table: Johann Döbereiner, John
Newlands, Dmitri Mendeleev and Henr y Moseley.
Johann Döbereiner
In 1829, Johann Döbereiner noted that certain groups of three elements
possessed similar chemical and physical properties, e.g. he found that lithium,
sodium and potassium were all soft, reactive metals. He also observed that if
the three elements in a group were arranged in order of increasing relative
atomic mass, then the relative atomic mass of the middle element was close to
the average of the other two elements. He called these groups triads
 Table 4.1.1 Döbereiner’s triads of elements
Elements and their relative atomic masses Average relative atomic mass
lithium sodium potassium
23.0
7.0 23.0 39.0
calcium strontium barium
88.5
40.0 88.0 137.0
chlorine bromine iodine
81.25
35.5 80.0 127.0
46
The periodic table and periodicity Arrangement of elements in the periodic table
John Newlands
In 1865, John Newlands put for ward his L aw of Octaves. He arranged t he 56
elements t hat had been discovered at t he time in increasing order of relative
atomic mass and discovered t hat similar chemical and physical proper ties
recurred ever y eighth element. For example, star ting wit h lit hium and
arranging t he elements in increasing order of relative atomic mass, he found
t hat sodium was t he eight h element and bot h lit hium and sodium showed
similar proper ties.
Li Be B C N O F Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
 Figure 4.1.1 Newlands’ octaves of elements
Dmitri Mendeleev
In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev published his ‘ Periodic Classication of Elements ’
in which he arranged elements in increasing relative atomic mass and placed
elements with similar chemical and physical properties together in vertical
columns. His table was widely accepted at the time for two reasons:
● he lef t gaps when it seemed t hat t he corresponding elements had not yet
been discovered
● he occasionally ignored t he order suggested by relative atomic mass
and switched adjacent elements to better classify t hem into chemical
families. For example, he placed tellurium, relative atomic mass 128,
before iodine, relative atomic mass 127, so t hat iodine fell in t he same
group as uorine, chlorine and bromine, all of which showed similar
chemical proper ties.
Using his table, Mendeleev was able to predict t he proper ties of t he missing
elements, e.g. he predicted t he proper ties of gallium, which was not
discovered until 1875. Mendeleev is credited wit h being t he creator of t he
rst version of t he periodic table.
Henry Moseley
In 1914, Henr y Moseley rearranged t he elements in t he table based on t heir
atomic numbers instead of t heir relative atomic masses. In t his new order,
elements wit h similar chemical proper ties all fell in t he same groups.
The modern periodic table
The modern periodic table consists of 103 elements arranged in order of
increasing atomic number. A copy of t he periodic table can be found on
page 360.
Elements in t he moder n per iodic t able can be divided into met als and
non-met als . The proper ties of met als and non-met als are given in
Unit 4.4. Looking at t he per iodic t able in Figure 4.1.2, t he solid line whic h
r uns from above aluminium (Al) stepping down to ast atine (At) divides
t he met als and t he non-met als. All t he elements to t he lef t of t he line,
excluding hydrogen (H), are met als and t he elements to t he r ight of t he
47
Arrangement of elements in the periodic table The periodic table and periodicity
line, including hydrogen, are non-met als. Some of t he elements whic h
border t he line are known as met alloid s . The proper ties of met alloids are
inter mediate between t hose of met als and non-met als. The met alloids
include boron (B), silicon (Si), ger manium (Ge), ar senic (As), antimony
(Sb), tellur ium (Te) and polonium (Po).
metals non-metals 0
1
H
He
I II III IV V VI VII
2
Li Be B C N O F Ne
3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
transition metals
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
6
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
metals
Elements on or near this line are non-metals
metalloids; they have some
metallic characteristics and some
non-metallic characteristics.
 Figure 4.1.2 Metals and non-metals in the periodic table
The periodic table is divided into ver tical columns called groups and
horizontal rows called periods

Did you know?
The periodic table found in Groups
most textbooks consists of 103
Groups are ver tical columns of elements. There are 18 groups in t he periodic
elements. To date, however,
table. Eight of t hese are numbered using Roman numerals from I to VII,
118 elements have actually
wit h t he last group being Group 0. Elements in t he same group show similar
been discovered or synthesised.
proper ties and, because of t his, some groups have been assigned special
Elements up to and including
californium, atomic number 98, names:
exist naturally, the rest have been

● Group I – alkali metals
synthesised in laboratories or
● Group II – alkaline ear t h metals
nuclear accelerators. In some
cases only very few atoms of the ● Group VII – halogens
element have been synthesised.

● Group 0 – noble gases.
Between Groups II and III t here are ten groups of elements called t he
transition elements or transition metals.
Periods
Did you know? Periods are horizontal rows of elements numbered using Arabic numerals from
?
1 to 7. Moving along a period, the properties of the elements gradually change
Naming newly discovered or

from metals on the left-hand side to non-metals on the right-hand side.
synthesised elements is controlled
by the International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry Electronic configuration and the periodic table
(IUPAC). Many are named after
Looking at t he electronic conguration of t he elements in t he periodic table,
famous scientists or places,
immediately we can see similar ities between elements in t he same group and
e.g. einsteinium and californium.
between elements in t he same period.
48
The periodic table and periodicity Arrangement of elements in the periodic table
Figure 4.1.3 summarises t he electronic conguration of t he rst 20 elements
in t he periodic table.
 Figure 4.1.3 The electronic

Groups
conguration of the rst 20 elements
I II III IV V VI VII 0
in the periodic table
H He
(1) (2)
sdoireP
Li Be B C N O F Ne
(2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) (2,6) (2,7) (2,8)
(2,8,1) (2,8,2) (2,8,3) (2,8,4) (2,8,5) (2,8,6) (2,8,7) (2,8,8)
K Ca
(2,8,8,1) (2,8,8,2)
Groups
The similarities in t he electronic conguration of elements in t he same
group are as follows:
● all elements in t he same group have t he same number of electrons in
t heir outermost electron shell, i.e. t hey have t he same number of valence
electrons, for example, ber yllium (Be), magnesium (Mg) and calcium
(Ca) are all in t he same group and t hey all have two valence electrons
● t he number of valence electrons is t he same as t he group number, for
example, sulfur (S) has six valence electrons and is in Group VI
● all elements in Group 0 have a full outermost electron shell, for example,
helium (He) has two electrons in shell number 1 which is t he maximum
number of electrons t his shell can hold, neon (Ne) has eight electrons in
shell number 2, once again t he maximum t his shell can hold.
Moving down any group, each element has one more electron shell t han
t he element directly above it. For example, lit hium (Li) has two shells and
sodium (Na) has t hree shells.
Periods
The similarities in t he electronic conguration of elements in t he same
period are as follows:
● all elements in t he same period have t heir valence electrons in t he
same electron shell, for example, sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg) and
aluminium (Al) are all in t he same period and t hey all have t heir valence
electrons in shell number 3
● t he number of occupied electron shells, i.e. t he number of shells t hat
contain electrons, is t he same as t he period number, for example,
calcium (Ca) has four shells t hat contain electrons and it is in Period 4.
Moving along any period, each element has one more valence electron
t han t he element directly before it. For example, silicon (Si) has four valence
electrons and phosphor us (P) has ve valence electrons.
Determining the electronic configuration of atoms
The electronic conguration of an atom can be determined from t he group
number and t he period number, remembering t hat:
● t he number of valence electrons is t he same as t he group number
● the number of occupied electron shells is the same as the period number.
49
Arrangement of elements in the periodic table The periodic table and periodicity
For example, if you know t hat phosphor us is in Group V and Period 3 of t he
periodic table, you can determine t hat a phosphor us atom has ve valence
Exam tip
✔
electrons and t hree occupied electron shells. Therefore, t he electronic
Correctly representing the

str ucture of a phosphor us atom is (2,8,5).
electronic configuration of atoms
Alternatively, t he group number and period number of an element can be

of elements is extremely important.
determined if its electronic conguration is known. For example, if you

It is used to determine the
know t hat t he electronic conguration of a calcium atom is (2,8,8,2), you

reactivity of an atom and the type
of bonding an atom will be involved can determine t hat calcium is in Group II and Period 4 of t he periodic table.
in when it forms a compound.
General trends in the periodic table
In Unit 3.2 you learnt t hat t he chemical properties of an element depend
on t he arrangement of electrons in t he atoms of t he element, in par ticular,
t he number of valence electrons t hey have. The elements in t he periodic
table are arranged in such a way t hat t here are trends in t he physical and
chemical proper ties of t he elements in a par ticular group or in a par ticular
period. These trends are directly related to electronic congurations of
elements in t he same group and elements in t he same period. These trends
can be summarised as follows.

sesaercni
● Moving down a group, t he metallic nature of t he elements increases

sesaercni
non-metallic nature increases

● Moving down a group, the non-metallic nature of the elements decreases
● Moving along a period, t he metallic nature of t he elements decreases

erutan
s
e F
s
a
e
r
c
erutan
in
s ● Moving along a period, t he non-metallic nature of t he elements
e e
r
s
tu a
a e
n r
c
ic in
cillatem-non
ll
ta r
e increases
e tu
m a
- n
n
o ic
cillatem
n ll
ta
e
m
These trends are shown in Figure 4.1.4.
Fr
metallic nature increases

It is impor tant to note t hat elements in Group 0 are chemically unreactive.
Their atoms all have full outer electron shells and, because of t his, t hey have
Francium (Fr) is the most

a stable electronic conguration. Atoms of all ot her elements do not have full
reactive metal
outer electron shells and are, t herefore, unstable. In order to become stable,
t hey need to attain t he electronic conguration of a noble gas, i.e. a full outer
Fluorine (F) is the most
reactive non-metal electron shell. They can do t his by losing or gaining valence electrons.
 Figure 4.1.4 Trends in the periodic
The willingness of an atom of an element to lose or gain valence electrons is
table
a strong indication of its metallic or non-metallic nature. Metals tend to lose
valence electrons and non-metals tend to gain electrons into t heir valence
shell when t hey react.
When atoms lose or gain valence electrons t hey form positively or negatively
Key fact
! charged par ticles known as ions. They are said to have ionised. The ease wit h
which atoms lose or gain valence electrons, known as ease of ionisation ,
An ion is an electrically charged
determines how reactive t hey are.

particle formed when an atom loses
or gains electrons.
In general:
● The ease wit h which metal atoms lose electrons increases going down a
group and going from r ight to lef t along a period. The reactivity of metals,
t herefore, increases going down a group and going from right to lef t
along a period.
● The ease wit h which non-metal atoms gain electrons increases going up
a group and going from lef t to r ight along a period. The reactivity of non-
metals, t herefore, increases going up a group and going from lef t to right
along a period.
You will be studying t he reasons for t his in more detail in t he next t hree
units.
50
The periodic table and periodicity Trends in Group II of the periodic table
Summary questions
1 Name three scientists who made important contributions to the
development of the periodic table.
2 What is the name given to the following elements in the periodic table?
a Group II b Group VII c Group 0
3 For elements in Group II of the periodic table, give the similarities and
differences in their electronic conguration.
4 For elements in Period 3 of the periodic table, give the similarities and
differences in their electronic conguration.
5 a Give the electronic arrangement of an atom of potassium, given that
it is in Group I and Period 4.
b Give the group number and period number of sulfur, given that its
electronic conguration is S (2,8,6).
6 How does the metallic nature of elements change when moving down a
group and along a period?
A4.2 Trends in Group II of the periodic table Objectives
Group II of t he periodic table is composed of t he following elements:

be able to:
ber yllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium. These
● give the general properties of
elements are all metals which display ver y similar proper ties. They are
Group II elements
chemically ver y reactive and are collectively known as alkaline earth
● give the chemical properties of
metals. Because t hey are so reactive, t hey are never found naturally in t heir
Group II elements
free state but are always found in nature combined wit h ot her elements in
● compare the reactivity of Group
compounds. The elements in Group II are listed in Figure 4.2.1, toget her
II elements with oxygen, water
wit h t heir symbols, atomic numbers and electron arrangements.
and dilute hydrochloric acid
beryllium
● predict the properties of
Be
unknown elements in Group II
4
(2,2)
based on group trends
● explain why elements in
magnesium
Group II show similar chemical
Mg
12
properties
(2,8,2)
● explain why the reactivity of
calcium
Group II elements increases
Ca
20 going down the group.
(2,8,8,2)
strontium
Sr
38
(2,8,18,8,2)
barium
Ba
56
(2,8,18,18,8,2)
radium
Ra
88
(2,8,18,32,18,8,2)
 Figure 4.2.1 Group II elements and their electronic congurations
51
Trends in Group II of the periodic table The periodic table and periodicity
General properties of Group II elements
Group II elements have t he following general proper ties in common.
● They are fairly sof t metals.
● They are shiny, silver y-white when freshly cut, but turn dull ver y quickly
as t hey react wit h t he oxygen in t he air. This reaction forms a dull oxide
layer on t he surface of t he metal.
Key fact
!
● They have fairly high melting points and boiling points.
A cation is a positively charged ion

● Their atoms have two valence electrons.
frmed when a metal atom loses
● Their atoms lose t heir valence electrons readily to form metal cations
electrons.
2 2 2
wit h a charge of 2, e.g. Mg , Ca and Ba (see Unit 5.2).
● Going down t he group, t he radii of t he atoms (atomic radii) increase and
it becomes easier for t he atoms to lose t heir two valence electrons.
Chemical reactivity of Group II elements
Group II elements have t he following chemical proper ties in common.
● They react wit h oxygen to form basic oxides (see Unit 8.2).
● They react wit h water to form metal hydroxides and hydrogen gas.
● They react wit h dilute hydrochloric acid to form salts known as metal
chlorides (see Unit 8.4) and hydrogen gas.
The ease with which the metals react with oxygen, water and dilute
hydrochloric acid is, however, different for the different metals and is known
as the reactivity of the metal. If we rank the metals from the most reactive to
the least reactive, based on how fast or how vigorously they react, the reactivity
increases going down the group. Ber yllium, at the top of the group, is the least
reactive and radium, at the bottom of the group, is the most reactive.
Comparing the reactivity of magnesium and calcium
You will be supplied with test tubes, strips of freshly cleaned magnesium ribbon, pieces of freshly cleaned calcium,
dilute hydrochloric acid and distilled water.
Method
1 Pour 2 cm of dilute hydrochloric acid into each of two test tubes. Add a piece of magnesium ribbon to the rst
tube and a piece of calcium to the second tube. Compare the strength of effervescence occurring in the two tubes.
2 Pour 2 cm of distilled water into each of two test tubes. Add a piece of magnesium ribbon to the rst tube and
a piece of calcium to the second tube. Compare the strength of effervescence occurring in the two tubes.
You might need to leave the tubes for a while and observe them periodically.
3 Based on the relative strength of effervescence that you observed in steps 1 and 2, which metal would you
consider is more reactive, magnesium or calcium?
4 If you added beryllium to dilute hydrochloric acid and distilled water, would you expect the effervescence to be
more vigorous or less vigorous than with magnesium?
5 If you added barium to dilute hydrochloric acid and distilled water, would you expect the effervescence to be
more vigorous or less vigorous than with calcium?
52
The periodic table and periodicity Trends in Group II of the periodic table
A compar ison of t he reactivity of magnesium, calcium and bar ium
wit h oxygen, water and dilute hydroc hlor ic acid is given in Table 4.2.1.
Examples of t he c hemical equations for t he reactions wit h magnesium
are given. Similar equations can be wr itten for t he reactions wit h calcium
and bar ium. You have already come across (g) and (s) to indicate a gas and
a solid in a c hemical equation. In t hese equations, (l) indicates a liquid
and (aq) indicates an aqueous solution, i.e. a solution where water is t he
solvent.
 Table 4.2.1 Reactions of magnesium, calcium and barium
Reaction Magnesium (Mg) Calcium (Ca) Barium (Ba)
Oxygen (or air) Reacts slowly to form a coating of magnesium oxide (MgO) on Reacts readily to form a Reacts very readily to
exposure to air. If ignited, magnesium burns with a blinding white coating of calcium oxide form a coating of barium
flame, producing white, solid magnesium oxide. (CaO) on exposure to air. oxide (BaO) on exposure
if ignited, calcium burns to air. If ignited, barium
magnesium  oxygen magnesium oxide
with a brick red flame, burns with an apple green
2Mg(s)  O (g) 2MgO(s)

2
producing white, solid flame, producing white,
calcium oxide. solid barium oxide.
Water Very clean magnesium reacts very slowly with cold water, Reacts vigorously with Reacts very vigorously
producing magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH) ) and hydrogen gas (H ). cold water, producing with cold water,
2 2
calcium hydroxide producing barium
magnesium
magnesium  water  hydrogen (Ca(OH) ) and hydrogen hydroxide (Ba(OH) ) and

2 2
hydroxide
gas (H ). hydrogen gas (H ).

2 2
Mg(s)  2H O(l) Mg(OH) (aq)  H (g)

2 2 2
Dilute hydrochloric acid Reacts vigorously to produce magnesium chloride (MgCl ) and Reacts very vigorously to Reacts violently to
2
hydrogen gas (H ). produce calcium chloride produce barium chloride

2
(CaCl ) and hydrogen gas (BaCl ) and hydrogen gas

2 2
hydrochloric magnesium
magnesium   hydrogen (H ). (H ).
2 2
acid chloride
Mg(s)  2HCl(aq) MgCl (aq)  H (g)

2 2
From t he trends in t he reactivity of t he Group II metals, we can predict t he
reactivity of ber yllium, strontium and radium. We would expect ber yllium to
Did you know?
?
react less vigorously t han magnesium, radium to react even more vigorously
t han barium, and t he reactivity of strontium to be more vigorous t han Group II metals are often used in
fireworks because they burn in

calcium, but less vigorous t han barium.
air or oxygen producing coloured
flames. Magnesium is used to
produce a bright white light
effect and calcium produces a
brick red colour. Compounds of
Group II metals may also be used,
e.g. strontium carbonate produces
a crimson red colour and barium
chloride produces an apple green
colour.
 Figure 4.2.2 Compounds of Group II elements are often used as reworks
53
Trends in Group II of the periodic table The periodic table and periodicity
An explanation of the trends in Group II
Elements in Group II all have ver y similar c hemical proper ties because t heir
atoms all have two valence electrons. Being metals, when t hey react t hey
ionise by losing t heir two valence electrons and for m positively c harged
ions, i.e. c ations. In doing t his, t heir outer electron shell is now full.
Since all t he elements have t he same number of electrons to lose, i.e. 2,
t hey all have ver y similar c hemical proper ties, however, moving down
Group II t he reactivity of t he elements increases. Moving down t he g roup,
t he number of occupied electron shells increases. As a result:
● t he atomic radii get bigger due to t he extra lled electron shells,
t herefore, t he valence electrons become fur t her away from t he
attractive pull of t he positive nucleus
● t he valence electrons become more shielded from t he positive nucleus
by t he extra full electron shells.
The combination of t hese two factors means t hat t he valence electrons are
less attracted to t he positive nucleus going down t he g roup and it becomes
easier for t he atoms to lose t heir valence electrons. The ease of ionisation,
t herefore, increases going down t he g roup.
Ber yllium atoms, being t he smallest, ionise t he least easily. Ber yllium is,
t herefore, t he least reactive Group II element. Radium atoms, being t he
largest, ionise t he most easily. Radium is, t herefore, t he most reactive Group
II element.
The electronic str ucture of t he  rst t hree elements in Group II is given in
Figure 4.2.3.
× ××
× ×× ××
××
××
××
××
××
××
×
×
×
Be Mg
Ca
×× ××
××
 Figure 4.2.3 Shell diagrams of the rst three elements in Group II
Summary questions
1 What is the collective name for the elements in Group II?
2 a Does the reactivity of the elements in Group II increase or decrease
going down the group?
b Give the reason for your answer to a above.
3 Compare the reactivity of beryllium and calcium.
54
The periodic table and periodicity Trends in Group VII of the periodic table
A4.3 Trends in Group VII of the periodic table Objectives
Group VII in t he periodic table is composed of t he following elements:

be able to:
uorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine. These elements are all non-
metals. They display similar proper ties and are chemically ver y reactive. They
Group VII elements
are collectively known as t he halogens. The elements in Group VII are listed
● give the chemical properties of
in Figure 4.3.1, toget her wit h t heir symbols, atomic numbers and electron
Group VII elements
arrangements.
● explain why elements in
uorine Group VII show similar
F chemical properties
9
(2,7) ● explain why the reactivity of the
elements in Group VII increases
chlorine
going up the group
Cl
17
● describe displacement
(2,8,7)
reactions of elements in
bromine
Group VII
Br
35 ● explain the term oxidising
(2,8,18,7)
strength
● predict the properties of

iodine
unknown elements in Group VII

I
53
based on group trends.

(2,8,18,18,7)
astatine
At
85
(2,8,18,32,18,7)
 Figure 4.3.1 Group VII elements and their electronic congurations
General properties of Group VII elements
Group VII elements have t he following general proper ties in common.
● They are poisonous elements.
● They exist as non-polar, diatomic molecules, e.g. F , Cl , Br and I

2 2 2 2
● They are generally soluble in non-polar solvents and slightly soluble in
water.
● They have low melting points and boiling points. Key fact
● Their atoms have seven valence electrons.
An anion is a negatively charged
● Their atoms readily accept an electron into their valence shells to form non-
ion formed when a non-metal atom
metal anions with a charge of 1, e.g. F , Cl , Br and I (see Unit 5.2).
gains electrons.
● They share an electron readily with other non-metal atoms (see Unit 5.4).
Group VII elements have different colours and states at room temperature, as
summarised in Table 4.3.1.
 Table 4.3.1 Some physical properties of the rst four elements in Group VII
Element State at room temperature Colour
fluorine gas pale yellow
chlorine gas yellow green
bromine liquid red-brown – the liquid evaporates readily at room
temperature forming an orange vapour
iodine solid grey-black – the solid sublimes readily when
heated forming a purple vapour
55
Trends in Group VII of the periodic table The periodic table and periodicity
Chemical reactivity of Group VII elements
Group VII elements react wit h most metals to form ionic compounds (Unit
5.2) and t hey react wit h most ot her non-metals to form covalent compounds
(Unit 5.4).
Examples
1 Chlorine reacts wit h sodium to form sodium chloride.
Sodium  chlorine sodium chloride
2Na(s)  Cl (g) 2NaCl(s)

2
2 Chlorine reacts wit h hydrogen gas to form hydrogen chloride gas.
Hydrogen  chlorine hydrogen chloride
H (g)  Cl (g) 2HCl(g)

2 2
The reactivity of t he Group VII elements increases going up t he group.
Fluorine, at t he top of t he group, is t he most reactive and astatine, at t he
bottom of t he group, is t he least reactive.
An explanation of the trends in Group VII
Elements in Group VII all have ver y similar chemical proper ties because t heir
atoms all have seven valence electrons. Being non-metals, when t hey react
t hey ionise by gaining one valence electron and t hey form negatively charged
ions, i.e. anions. In doing t his, t heir outer electron shell is now full.
Since all t he elements have t he same number of electrons to gain, i.e. 1, t hey
all have ver y similar chemical proper ties. However, moving up Group VII
t he reactivity of t he elements increases. Moving up t he group, t he number of
occupied electron shells decreases. As a result:
● t he radii of t he atoms get smaller due to t he decrease in number of lled
electron shells, t herefore, t he valence electrons become closer to t he
attractive pull of t he positive nucleus
● t he valence electrons become less shielded from t he positive nucleus by
t he inner full electron shells.
more attracted to t he positive nucleus going up t he group, as are any electrons
being gained by t he atoms. It becomes easier for t he atoms to gain an electron
Key fact
!
into t heir valence shell going up t he group. The ease of ionisation, t herefore,
increases going up t he group.

Electronegativity is a measure
of how strongly an atom attracts
Fluorine atoms, being t he smallest, ionise t he most easily. Fluorine is,
electrons.
t herefore, t he most reactive Group VII element. Astatine atoms, being
t he largest, ionise t he least easily. Astatine is, t herefore, t he least reactive
Group VII element.
The tendency for atoms to attract electrons is known as electronegativity .
The electronegativity of t he atoms, t herefore, increases going up Group VII.

F Cl
Fluorine is t he most electronegative element and astatine is t he least
electronegative.
The electronic str ucture of t he rst two elements in Group VII is given in
 Figure 4.3.2 Shell diagrams of the rst
Figure 4.3.2.
two elements in Group VII
56
The melting points and boiling points of t he Group VII elements can also be
explained by looking at t he relative size of t he molecules. Fluorine, having
t he smallest atoms, has t he smallest molecules. The forces of attraction
between t hese small molecules, known as intermolecular forces , are t he
weakest, which means t hat t he melting point and boiling point of uorine
are t he lowest. Astatine, having t he largest atoms, has t he largest molecules.
The intermolecular forces between t he large astatine molecules are t he
strongest, which means t hat t he melting point and boiling point of astatine
are t he highest.
F F fluorine (F )
2
Cl Cl chlorine (Cl )
2
Br Br bromine (Br )
2
I I iodine (I )
2
 Figure 4.3.3 Comparing the sizes of the rst four halogen molecules
Displacement reactions
A d isplacement reaction occurs when an element in its free state takes
t he place of anot her element in a compound. A more reactive element will
displace a less reactive element from a compound containing t he less reactive
element. However, a less reactive element will not displace a more reactive
element from a compound.
For example, if chlorine gas is bubbled into a solution of potassium bromide,
t he chlorine will displace t he bromine from t he potassium bromide forming
potassium chloride and bromine:
chlorine  potassium bromide potassium chloride  bromine
Cl (g)  2KBr(aq) 2KCl(aq)  Br (aq)

2 2
However, if bromine is added to potassium chloride solution, t he bromine
will not displace t he chlorine and no reaction occurs:
bromine  potassium chloride no reaction
To determine whet her a displacement reaction has occurred, an aqueous
solution of a halogen is mixed wit h a sodium or potassium halide solution
and t he colour of t he resulting solution is obser ved. The halide solutions
are all colourless, e.g. potassium chloride (KCl), potassium bromide (KBr)
and potassium iodide (KI) are all colourless. If a displacement reaction
occurs and a different halogen forms, it can be identied by its distinctive
colour. Chlorine is yellow-green, bromine is red-brown and iodine will range
from a brown solution to a grey-black precipitate depending on t he amount
produced.
57
Trends in Group VII of the periodic table The periodic table and periodicity
Investigating displacement reactions of the halogens
You will be supplied with test tubes and aqueous solutions of chlorine,
bromine, iodine, potassium chloride, potassium bromide and potassium
iodide.
Method
3 3
1 Pour 2 cm of potassium bromide solution into a test tube and 2 cm of
potassium iodide solution into another test tube. Carefully add chlorine
solution to each tube and shake. Observe any colour changes.
3 3
2 Pour 2 cm of potassium chloride solution into a test tube and 2 cm of
potassium iodide solution into another test tube. Carefully add bromine
3 3
3 Pour 2 cm of potassium chloride solution into a test tube and 2 cm of
potassium bromide solution into another test tube. Carefully add iodine
4 Record your results in a table.
5 Using your results, place the elements in increasing order of reactivity.
From t he practical activity above we can see t hat:
● Chlorine displaces bromine from potassium bromide producing
potassium chloride and bromine:
chlorine  potassium bromide potassium chloride  bromine
Br (aq)
2
Cl (aq)  2KBr(aq) 2KCl(aq) 

2
potassium red-brown
bromide
chlorine
solution
● Chlorine displaces iodine from potassium iodide producing potassium
solution
chloride and iodine:
chlorine  potassium iodide potassium chloride  iodine
I (aq)
2
Cl (aq)  2KI(aq) 2KCl(aq) 

2
brown
● Bromine displaces iodine from potassium iodide producing potassium
bromide and iodine:
solution of bromine and
bromine  potassium iodide potassium bromide  iodine

potassium chloride
I (aq)
2
Br (aq)  2KI(aq) 2KBr(aq) 

2
 Figure 4.3.4 Chlorine solution is

brown
added to potassium bromide solution
● No displacement reaction occurs between bromine and potassium
chloride.
● No displacement reactions occur wit h iodine.

Exam tip
✔
From t he trends in t he displacement reactions involving chlorine, bromine
If a question asks you to describe
and iodine, we can predict t hat uorine, at t he top of Group VII, will displace
a chemical reaction, you must
all t he ot her halogens from compounds containing t hem. However, astatine,
provide all observations, including
at t he bottom of Group VII, will not displace any of t he ot her halogens from
any colour changes.
t heir compounds.
58
Displacement reactions and oxidising strength
Displacement reactions can be explained by consider ing t he relative
oxidising strengt hs of t he Group VII elements. Oxid ising strength is
a measure of how easily one substance takes electrons from anot her
substance. The oxidising strengt h of t he elements in Group VII increases
Key fact
!
moving up t he g roup because t he ability to ionise by gaining an electron
increases moving up t he g roup.

An oxidising agent brings about
the oxidation of another reactant
Comparing t he relative oxidising strengt hs of chlorine, bromine and iodine,
by causing an atom or ion in that
we see t hat chlorine has t he strongest oxidising strengt h and iodine has t he
reactant to lose electrons. In the
weakest. We say t hat chlorine is t he strongest oxid ising agent and iodine is
process, the oxidising agent gains
t he weakest.
electrons.
A stronger oxidising agent will accept electrons from a weaker oxidising
agent. This is why chlorine displaces t he bromide ions in t he potassium
bromide. Each chlorine atom in a chlorine molecule accepts an electron from
a bromide ion (Br ion). As a result, each chlorine atom forms a chloride ion
(Cl ion) and each bromide ion forms a bromine atom. Two bromine atoms
t hen pair to form a bromine molecule:
chlorine bromide chloride bromine
 
molecule ion ion molecule
Cl (aq)  2Br (aq) 2Cl (aq)  Br (aq)

2 2
Chlorine is said to have oxid ised t he potassium bromide. In t he ot her
displacement reactions, bot h chlorine and bromine oxidised t he potassium
iodide. You will learn a lot more about oxidation reactions in Unit 9.
Again, from t he trends in t he displacement reactions involving chlorine,
bromine and iodine, we can predict t hat uorine, at t he top of Group VII,
will be a stronger oxidising agent t han chlorine and astatine, at t he bottom of
Group VII, will be a weaker oxidising agent t han iodine.
Summary questions
1 What is similar in the electronic conguration of the elements in
Group VII?
2 a Does the reactivity of the elements in Group VII increase or decrease
going up the group?
3 What is meant by the term ‘oxidising strength’?
4 List the elements in Group VII in order of increasing oxidising strength.
5 a What would you observe if an aqueous solution of chlorine is added
to potassium iodide solution?
b Give a reason for your answer to a above.
59
Trends in Period 3 of the periodic table The periodic table and periodicity
Objectives A4.4 Trends in Period 3 of the periodic table
Period 3 in t he periodic table is composed of t he following elements:

be able to:
sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, phosphor us, sulfur, chlorine
● give the properties of metals
and argon. The physical and chemical proper ties of t hese elements change
and non-metals
moving along t he period. Moving from lef t to right, t he metallic nature of
● describe how the properties of
t he elements decreases and t he non-metallic nature increases. The elements
the elements change moving
to t he lef t are metals, t hose to t he right are non-metals and silicon, in t he
along Period 3
middle, is a semi-metal or metalloid.
● explain why the properties
of the elements change from
Physical properties of metals and non-metals

metal to non-metal moving
along Period 3.
Metals have t he following physical proper ties in common.
● They are solid at room temperature, except mercur y, which is a liquid.
● They have high melting points and boiling points.
● They have high densities.
Did you know?
?
● They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
Silicon is the second most

● They are shiny in appearance.
abundant element on Earth after
● They are malleable, i.e. t hey can be hammered into different shapes, and
oxygen, making up 28% of the
ductile, i.e. t hey can be drawn out into wires.

Earth’s crust. It is a semiconductor,
a property which has led to its ● They are sonorous, i.e. t hey make a ringing sound when hit.
use in the manufacture of silicon
Non-metals have t he following physical proper ties in common.
chips which are found in electronic
devices from pocket calculators ● They are usually gases at room temperature, however, some are solid and
to computers. The first computer bromine is a liquid.
using silicon chips made its debut
● They have low melting points and boiling points.
in 1961. The silicon chip forms the
● They have low densities.

foundation of modern computer
technology and without its invention ● They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
such devices would not exist today.
● In t he solid state t hey are dull in appearance.
● In t he solid state t hey are brittle.
● In t he solid state t hey make a dull sound when hit.
A summar y of t he trends of t he elements in Period 3 is given in Table 4.4.1.
 Table 4.4.1 Trends in Period 3
Group number I II III IV V VI VII 0
Atomic number 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Electronic (2,8,1) (2,8,2) (2,8,3) (2,8,4) (2,8,5) (2,8,6) (2,8,7) (2,8,8)
configuration
Loses/gains/shares loses 1e loses 2e loses 3e shares 4e gains 3e gains 2e gains 1e none
electrons
State at 25 °C solid solid solid solid solid solid gas gas
Electrical conductivity conductor conductor conductor semi- insulator insulator insulator insulator
conductor
Metal/non-metal metal metal metal metalloid non-metal non-metal non-metal non-metal
Ease of ionisation increasing ease of ionisation increasing ease of ionisation
60
The periodic table and periodicity Trends in Period 3 of the periodic table
(a) (b) (c)
 Figure 4.4.1 (a) Magnesium burning in sparklers, (b) sulfur around a volcano vent and (c) chlorine gas
An explanation of the trends in Period 3
As you learnt in Unit 4.1, t he ease wit h which atoms lose or gain valence
electrons is a strong indication of t heir metallic or non-metallic nature.
Metals tend to lose electrons and non-metals tend to gain electrons. Moving
along Period 3, t he metallic nature of t he elements decreases because t heir
ability to lose electrons decreases and t heir non-metallic nature increases
because t heir ability to gain electrons increases.
Each element in Period 3 has its valence electrons in t he same electron shell,
i.e. shell number 3. However, moving from lef t to right along t he period,
each element has one more electron and one more proton t han t he element
before it. As a result:
● t he number of positive protons in t he nuclei of t he atoms gets greater,
causing t he attraction between t he positive nucleus and t he valence
electrons to get stronger
● t he radii of t he atoms get smaller due to t he increasing number of
positive protons in t he nucleus, pulling t he outer electrons closer to t he
nucleus.
more attracted to t he positive nucleus going along t he period. It becomes
harder for t he atoms to lose t heir valence electrons and easier for t hem to
gain electrons into t heir valence shell moving along t he period. In ot her
words, t he electronegativity of t he elements increases along Period 3.
Since metal atoms ionise by losing electrons, t he ease of ionisation of t he
metals sodium, magnesium and aluminium decreases along t he period.
Sodium is t he largest of t he t hree atoms and has 11 protons in its nucleus.
Aluminium is t he smallest and has two more protons in its nucleus, i.e. 13
(see Figures 4.4.2 and 4.4.3). Sodium ionises t he most easily and is t he most
reactive. Aluminium ionises t he least easily and is t he least reactive.
Non-metal atoms ionise by gaining electrons, t herefore, t he ease of
ionisation of t he non-metals phosphor us, sulfur and chlorine increases
along t he period. Phosphor us is t he largest of t he t hree atoms and has 15
protons in its nucleus. Chlorine is t he smallest and has two more protons,
i.e. 17. Phosphor us ionises t he least easily and is t he least reactive. Chlorine
ionises t he most easily and is t he most reactive.
Argon is a non-metal found to t he right of chlorine. However, its valence
electron shell is full, i.e. it contains eight electrons. Because of t his, argon
has a stable electronic conguration, it does not ionise and it is chemically
unreactive.
61
Trends in Period 3 of the periodic table The periodic table and periodicity
Silicon is found in Group IV and is a metalloid because it has a combination
of metallic and non-metallic proper ties. It has four valence electrons and
usually reacts by sharing electrons wit h ot her non-metal atoms. It does not
usually ionise.
The electronic str ucture of t he elements in Period 3 is given in Figure 4.4.2.
11p 12p 13p 14p 15p 16p 17p 18p
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
Na M Al Si P S Cl Ar
 Figure 4.4.2 Electronic conguration of the elements in Period 3
0.20
)mn(
0.18
0.16
suidar
0.14
cimotA
0.12
0.10
0.08
Element
 Figure 4.4.3 Trends in the atomic radii of the elements in Period 3
Summary questions
1 Chlorine and magnesium are both elements which are found in Period 3
of the periodic table. One is a metal and one is a non-metal.
a Which one is the metal? Give THREE reasons for your answer.
b Which one is the non-metal? Give THREE reasons for your answer.
2 How does the metallic nature and the non-metallic nature of elements in
Period 3 change from left to right?
3 a Which is more reactive, sodium or magnesium?
4 a Which is more reactive, sulfur or chlorine?
5 Which element in Period 3 has the greatest metallic nature?
62
The periodic table and periodicity Trends in Period 3 of the periodic table
Key concepts
● Scientists star ted classifying elements in t he early 19t h centur y.
● Dmitri Mendeleev is credited wit h being t he creator of t he rst version
of t he period ic table in 1869.
● Period icity is t he recurrence of elements wit h similar physical and
chemical proper ties at regular inter vals in t he periodic table.
● The elements in t he modern periodic table are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number.
● The periodic table consists of ver tical columns called groups and
horizontal rows called periods
● All elements in t he same group have t he same number of valence
electrons. This number is t he same as t he group number.
● All elements in t he period have t he same number of occupied electron
shells. This number is t he same as t he period number.
● The chemical proper ties of an element are determined by t he
arrangement of electrons, in par ticular, t he number of valence electrons.
● Elements in Group II have ver y similar proper ties because t hey all have
two valence electrons.
● Group II elements all have similar reactions wit h oxygen, water and
dilute hydrochloric acid.
● The reactivity of Group II elements, being metals, depends on t he ability
of t heir atoms to lose t heir valence electrons.
● The reactivity of Group II elements increases going down t he group
because t he ability of t heir atoms to lose t heir valence electrons increases
going down t he group.
● Elements in Group VII have ver y similar proper ties because t hey all have
seven valence electrons.
● The reactivity of Group VII elements, being non-metals, depends on t he
ability of t heir atoms to gain an electron into t heir valence shell.
● The reactivity of Group VII elements increases going up t he group
because t he ability of t heir atoms to gain an electron increases going up
t he group.
● The elements in Group VII undergo d isplacement reactions . A more
reactive element will displace a less reactive element from a compound
containing t he less reactive element.
● Displacement reactions of Group VII elements depend on t he relative
oxid ising strength of t he elements, where oxidising strengt h is
a measure of how easily a substance takes electrons from anot her
substance.
● The oxidising strengt h of Group VII elements increases going up t he
group.
● Going along Period 3 from lef t to right, t he metallic nature of t he
elements decreases because t heir ability to lose electrons decreases.
● Going along Period 3 from lef t to right, t he non-metallic nature of t he
elements increases because t heir ability to gain electrons increases.
● The electronegativity of elements in Period 3 increases going from lef t
to right.
63
Practice exam-style questions The periodic table and periodicity
Na Mg Si Cl
1 Elements in t he modern periodic table are arranged in
Ca Br Kr
order of increasing:
A chemical reactivity
The periodic table showing the position of some elements
B atomic number
a i) Name two elements which occur in t he same
C mass number
period. (1 mark)
D relative atomic mass
ii) State t he reason for placing t hese two elements in
t he same period. (1 mark)

2 An element of atomic number 20 is expected to be:
b i) Name two elements which occur in t he same

I in Group II of t he periodic table
group. (1 mark)
II a transition element
ii) State t he reason for placing t hese two elements in

III in Period 4 of t he periodic table
t he same group. (1 mark)

IV a metal
c Element X has 3 valence electrons and 4 electron
A I and III only
shells. Place element X in its correct position in t he
B I, II and IV only
gure above. (1 mark)
C I, III and IV only
d Give t he electronic conguration of a calcium atom.
D III and IV only
(1 mark)
e Bot h magnesium and calcium react wit h
3 Which element shows ver y similar chemical proper ties
hydrochloric acid.
to barium?
i) Which element would you expect to react more
A sodium
vigorously? (1 mark)
B aluminium
ii) Explain your answer to e i) above. (2 marks)
C sulfur
f i) What would you expect to obser ve if an aqueous

D magnesium
solution of chlorine is added to an aqueous
solution of potassium bromide? (1 mark)

4 X is an element below calcium in Group II of t he
ii) Explain t he reason for your obser vation in

periodic table. X would be expected to:
f i) above. (2 marks)
I react ver y vigorously wit h cold water
g Explain t he reason for t he fact t hat, when moving

II ionise more readily t han calcium
from lef t to right along Period 3, t he metallic nature

III react slowly wit h hydrochloric acid
of t he elements decreases and t he non-metallic

A I only
nature increases. (3 marks)

B I and II only
Total 15 marks
C II and III only
D I, II and III
5 In which group of t he periodic table are t he halogens
8 a Outline t he contributions of Döbereiner and
found?
Mendeleev to t he development of t he periodic table.
A Group I
(4 marks)
B Group II
b The reactivity of elements in Group II of t he periodic
C Group VII
table increases going down t he group. Suppor t t his
D Group 0
statement by reference to t he reactions of magnesium
and calcium wit h oxygen, water and hydrochloric
6 Which of t he following is t he most electronegative?

acid. (6 marks)
A chlorine
c Element X was found to displace iodine from
B silicon
potassium iodide solution, but was found to have no
C sulfur reaction wit h potassium chloride solution.
D phosphor us i) Place t he following elements in order as t hey
would be found going down Group VII: element
X, chlorine, iodine, uorine. (2 marks)
Structured question
ii) Explain, in terms of oxidising strengt h, why X
was able to displace iodine from t he potassium

7 The position of cer tain elements in t he periodic table
iodide solution. (3 marks)

is given in t he gure below. Use t he information in t he
gure to answer t he following questions. Total 15 marks
64
A5 Structure and bonding
Most substances occur as compounds in n a t u re .

Objectives
Compounds a re formed when atoms combine

be able to:
chemically with each o t h e r. The compounds which
● explain why atoms form

a re formed a re m o re stable than the f re e elements
chemical bonds
w e re . The noble gases a re an exception to this;

● state how atoms form chemical
they do occur in n a t u re as atoms. The e l e c t ro n i c bonds
● name the three types of
configuration of the noble gases is the re a s o n
chemical bonding
behind their s t a b i l i t y.
● describe three types of
chemical formulae
● work out the empirical formulae
of binary compounds from their
names.
A5.1 Chemical bonding
Introduction to chemical bonding
When atoms bond wit h eac h ot her, only t he o u t e r m o st electrons, k n ow n
a s va l e n c e e l e c t r o n s , a r e u s u a l ly i nvo lve d i n t h e p r o c e s s . A t o m s c o m b i n e
He
wit h eac h ot h e r to att ain t he m o st st a b l e electronic configuration ( Un i t
3.2). The noble ga s e s are st a b l e a to m s because t heir o u t e r m o st electron
shell is full and t his g i ve s t hem a st a b l e electronic configuration. This ××
is called t he noble ga s configuration. A to m s , t h e r e fo r e , bond wit h eac h
××
××
ot h e r to fill t heir o u t e r m o st electron shell or valence shell. Fi g u r e 5 .1.1
Ne
s h ow s t he electronic configuration of t he f i r st t hree noble ga s e s .
××
A to m s ga i n st a b i l i t y if t h ey att ain t he noble ga s configuration of t he
n e a r e st noble ga s to t hem in t he per iodic t able, i.e. t he element t hat is
××
c l o s e st by a to m i c n u m b e r. Fo r e xa mp l e , t he n e a r e st noble ga s to sodium
××
is neon and t he n e a r e st noble ga s to c hlor ine is argon. This is i l l u st r a t e d

××
××
××
××
in Fi g u r e 5 .1. 2 .
Ar
× ×× ××
××
×× ×× ×× ××
××
×
××
××
××
××
××
××
 Figure 5.1.1 The electronic structures

××
××
××
××
××
Ne Ar
Na Cl
of helium, neon and argon
×× ×× ×× ××
×× ××
 Figure 5.1.2 Comparing the electronic structure of sodium and chlorine to their
nearest noble gases, neon and argon
Atoms can achieve a noble gas conguration by bonding wit h ot her atoms
during a chemical change. This can occur in three ways. They can:
● donate one or more valence electrons to anot her atom
● gain one or more valence electrons from anot her atom
● share valence electrons wit h anot her atom.
65
Chemical bonding Structure and bonding
During chemical bonding, chemical bonds are formed between t he atoms
involved. These bonds are forces of attraction between t he atoms which

Key fact
!
are caused by t he redistribution of t heir electrons, and t hey join t he atoms
A chemical bond is a force of toget her. There are three main types of chemical bonding:
attraction between atoms that
● ionic bond ing , which occurs when a metal bonds wit h a non-metal
results from the redistribution of
● covalent bond ing , which occurs when two or more non-metals bond
their electrons.
● metallic bond ing , which occurs wit hin metals.
onic and covalent bonding bot h result in t he formation of chemical
compounds.
Chemical formulae of compounds
Just as elements can be represented by atomic symbols, compounds formed
by ionic or covalent bonding can be represented by chemical formulae .
Chemical formulae are impor tant because t hey tell us which elements
are found in a compound as well as t he ratio between t he elements in t he
compound. There are various types of chemical formulae. The t hree main
types are given below.
● The molecular formula , which uses subscripts to give t he actual
number of atoms of each element present in one molecule of a
compound. For example, t he molecular formula of water is H O, which

2
means one molecule of water contains 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen
atom. Ot her molecular formulae include CO for carbon dioxide and

2
C H O for glucose.
6 12 6
● The structural formula , which is a diagrammatic representation of one
molecule of t he compound using lines between t he atoms to represent
bonds. For example, t he str uctural formula for carbon dioxide is
OCO which shows us t hat t here are two bonds between each oxygen
atom and t he carbon atom.
● The empirical formula , which gives t he simplest whole number
ratio between t he elements in t he compound using subscripts. The
compound consists of multiples of t hese smallest units. For example, t he
empirical formula for magnesium chloride is MgCl , which tells us t hat

2
magnesium and chlorine are present in a ratio of 1 to 2.
Example
The t hree types of chemical formulae for et hane are:.
● Molecular formula: C H
2 6
● Str uctural formula: H H
H C C H
H H
● Empirical formula: CH
3
Key fact
!
Writing empirical formulae of binary compounds
Valence number (valency) is the
A binary compound is composed of two different elements only. We can
maximum number of bonds an
write t he empirical formulae of binar y compounds using t he concept of
atom can form when it bonds with
valence number or valency, which is t he maximum number of bonds an
other atoms.
atom can form.
66
Structure and bonding Chemical bonding
The number of valence electrons an atom has determines its valence number.
This is because it is t he valence electrons which par ticipate in t he formation
of chemical bonds. Since atoms lose, gain or share t heir valence electrons
in forming bonds, t he valence number can be t hought of as t he number of
electrons an atom has to lose, gain or share during bonding. The valence
number of an element is related to its position in t he periodic table as shown
in Table 5.1.1.
 Table 5.1.1 Valence numbers
Group number I II transition metals III IV V VI VII 0
Valence number 1 2 variable, often 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
n ot her words:
● valence number of elements in Groups  to V  t he group number
● valence number of elements in Groups V to V  8  t he group number.
Since bot h types of atom forming a compound must lose, gain or share t he
same number of valence electrons, t he sum of t he valence numbers of each
element in t he compound must be equal.
Example
The chemical formula of aluminium oxide is Al O

2 3
● Number of atoms of each element present: Al  2,
O  3.
● Valence number of each element: Al  3 (Group ),
O  2 (Group V).
● Sum of t he valence numbers: Al  2  3  6,
O  3  2  6,
i.e. t he sum of t he valence numbers of t he two elements is equal.
To write t he chemical formula of a binar y compound, follow t he steps given
below.
1) Determine t he valence numbers of t he two elements present.
2) Write down t he symbol of t he rst element. f a metal is present, write its
symbol rst.
3) Write t he valence number of t he second element as a subscript af ter t he
symbol of t he rst element.
4) Write t he symbol of t he second element directly af ter t he subscript.
5) Write t he valence number of t he rst element as a subscript af ter t he
symbol of t he second element.
Points to note
● There must be no spaces between t he symbols and subscripts.
● f t he valence number is one, write only t he symbol wit hout t he number
1 as a subscript (see example 2).
● Some of t he transition metals have more t han one valence number.
The valence number of t hese is indicated in t he name of t he compound
by a Roman numeral placed in brackets af ter t he name of t he metal,
e.g. copper(II) indicates t hat copper has a valence number of 2 (see
example 3).
67
Chemical bonding Structure and bonding
● The valence number of hydrogen and t he transition element, silver, is 1.
● To write t he empirical formula, if t he ratio of t he subscripts is not in its
simplest form, t hen cancel to its simplest form (see example 4).
Examples
1 Magnesium nitride
● Determine t he valence numbers of t he two elements present:
Mg  2 (Group ),
N  3 (Group V).
● Write down t he symbol of t he rst element: Mg
● Write t he valence number of t he second element as a subscript af ter
t he symbol of t he rst element: Mg

3
● Write t he symbol of t he second element: Mg N

3
● Write t he valence number of t he rst element as a subscript af ter t he
symbol of t he second element: Mg N

3 2
The empirical formula of magnesium nitride is Mg N

3 2
2 Potassium sulde
● Valence numbers of t he elements: K  1 (Group ),
S  2 (Group V).
● Empirical formula of potassium sulde is K S

2
3 ron( ) bromide
● Valence numbers of t he elements: Fe  3 (given in t he name),
Br  1 (Group V).
● Empirical formula of iron () bromide is FeBr .

3
4 Carbon dioxide
● Valence numbers of t he elements: C  4 (Group V),
O  2 (Group V).
● Empirical formula of carbon dioxide is CO . (C O is cancelled to its

2 2 4
simplest ratio.)
Summary questions
1 Explain why atoms form compounds.
2 Explain how atoms form compounds.
3 Name the three types of chemical bonding.
4 Using your periodic table to help you, write the formula of each of the
following binary compounds:
a sodium oxide
b copper(II) bromide
c tetrachloromethane, a compound formed between carbon and
chlorine
d aluminium sulde
e ammonia, a compound formed between nitrogen and hydrogen.
68
Structure and bonding Formation of ionic bonds
A5.2 Formation of ionic bonds Objectives
onic bonding involves t he transfer of valence electrons from metal atoms to

be able to:
non-metal atoms. Compounds formed by ionic bonding are known as ionic
● explain the principles of ionic
compounds
bonding
The principles of ionic bonding are explained as follows.

● explain how metal atoms form
● Metals are found to t he lef t of t he periodic table and most have 1, 2 or 3 cations and non-metal atoms
valence electrons. f t hey lose t heir valence electrons t hey can attain a form anions
noble gas conguration. ● name ionic compounds
● describe the formation of ionic
● Non-metals are found to t he right of t he periodic table and most have
bonds
5, 6 or 7 valence electrons. f t hey gain electrons into t heir valence shell
● represent ionic bonding using
t hey can attain a noble gas conguration.
shell diagrams
● When an atom loses or gains electrons it forms an ion. The ions formed
● deduce the empirical formulae
are now charged par ticles because t hey no longer contain t he same
of ionic compounds
number of electrons as t he number of protons.
● describe the structure of a
● When a metal atom loses electrons, t he ion formed has more protons sodium chloride crystal.
t han electrons. The ion has a positive charge and is called a cation
● When a non-metal atom gains electrons, t he ion formed has more
electrons t han protons. The ion has a negative charge and is called an
anion
Examples
1 Lithium is in Group  of t he periodic table and has one valence electron.
When bonding wit h a non-metal, lit hium loses its valence electron and
now has one more proton t han electron. Therefore it carries a single
positive charge, , and is represented as Li . t is known as t he lit hium
ion or Li ion.
3p 3p
 an electron
4n 4n
lithium atom lithium ion
Li (2,1) Li (2)
 Figure 5.2.1 Formation of a lithium ion, Li
2 Nitrogen is in Group V of t he periodic table and has ve valence
electrons. When bonding wit h a metal, nitrogen gains t hree electrons
and now has t hree more electrons t han protons. Therefore it carries a
triple negative charge, 3 , and is represented as N . t is known as t he
nitride ion or N ion.
7p 7p
 three electrons
7n 7n
nitrogen atom nitride ion
N (2,5) N (2,8)
 Figure 5.2.2 Formation of a nitride ion, N
69
Formation of ionic bonds Structure and bonding
When naming t he negative anions formed when non-metal atoms gain
electrons, t he name changes from t hat of t he atom. The name of t he anion

Key fact
!
2
always ends in ‘ide’. For example, t he chloride ion (Cl ), t he oxide ion (O )
Ionic bonds are chemical bonds

and t he bromide ion (Br ).
created by the electrostatic
n t he compounds formed by ionic bonding, t here are strong electrostatic

forces of attraction between the
forces of attraction between t he positive cations and negative anions.

positively charged cations and
These forces of attraction are known as ionic bonds and t hey hold t he ions
negatively charged anions in ionic
compounds. toget her. The strengt h of t he ionic bonds accounts for t he proper ties of ionic
compounds (Unit 5.5).
Examples to show the formation of ionic compounds
The formation of sodium chloride, magnesium uoride, aluminium oxide
and potassium nitride by ionic bonding is shown next by means of dot and
cross diagrams.
Sodium chloride
Sodium is a metal wit h one valence electron. t loses t his electron to form a
positive sodium ion which has a single positive charge, i.e. Na . Chlorine
is a non-metal wit h seven valence electrons. t gains one electron to form a
negative chloride ion which has a single negative charge, i.e. Cl . For each
sodium atom t hat loses one electron t here will need to be one chlorine
atom to accept t his electron. The empirical formula of sodium chloride is,
t herefore, NaCl
Figure 5.2.3 shows how to use shell diagrams to represent t he ionic bonding
in sodium chloride.
+ –
×
×× ××
×× ××
××
××
××
××
Na Cl Na
Cl
×× ××
1 sodium atom 1 chlorine atom 1 sodium ion 1 chloride ion
(Na) (Cl) (Na ) (Cl )
Did you know?
?
 Figure 5.2.3 Ionic bonding in sodium chloride
The term ‘lattice’ refers to
t is important to note that NaCl is not a separate, individual entity. NaCl simply
a regular, three-dimensional
represents the ratio of Na ions to Cl ions in sodium chloride, i.e. it is the

arrangement of particles.
empirical formula. t can also be called the formula unit of sodium chloride.
Sodium c hlor ide t hat we spr inkle on our food is
composed of tiny cr yst als t hat are cubic in shape. Eac h
− 
− = Cl
of t hese cr yst als is made up of millions of Na ions
and millions of Cl ions in a ratio of one Na ion to
− + −
one Cl ion. These ions are ar ranged in a ver y regular
way; t hey occur alter nately in rows and columns.
+ = Na
Eac h Na

ion is bonded to six Cl ions and eac h Cl
+ − + 
ion is bonded to six Na ions by strong ionic bonds.
−
This t hree-dimensional, ordered ar rangement of ions
for ms a cr yst al lattice.
strong ionic bonds
− + −
between oppositely
charged ions
 Figure 5.2.4 Crystal lattice of sodium chloride
70
Structure and bonding Formation of ionic bonds
Magnesium fluoride
Magnesium is a metal wit h two valence electrons. t loses t hese electrons to
2
form a positive magnesium ion which has a double positive charge, i.e. Mg .
Fluorine is a non-metal wit h seven valence electrons. t gains one electron
to form a negative uoride ion which has a single negative charge, i.e. F .
For each magnesium atom t hat loses two electrons t here will need to be two
uorine atoms to accept t hese two electrons since each uorine atom only
accepts one electron. The empirical formula or formula unit of magnesium
uoride is, t herefore, MgF

2
× F
2+ ×
××
××
××
××
××
××
× Mg
Mg
××
××
F
F
×
1 magnesium 2 fluorine 1 magnesium 2 fluoride
2+
atom, Mg atoms, F ion, Mg ions, F
 Figure 5.2.5 Ionic bonding in magnesium uoride
Aluminium oxide
Aluminium is a metal wit h three valence electrons. t loses t hese electrons to
3
form a positive aluminium ion which has a triple positive charge, i.e. Al .
Oxygen is a non-metal wit h six valence electrons. t gains two electrons to
form a negative oxide ion which has a double negative charge, i.e. O . Since
each aluminium atom has to lose t hree electrons and each oxygen atom
has to gain two electrons, two aluminium atoms will be needed to lose a
total of six electrons and t hree oxygen atoms will be needed to gain t hese
six electrons. The empirical formula or formula unit of aluminium oxide is,
t herefore, Al O .
2 3
To simplify t he diagrams, sometimes only t he valence electrons are shown,
as in Figure 5.2.6.
2–
×
O O
3+
×
×
Al Al
2–
×
×
O
O
3+
×
×
Al Al
2–
×
×
O
O
2 aluminium 3 oxygen 2 aluminium ions, 3 oxide ions,
3+ 2–
atoms, Al atoms, O Al O
 Figure 5.2.6 Ionic bonding in aluminium oxide
71
Writing chemical formulae of ionic compounds Structure and bonding
Potassium nitride
Potassium has one valence electron. t loses t his electron to form a positive
potassium ion wit h a single positive charge, i.e. K . Nitrogen has ve valence
electrons. t gains t hree electrons to form a negative nitride ion which has
a triple negative charge, i.e. N . Three potassium atoms are needed to lose
t hree electrons to one nitrogen atom. The empirical formula or formula unit
of potassium nitride is, t herefore, K N

3
K
K
×
K
N
×
K K
3 potassium 1 nitrogen 3 potassium ions, 1 nitride ion,
+ 3
atoms, K atom, N K N
 Figure 5.2.7 Ionic bonding in potassium nitride
Summary questions
1 Explain what happens during ionic bonding.
2 Use shell diagrams to represent the ionic bonding between:
a sodium and oxygen to form sodium oxide, Na O

2
b magnesium and nitrogen to form magnesium nitride, Mg N

3 2
3 Calcium forms an ionic compound with uorine.
a Give the name of the compound.
b Give the formula unit of the compound.
4 Describe the structure of the crystal lattice of sodium chloride.
Objectives A5.3 Writing chemical formulae of ionic
compounds
be able to:
onic compounds are represented using empirical formulae . The empirical

● give the names and formulae
formula of an ionic compound is also known as t he formula unit of t he

of the common cations and
compound. There are impor tant points to note when writing formulae of
anions
ionic compounds.
● work out the formula of an
ionic compound from the name

● Metals generally lose electrons forming positive cations. Non-metals
● write the name of an ionic

generally gain electrons forming negative anions.
compound from the formula.
● The magnitude of the charge on an ion is the same as the valence number.
Therefore, when writing formulae of ionic compounds, the magnitude of
the charge on the ion can be used in place of the valence number.
● Not all ions are formed from one atom. Many ions are made from several
atoms bonded toget her. These ions are known as polyatomic ions (t hese
were previously known as radicals).
72
Structure and bonding Writing chemical formulae of ionic compounds
● When writing t he formula of an ionic compound, t he sum of t he
positive charges must equal t he sum of t he negative charges, since bot h
types of atom or group of atoms bonded toget her must lose or gain t he
same number of electrons.
The names and formulae of t he ions t hat you are required to know are given
in Tables 5.3.1 and 5.3.2.
 Table 5.3.1 Common cations
Monovalent cations Divalent cations Trivalent cations
 2 3
hydrogen H magnesium Mg iron(III) Fe
 2 3
lithium Li calcium Ca aluminium Al
 2
sodium Na barium Ba
 2
potassium K iron(II) Fe
 2
copper( ) Cu copper(II) Cu
 2
silver Ag zinc Zn
 2
ammonium NH tin(II) Sn
4
2
lead(II) Pb
 Table 5.3.2 Common anions
Monovalent anions Divalent anions Trivalent anions
2 3
fluoride F oxide O nitride N
2 3
chloride Cl sulfide S phosphate PO

4
bromide Br carbonate CO
3
iodide I sulfite (sulfate(IV)) SO

3
hydride H sulfate (sulfate(VI)) SO

4
hydroxide OH dichromate(VI) Cr O
2 7
Exam tip
✔
nitrite (nitrate(III)) NO
2
Success in chemistry depends on

nitrate (nitrate(V)) NO
3
being able to write the names and
manganate(VII) MnO
4
formulae of compounds. Knowing
hydrogensulfate HSO
4
the formulae of ions is a very
hydrogencarbonate HCO important step towards achieving

3
this success.
ethanoate CH COO
3
n order to write t he chemical formula of an ionic compound from t he name,
follow t he steps given below.
1) Write down t he formulae of t he two ions t hat are involved from Tables 5.3.1
and 5.3.2.
2) Rewrite t he formula of t he cation, omitting its charge.
3) Write t he magnitude of t he charge on t he anion as a subscript af ter t he
formula of t he cation. f it is a polyatomic cation and more t han one is
required, place t he polyatomic cation in brackets and write t he subscript
outside t he bracket (see example 4).
4) Write t he formula of t he anion directly af ter t he subscript, omitting its
charge.
5) Write t he magnitude of t he charge on t he cation as a subscript af ter t he
formula of t he anion. f it is a polyatomic anion and more t han one is
required, place t he polyatomic anion in brackets and write t he subscript
outside t he bracket (see example 5).
73
Writing chemical formulae of ionic compounds Structure and bonding
Points to note
● f t he magnitude of t he charge is one, do not write t he number 1 as a
subscript (see examples 2 and 3).
● f t he ratio of t he subscripts is not in its simplest form, t hen cancel to its
simplest form (see example 6).
Examples
1 Aluminium sulde
3 2
● Write down t he ions involved: Al , S
● Write down t he formula of t he cation wit hout its charge: Al
● Write t he magnitude of t he charge on t he anion as a subscript af ter
t he formula of t he cation: Al
2
● Write t he formula of t he anion wit hout its charge: Al S

2
● Write t he magnitude of t he charge on t he cation as a subscript af ter
t he formula of t he anion: Al S
2 3
The formula unit of aluminium sulde is Al S

2 3
2 Calcium iodide
2
● ons involved: Ca , 
2
● Magnitude of t he charges: Ca  2,   1
● Formula unit of calcium iodide is CaI

2
3 Sodium phosphate
 3
● ons involved: Na , PO
4
 3
● Magnitude of t he charges: Na  1, PO  3
4
● Formula unit of sodium phosphate is Na PO

3 4
4 Ammonium sulfate
 2
● ons involved: NH , SO
4 4
 2
● Magnitude of t he charges: NH  1, SO  2
4 4
● Formula unit of ammonium sulfate is (NH ) SO

4 2 4
(The polyatomic ammonium ion, NH , is placed in brackets wit h t he

4
subscript outside.)
5 Copper(II) nitrate
2
● ons involved: Cu , NO
3
2
● Magnitude of t he charges: Cu  2, NO  1
3
● Formula unit of copper () nitrate is Cu(NO )

3 2
(The polyatomic nitrate ion, NO , is placed in brackets wit h t he

3
subscript outside.)
6 Magnesium carbonate
2 2
● ons involved: Mg , CO
3
2 2
● Magnitude of t he charges: Mg  2, CO  2
3
● Formula unit of magnesium carbonate is MgCO

3
(Mg (CO ) is cancelled to its simplest ratio.)

2 3 2
74
Structure and bonding Writing chemical formulae of ionic compounds
Naming ionic compounds
The name of an ionic compound is built from t he cation and anion names.
Examples
1 Al(OH) is composed of t he aluminium cation and hydroxide anion. ts

3
name is aluminium hydroxide.
2 K O is composed of t he potassium cation and t he oxide anion. ts name

2
is potassium oxide.
3 Ca (PO ) is composed of t he calcium cation and phosphate anion. ts

3 4 2
name is calcium phosphate.
f t he cation is t hat of a transition metal, determine t he magnitude of its
charge by looking at t he subscript af ter t he anion and use t his to determine
its name.
Examples
1 FeCl
2
● The subscript af ter t he chloride ion is 2.
● The magnitude of t he charge on t he iron ion must be 2.
2
● The cation must be t he iron (II) ion, Fe
● The name of t he compound is iron (II) chloride.
2 Fe(NO )
3 3
● The subscript af ter t he nitrate ion is 3.
● The magnitude of t he charge on t he iron ion must be 3.
3
● The cation must be t he iron (III) ion, Fe
● The name of t he compound is iron (III) nitrate.
Summary questions
1 Write the chemical formula of each of the following ionic compounds:
a iron(III) sulde
b calcium hydroxide
c sodium sulfate
d ammonium phosphate
e silver oxide
f zinc nitrate
g potassium manganate( VII)
h copper(II) carbonate
2 Write names for each of the following compounds:
a Mg (PO )
3 4 2
b AgCl
c ZnI
2
d Al(HCO )
3 3
e FeBr
3
f FeSO
4
g Cu O
2
h Pb(NO )
3 2
75
Formation of covalent and metallic bonds Structure and bonding
Objectives A5.4 Formation of covalent and metallic bonds
be able to: Covalent bonding
● describe the formation of Covalent bonding involves t he sharing of valence electrons between non-
covalent bonds metal atoms. Compounds formed by covalent bonding are known as
● represent covalent bonding covalent compounds
using shell diagrams
Non-metals are found to t he right of t he periodic table and have 4, 5, 6 or
● write formulae of covalent
7 valence electrons. They need to gain electrons into t heir valence shell to
compounds
attain a noble gas conguration.
● describe the formation of
metallic bonds
Since all t he atoms involved in covalent bonding need to gain electrons, t hey
● relate the properties of metals

achieve t his by approaching each ot her so t hat t heir outermost electron shells
to the bonding in metals.

overlap. Any valence electrons t hat were not in pairs in t he original atoms
are t hen shared, in pairs, between t he two overlapping atoms. Each shared
pair of electrons forms a covalent bond and t he electrons in a covalent bond
are known as a bond ing pair. Each bonding pair spends time wit h bot h
Key fact
! atoms, orbiting around each nucleus. Each atom now has a completed outer
electron shell and is stable. Two atoms may share one, two or t hree pairs of
A covalent bond is a chemical
electrons between t hem.
bond formed by the sharing of
a pair of electrons between two

Two or more non-metal atoms can bond toget her by sharing electron
atoms.
pairs. When t hey do t his, t hey form separate, individual entities known as
molecules. The atoms wit hin a molecule are held toget her by t he strong
electrostatic forces of attraction between t he nuclei of t he atoms and t he
bonding pair or pairs of electrons. Atoms of t he same element or of different

Key fact
!
elements may bond toget her by covalent bonding.
A molecule is a group of two or
more atoms which are covalently
bonded together strongly enough
Examples to show the formation of covalent

to behave as a single unit in a
chemical reaction.
substances
The formation of a variety of substances by covalent bonding is shown next
by means of dot and cross diagrams.
Chlorine gas
Chlor ine is a non-metal wit h se ven valence electrons. t needs one more
electron to ll its valence electron shell and attain a noble gas conguration.
Dur ing t he for mation of a chlor ine molecule, two chlor ine atoms come close
enough for t heir outer electron shells to overlap. The two atoms share one
pair of electrons between t hem. The shared pair orbit around bot h atoms
for ming a single covalent bond between t he two atoms. The for mula for
chlor ine is Cl
2
×× ××
×× ××
×× ××
××
××
××
××
××
××
×
Cl Cl Cl Cl
×× ××
×× ××
2 chlorine atoms, Cl 1 chlorine molecule, Cl

2
 Figure 5.4.1 Covalent bonding in chlorine
76
Structure and bonding Formation of covalent and metallic bonds
Water
Water is a compound formed from hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Hydrogen
is a non-metal wit h one valence electron. t needs one more electron to ll
its valence electron shell. Oxygen is a non-metal wit h six valence electrons.
t needs two more electrons to ll its valence electron shell. Two hydrogen
atoms are needed to provide t he two electrons required by oxygen. Each
hydrogen atom shares one electron pair wit h t he oxygen atom. The formula
for water is H O
2
H O
H
H
2 hydrogen 1 oxygen 1 water molecule, H O

2
atoms, H atom, O
 Figure 5.4.2 Covalent bonding in water
Methane
Met hane is a compound formed from carbon and hydrogen. Carbon is a non-
metal wit h four valence electrons. t needs four electrons to ll its valence
electron shell. Hydrogen needs one electron to ll its valence electron shell.
Four hydrogen atoms are needed to provide t he four electrons required by
carbon. Each hydrogen atom shares one electron pair wit h t he carbon atom.
The formula for met hane is CH

4
Oxygen gas
Oxygen needs two electrons to ll its valence electron shell. During t he
formation of an oxygen molecule, two oxygen atoms come close enough
for t heir outer electron shells to overlap. The two atoms share two pairs of
electrons between t hem, forming a double covalent bond . The formula for
oxygen is O
2
×
×
×× ××
H C H O O
× ×
×
×
1 methane molecule, CH 1 oxygen molecule, O

4 2
 Figure 5.4.3 Covalent bonding in methane and oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Carbon needs four electrons and oxygen needs two electrons to ll t heir
valence electron shells. Two oxygen atoms are needed to provide t he four
electrons required by carbon. Each oxygen atom shares two electron pairs
wit h t he carbon atom, forming a double covalent bond. The formula for
carbon dioxide is CO .
2
77
Formation of covalent and metallic bonds Structure and bonding
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a non-metal wit h ve valence electrons. t needs t hree more
electrons to ll its valence electron shell. During t he formation of a nitrogen
molecule, two nitrogen atoms come close enough for t heir outer electron
shells to overlap. The two atoms share t hree pairs of electrons between t hem,
forming a triple covalent bond . The formula for nitrogen is N

2
×× ××
×
× ×
××
×
O
×
×
1 carbon dioxide molecule, CO 1 nitrogen molecule, N

2 2
 Figure 5.4.4 Covalent bonding in carbon dioxide and nitrogen
The drawing of dot and cross diagrams to represent covalent bonding can be
simplied by showing only t he valence electrons. Examples of t his type of
shell diagram are shown in Figure 5.4.5.
O C O N N
H H
Exam tip
✔
1 water molecule 1 carbon dioxide molecule 1 nitrogen molecule
It is very important that you are able
 Figure 5.4.5 Covalent bonding in water, carbon dioxide and nitrogen showing
to draw dot and cross diagrams
valence electrons only
to show the bond formation in
compounds. To do this, you must Str uctural formulae may also be used to represent molecules in which each
first decide if the compound is

covalent bond is shown by a line between t he two atoms. Examples of
ionic or covalent. If the compound

str uctural formulae of molecules are given in Figure 5.4.6.
is formed from a metal and a
non-metal it will be ionic, if it is
formed from non-metals only it
Cl Cl H O H C H O N N
will be covalent. Remember that a
metal usually has 1, 2 or 3 valence
H H
electrons and a non-metal usually
has 4, 5, 6 or 7 valence electrons. chlorine water methane oxygen carbon dioxide nitrogen
 Figure 5.4.6 Structural formulae of chlorine, water, methane, oxygen, carbon dioxide
and nitrogen
Element Valence Number of covalent
number bonds formed
n Unit 5.1 you learnt that the number of bonds that an atom can form when
hydrogen 1 1
it bonds with other atoms is known as its valence number. This is shown
fluorine 1 1 clearly by these dot and cross diagrams. Hydrogen has a valence number of one
and the diagrams show it forming one covalent bond. Oxygen has a valence
chlorine 1 1
number of two and the diagrams show it forming two covalent bonds. The
bromine 1 1
valence numbers and number of covalent bonds formed by the common non-
iodine 1 1
metals when bonding to form covalent compounds are given in Table 5.4.1.
oxygen 2 2
sulfur 2 2
Polar and non-polar covalent molecules
nitrogen 3 3
Molecules may be polar or non-polar as a result of t he electronegativity of
carbon 4 4
t he atoms in t he molecule. Electronegativity is a measure of how strongly an
 Table 5.4.1 Valence number and

atom attracts electrons. Oxygen, nitrogen, uorine and chlorine are more
number of covalent bonds formed by
strongly electronegative t han atoms of ot her elements.
non-metal atoms
78
Structure and bonding Formation of covalent and metallic bonds
● n a polar molecule, the atoms at each side of a covalent bond attract the
electrons in the bond with different strengths. The result is that one side
of the molecule has a slightly positive charge and one side has a slightly
negative charge. Water (H O), ammonia (NH ), hydrogen chloride (HCl),

2 3
δ
ethanol (C H OH) and glucose (C H O ) molecules are all polar.

2 5 6 12 6
● n a non polar molecule, t he atoms at each side of a covalent bond
attract electrons wit h equal strengt hs such t hat t he molecule does not H H
δ δ
have any charged sides. Oxygen (O ), nitrogen (N ), chlorine (Cl ),
2 2 2
carbon dioxide (CO ) and met hane (CH ) molecules are all non-polar.  Figure 5.4.7 A polar water molecule
2 4
Formulae of covalent compounds
The formula of a covalent compound gives t he exact number of atoms of
each element in one molecule of t he compound, i.e. it is t he molecular
Prefix Number of atoms
formula. n some covalent compounds t he molecular formula and t he ratio
mono 1
of elements are t he same, e.g. water (H O), carbon dioxide (CO ), ammonia
2 2
di 2
(NH ) and met hane (CH ). n t hese compounds t he molecular and empirical
3 4
tri 3
formulae are t he same. n ot her compounds t hey are not t he same, e.g. t he
tetr 4
molecular formula of glucose is C H O but its empirical formula is CH O.
6 12 6 2
pent 5
The name of a covalent compound can sometimes indicate its molecular
hex 6
formula. This is done by using t he prexes di, tri, tetr, and so on. These are
placed before t he name of t he element to which t hey are referring. These

 Table 5.4.2 Prexes sometimes used
prexes are given in Table 5.4.2. in naming covalent compounds
Examples
● CO is t he formula for carbon monoxide.
● SO is t he formula for sulfur dioxide.

2
● SO is t he formula for sulfur trioxide.

3
● CCl is t he formula for carbon tetrachloride, more correctly known as

4
tetrachloromet hane.
● N O is t he formula for dinitrogen tetroxide.

2 4
t is a good idea to learn t he molecular formulae of covalent compounds as
you come across t hem, especially since some cannot be derived from t heir
names, e.g. ammonia (NH ) and met hane (CH ).

3 4
positive ions
Metallic bonding
– –
+ +
Metals have ver y distinct chemical and physical proper ties as a result of t he
– –
type of bonding t hat occurs between t he metal atoms. The type of bonding
–
+
between metal atoms in a metal is known as metallic bond ing
–
– –
The atoms in a metal are packed ver y closely together to form a metal lattice.
+ +
Because of this tight packing, the outer electron shells overlap and the valence – –
electrons become delocalised, i.e. they are no longer associated with any
‘delocalised’ electrons
par ticular atom. These delocalised electrons, also known as mobile electrons,
 Figure 5.4.8 The structure of metals
form a ‘sea’ of electrons which move around within the metal lattice and
belong to the lattice as a whole. Positive metal cations are formed from the
metal atoms when the electrons become delocalised. The metal lattice is held
Key fact
!
together by the strong electrostatic force of attraction, known as the metallic
bond, which exists between the positive cations and the moving, delocalised, The metallic bond is the chemical
negative electrons. Figure 5.4.8 illustrates the bonding in metals. bond created by the electrostatic
force of attraction between the
t is impor tant to note t hat metals are still made up of atoms and not ions
positive cations and the moving,
because t he valence electrons have not been lost. They are still t here in t he
delocalised negative electrons.
str ucture even t hough t hey are no longer attached to a par ticular atom.
79
Structure and properties of solids Structure and bonding
The way in which t he metal atoms are bonded in metal lattices helps us to
understand some of t he proper ties of metals given in Unit 4.4. These are
explained below.
● Metals have high melting points and boiling points because of t he
strong forces of attraction between t he cations and delocalised electrons.
Large amounts of heat energy are required to separate t he atoms.
● Metals have high densities because t he atoms are packed ver y closely
toget her.
● Metals are good conductors of electricity because t he delocalised
electrons are free to move. The moving electrons act as charge carriers,
which allows an electric current to be carried t hrough t he metal.
● Metals are good conductors of heat because of t he delocalised electrons.
These moving electrons act as heat carriers, which allows heat to be
carried t hrough t he metal.
● Metals are malleable and ductile because t he atoms in a metal are all of
t he same type, t herefore, all of t he same size. f force is applied to t he
metal, t he atoms can roll over each ot her into new positions wit hout
breaking t he metallic bond.
Summary questions
1 Use shell diagrams to represent covalent bonding in the following:
a hydrogen, H b phosphorus triuoride, PF

2 3
c hydrogen bromide, HBr d carbon disulde, CS

2
2 Draw the shell diagram of the covalent bonding between carbon and
chlorine and give the formula of the compound.
3 Explain the terms ‘delocalised electron’ and ‘metallic bond’.
4 Explain why metals are electrical conductors.
Objectives
A5.5 Structure and properties of solids

be able to:
● describe the structure and give

The proper ties of an element or compound, whet her it is composed of
examples of ionic crystals

atoms, molecules or ions, depend on t he forces of attraction between t he
● relate the properties of sodium

individual par ticles. This means t hat t he proper ties depend on t he type of
chloride to its structure

chemical bond between t he par ticles. n addition, t he proper ties depend on

t he arrangement of t he par ticles, for example, if t he par ticles are packed ver y
examples of simple molecular

tightly toget her, t he element or compound will have a high density.
crystals
When considering solids, we can identify four different str uctures based on
● distinguish between ionic and
t he way in which t he par ticles are bonded wit hin t he solid. They are known
simple molecular crystals
as crystals because t heir par ticles are arranged in a t hree-dimensional,
ordered pattern t hroughout t he str ucture. The four types of solid are:
examples of giant molecular
● ionic cr yst als

crystals
● describe the structure of

● simple molecular cr yst als
diamond and graphite
● giant molecular cr yst als
● relate the properties and uses
● met allic cr yst als.
of diamond and graphite to
their structures
We have already studied t he str ucture and proper ties of metals in Unit 5.4.
● explain the term allotropy.

We will be studying t he str ucture and proper ties of t he ot her t hree in t his
unit.
80
Structure and bonding Structure and properties of solids
Ionic crystals
Ionic crystals are solids formed as a result of ionic bonding. An ionic
cr ystal is composed of an ionic lattice in which t he cations and anions are
held toget her in a regular, repeating, t hree-dimensional arrangement by
strong electrostatic forces of attraction called ionic bonds. onic cr ystals
are represented by empirical formulae or formula units. All compounds
formed by ionic bonding have an ionic cr ystal str ucture, for example,
sodium chloride.
The structure and properties of sodium chloride
n Unit 5.2 you studied t he ionic bonding between sodium and chlorine to
form sodium chloride. You may remember t hat t he sodium chloride cr ystal
lattice is composed of millions of sodium ions or Na ions and millions of
chloride ions or Cl ions held toget her by strong ionic bonds. Also t hat t he
ions are in a ratio of 1 Na ion to 1 Cl ion and t hat t he empirical formula or
formula unit for sodium chloride is NaCl.
 Na ion
 Cl ion
ionic bonds
 Figure 5.5.1 Crystal lattice of sodium chloride
a) Solid sodium chloride
The proper ties of sodium chloride can be explained by its str ucture,
i.e. t he arrangement and bonding of its par ticles, as summarised in

– + – +
Table 5.5.1.
+ – + –
 Table 5.5.1 Properties of sodium chloride
– + – +
Property Explanation
High melting The high melting point is due to the very strong electrostatic forces between
point – about the sodium ions and chloride ions. A large amount of heat energy is needed
801 °C to weaken these forces and separate the ions from each other, allowing the
solid to melt.
Hard and The sodium and chloride ions are closely packed and held together by strong
+
brittle electrostatic forces making the solid hard. When pressure is applied to the
– –
crystal lattice, the ion layers move slightly with respect to each other and
ions with the same charges come to lie next to each other. Repulsion occurs
between the like charges and the lattice breaks apart, i.e. it is brittle.
+
+
Soluble in When sodium chloride is added to water the ions can separate resulting in –
–
–
water sodium chloride being soluble in water. The partial positive ends of the polar
water molecules attract the negative chloride ions and the partial negative
+ –
ends attract the positive sodium ions. This pulls the ions out of the lattice
and the crystal dissolves. The ions become surrounded by the water
molecules and new forces of attraction now exist between the ions and the
water molecules.
b) Sodium chloride dissolved
Conducts For a substance to conduct an electric current it must contain charged
electricity particles which are able to move. In molten (melted) sodium chloride, the ions
–
+
when molten, are no longer held together by ionic bonds and they are able to move allowing
i.e. NaCl(l), or sodium chloride to conduct electricity in the liquid state. When sodium
water
+
Na
Cl
dissolved in chloride dissolves in water, the ions move freely throughout the water, allowing
molecule
water, an aqueous solution of sodium chloride to conduct an electric current.
 Figure 5.5.2 What happens when
i.e. NaCl(aq)
sodium chloride dissolves in water
81
Simple molecular crystals
Simple molecular crystals are solids composed of small molecules. Each
molecule is composed of only a few atoms bonded toget her by strong covalent
bonds. These molecules are t hen arranged in a regular, t hree-dimensional way
to create a simple molecular lattice . The molecules wit hin t he lattice have
weak forces of attraction between t hem known as intermolecular forces .
These intermolecular forces hold t he small molecules toget her. Molecular
formulae are used to represent simple molecular cr ystals.
Examples of simple molecular cr ystals include:
● ice, composed of water molecules, molecular formula H O

2
● iodine, composed of iodine molecules, molecular formula 

2
● dr y ice, composed of carbon dioxide molecules, molecular formula CO

2
● glucose, composed of glucose molecules, molecular formula C H O

6 12 6
Distinguishing between ionic and simple molecular
solids
onic and simple molecular solids have ver y different proper ties because of
t he different way in which t heir par ticles are bonded. These differences are
summarised in Table 5.5.2.
 Table 5.5.2 Comparison of the properties of ionic and simple molecular solids
Property Ionic solids Simple molecular solids
Examples: NaCl, KBr Examples: I , CO , H O

2 2 2
Type of chemical Ionic bonds are found between ions. Covalent bonds occur between the
bond These are very strong. atoms in the molecules. These bonds
are very strong. Intermolecular forces
of attraction are found between the
molecules. These are weak.
Melting point Have a high melting point because of Have a low melting point because
the strong ionic bonds between the of the weak intermolecular forces
ions. A large amount of heat energy is between the molecules. Not
needed to weaken these bonds and much heat energy is needed to
separate the ions from each other, weaken these forces and separate
allowing the solid to melt. the molecules from each other,
allowing the solid to melt. Some
simple molecular solids sublime
when heated, e.g. iodine and
carbon dioxide.
Solubility Due to being composed of positive Follow the rule ‘like dissolves like’.
and negative ions, most are soluble Polar substances dissolve in polar
in polar solvents, e.g. water, but solvents, e.g. glucose dissolves in
are insoluble in non-polar solvents, water. Non-polar substances dissolve
e.g. kerosene, tetrachloromethane, in non-polar solvents, e.g. iodine
gasolene and other organic solvents. dissolves in tetrachloromethane.
Conductivity Do not conduct electricity when solid Do not conduct electricity in any
because the ions are held together by state because they do not have any
strong ionic bonds and are not free charged particles which are free
to move. They do conduct electricity to move.
when molten (melted) or dissolved in
water because the ions are no longer
held together by ionic bonds and
they are free to move, which allows
an electric current to be carried.
82
Investigating the solubility and electrical conductivity of
ionic and simple molecular solids
You will be supplied with sodium chloride (ionic solid), glucose and iodine
(simple molecular solids), distilled water (polar solvent), tetrachloromethane
(non-polar solvent) and the apparatus used to test electrical conductivity
Method
1 Investigate the solubility of sodium chloride, iodine and glucose by
following the instructions below.
● Place 5 cm of distilled water into each of three test tubes.
● Add a small spatula of sodium chloride to the rst tube, a small spatula
switch
of glucose to the second tube and a crystal of iodine to the third tube.
● Shake the tubes thoroughly and observe if each substance
dissolves or not. A
● Repeat the experiment using tetrachloromethane instead of
distilled water.
2 Investigate the electrical conductivity of solutions using the apparatus

beaker
shown in Figure 5.5.3 and by following the instructions below. carbon
electrodes
● Make three solutions by adding three small spatulas of sodium
solution
chloride to 25 cm of distilled water, three small spatulas of glucose to be tested
3 3
to 25 cm of distilled water and one crystal of iodine to 25 cm of
 Figure 5.5.3 Apparatus to measure
tetrachloromethane in three separate beakers.

the electrical conductivity of a solution
● Place the electrodes into the sodium chloride solution and close the
switch. If the ammeter registers a reading, the solution conducts an
electric current, if it does not register a reading, then the solution does
not conduct an electric current. Remove the electrodes and clean
them, and test the other two solutions for electrical conductivity.
3 Draw up a table to record all your results.
4 What can you conclude about:
● the type of solid (ionic or simple molecular) and its solubility
Did you know?
● the type of solid and its electrical conductivity?

?
Silicon dioxide, also known
as silica, is the most abundant
Giant molecular crystals
mineral in the Earth’s crust. It is a
Gi ant molecular crystals are composed of non-metal atoms bonded by component of almost every rock
strong covalent bonds in a regular, t hree-dimensional arrangement to form type and is the main component
of sand. Almost all of this silica

a gi ant molecular lattice . The covalent bonds exist between t he atoms
occurs in a crystalline form known

t hroughout t he lattice such t hat a giant molecular cr ystal is also known as
as quartz. Quartz that is almost

a macromolecule, i.e. it is a molecule composed of millions of atoms. The
pure forms large and beautiful
empirical formula is used to represent giant molecular cr ystals.
crystals. These are very popular
Examples of giant molecular cr ystals include:

as ornamental stones and semi-
precious gemstones. For example,

● diamond, composed of carbon atoms, empirical formula C
amethyst is purple quartz, citrine is
● graphite, also composed of carbon atoms, empirical formula C
yellow orange and rose quartz is a
● silicon dioxide, composed of silicon and oxygen atoms, empirical
pink to rose-red variety.
formula SiO
2
83
Structure and properties of diamond
Diamond is composed of carbon atoms. Each atom is bonded covalently
to four ot her carbon atoms arranged in a tetrahedron around it. A cr ystal of
diamond consists of millions of t hese carbon atoms bonded to one anot her
t hroughout t he cr ystal by strong covalent bonds. Because of t he strengt h of
t he bonds, diamond is extremely hard and has a ver y high melting point.
The proper ties of diamond can be explained by its str ucture, as summarised
in Table 5.5.3.
 Table 5.5.3 Properties of diamond
Very high melting The covalent bonds between the carbon atoms are very strong. A very large
point – about amount of heat energy is needed to weaken these forces and separate the atoms
3550 °C from each other, allowing the solid to melt.
Extremely hard Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring solid. The hardness is due to the high
strength of the covalent bonds between the carbon atoms. This property is very
useful in industry as diamond is often used in cutting and drilling.
Did you know?
? Does not conduct The valence electrons of the carbon atoms are all shared between the atoms.
electricity Carbon does not have any ‘free’ electrons to conduct an electric current.
The word ‘diamond’ comes from
the ancient Greek word ‘adámas’,
which means ‘unbreakable’.
Because diamond is so hard, a
diamond is cut using the corner
of another diamond, a technique
known as bruiting. After cutting,
the diamond is then polished
using diamond powder to create
beautiful, sparkling gems used to
make jewellery.
(a) (b)
 Figure 5.5.4 (a) A cut diamond and (b) an uncut diamond
Did you know?
Most diamonds we see today
covalent bonds
were formed millions (if not billions)
of years ago at depths of about
150 kilometres below the Earth’s
surface in the molten rock of the
carbon atom
Earth’s mantle where the pressure
and temperature are both extremely
high. Powerful magma eruptions
then brought the diamonds to the
Earth’s surface.
 Figure 5.5.5 Structure of diamond
Structure and properties of graphite
Graphite is also composed of carbon atoms. Each atom is bonded covalently
to three other carbon atoms, forming hexagonal rings of atoms which link up to
form at sheets or layers of carbon atoms. The four th electron of each atom is
not bonded to another atom and becomes delocalised. These layers of carbon
atoms then lie on top of each other. The covalent bonds between the carbon
atoms in the layers are ver y strong, however, the layers are held together by
weak forces of attraction. The proper ties of graphite can be explained by its
str ucture, as summarised in Table 5.5.4.
84
 Table 5.5.4 Properties of graphite

Very high melting The covalent bonds between the carbon atoms are very strong. A very large
point – about amount of heat energy is needed to weaken these forces and separate the atoms
3600 °C from each other, allowing the solid to melt. Because of this, graphite can be used
in containers for molten metals, e.g. crucibles.
Soft and The weak forces between the layers of carbon atoms allow the layers to slide
lubricating over each other resulting in a ‘soft’ crystal which feels slippery. Because of this,
graphite can act as a lubricant.
Good conductor The fourth electron of each carbon atom is delocalised allowing it to move within
of electricity the crystal. These moving electrons can carry electricity through the crystal.
Because of this, graphite is used as electrodes during electrolysis.
Did you know?
Graphite is a more stable form of
carbon than diamond.
one graphite layer
covalent bond
carbon atom
weak forces
between layers
how graphite
 Figure 5.5.6 Structure of graphite

layers fit together
Constructing models of sodium chloride, diamond and
graphite
Exam tip
✔

and describe the structure of
sodium chloride, diamond and

You will be supplied with toothpicks and small, different coloured pieces of
graphite and that you can relate

plasticine (or similar round, soft material to use as atoms or ions).
their properties and uses to their
Method
structures.
Using the diagrams in Unit 5.5 to help you, make models of the following to
show their structure:
● sodium chloride
● diamond
● graphite.
Use the plasticine to represent atoms or ions and the toothpicks to
represent the bonds between them.
85
Allotropy
Key fact
! Diamond and graphite are known as allotropes of carbon. This is because
t hey are bot h made out of t he same element, carbon, but, in t he solid state,
Allotropes are different structural
t heir carbon atoms are bonded differently. The occurence of t hese different
forms of the same element in the
allotropes is known as allotropy

same physical state.
Because diamond and graphite are bot h composed of carbon atoms, t hey have
t he same chemical proper ties. However, t heir atoms are bonded differently,
t herefore, t hey have different cr ystal str uctures which result in t hem having
Key fact
!
different physical proper ties.
Allotropy is the existence of
Several ot her elements exhibit allotropy. These include sulfur and
different structural forms of the
phosphor us, when in the solid state, and oxygen, when in the gaseous state.
same element in the same physical
state.
Summary questions
1 What type of crystal structure does each of the following have?
Did you know?
? a Potassium bromide
b Iodine
Converting inexpensive graphite
c Ice
to diamond has been a long held
dream of scientists throughout d Graphite
the world. However, the extremely

e Calcium carbonate
high pressures and temperatures
2 Why can sodium chloride dissolve in water?
required to force carbon to change
its bonding structure have meant 3 Compare the melting points of an ionic solid and a simple molecular solid.
that the process is extremely time-
4 Why are diamonds extremely hard?
consuming and energy-intensive.
5 Why can graphite conduct an electric current?

Consequently it has not yet been
achieved with any real success.
Key concepts
● Atoms bond wit h each ot her to attain a more stable electronic
conguration, i.e. t hat of t he nearest noble gas in t he periodic table.
● Atoms can lose, gain or share valence electrons to attain a stable
electronic conguration.
● There are t hree main types of chemical bonding: ionic, covalent and
metallic.
● A chemical bond is a force of attraction between atoms t hat results from
t he redistribution of t heir electrons.
● Chemical compounds formed as a result of ionic or covalent bonding
can be represented by chemical formulae.
● There are t hree main types of chemical formulae: molecular formulae,
str uctural formulae and empirical formulae.
● Valence number or valency is t he number of bonds an atom can
form wit h ot her atoms. Valence number can be used to write empirical
formulae of compounds composed of two different elements.
● Ionic bond ing involves t he transfer of electrons from metal atoms to
non-metal atoms, forming ions.
● Metal atoms form positive ions called cations and non-metal atoms
form negative ions called anions
86
● n ionic compounds, t he strong electrostatic forces of attraction between
t he positive cations and negative anions, known as ionic bonds, hold
t hese ions toget her in a cr ystal lattice.
● A cr ystal lattice is a t hree-dimensional regular arrangement of par ticles.
● onic compounds are represented using an empirical formula or formula
unit, bot h of which give t he ratio of t he ions present.
● Many ions in ionic compounds are made from several atoms bonded
toget her. These ions are known as polyatomic ions .
● Covalent bond ing involves t he shar ing of electrons between non-
metal atoms to for m molecules. A shared pair of electrons for ms a
covalent bond
● A molecule is a group of atoms which are bonded toget her strongly
enough to behave as a single unit in a chemical reaction.
● Atoms wit hin a molecule are held toget her by t he strong electrostatic
forces of attraction between t he nuclei of t he atoms and t he bonding
pair or pairs of electrons.
● n metals, t he valence electrons become delocalised and are able to move
between t he metal cations which remain. These delocalised electrons are
also known as mobile electrons.
● The strong electrostatic force of attraction between t he delocalised
electrons and t he positive cations forms t he metallic bond which holds
t he metal lattice toget her.
● The proper ties of metals are due to t he bonding wit hin t he metal lattice.
● Four different solid str uctures can be identied based on t he way t he
par ticles are bonded wit hin t he solids.
● The proper ties of t he different solid str uctures depend on t he bonding
between t heir par ticles and t he arrangement of t he par ticles.
● Ionic crystals result from ionic bonding. They are composed of an ionic
lattice in which t he cations and anions are held toget her in a regular,
repeating, t hree-dimensional arrangement by strong ionic bonds.
● Simple molecular crystals are composed of small molecules arranged
in a regular, t hree-dimensional way to create a simple molecular
lattice. Weak intermolecular forces between t he molecules hold t hem
toget her.
● onic cr ystals have high melting points, most dissolve in polar solvents
and t hey conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water.
● Simple molecular cr ystals have low melting points, most dissolve in non-
polar solvents and t hey do not conduct electricity in any state.
● Gi ant molecular crystals are composed of non-metal atoms bonded by
covalent bonds in a regular, t hree-dimensional arrangement to form a
giant molecular lattice, also known as a macromolecule.
● Diamond and graphite are examples of giant molecular cr ystals.
● Diamond and graphite are allotropes. They are composed of t he same
element, carbon, but t heir atoms are bonded differently.
● Diamond is ver y hard, has a high melting point and does not conduct
electricity.
● Graphite is ‘sof t’ and lubricating, has a high melting point and does
conduct electricity.
87
Practice exam-style questions Structure and bonding
7 Diamond and graphite are:

A isotopes of carbon
B isomers of carbon
C allotropes of carbon
D allomers of carbon
1 Which of t he following is t he correct formula for
calcium phosphate?
A Ca (PO )
2 4 3 Structured question
B Ca(PO )
4 2
8 The table gives t he mass number and atomic number of
C Ca PO
3 4
four different elements.
D Ca (PO )
3 4 2
Element Mass number Atomic number
2 The formula of t he compound formed between atoms
fluorine 19 9
X and Y would be:
neon 20 10
aluminium 27 13
phosphorus 31 15
a i) Which element would not be capable of forming
compounds? (1 mark)
ii) Give a reason for your answer. (2 marks)
b Two elements in t he table are capable of bonding to
form an ionic compound.

A XY
i) Name t hese elements. (1 mark)

B X Y
3
ii) Give t he formula of t his compound. (1 mark)
C XY
3
iii) By means of a dot and cross diagram, show how
D X Y
7 3
t his compound is formed. (3 marks)
3 onic bonding occurs between: c Two elements in t he table are capable of bonding to
form a covalent compound.

A two metals
i) Name t hese elements. (1 mark)

B a metal and a non-metal
ii) Give t he formula of t his compound. (1 mark)

C a metalloid and a non-metal
iii) Draw a dot and cross diagram to show t he
D two non-metals
bonding in t his compound. (2 marks)
4 An atom wit h an atomic number of 15 and an atom wit h
d i) Describe t he bonding in aluminium. (2 marks)
an atomic number of 9 would:
ii) Why is aluminium able to conduct an electric
A form a covalent compound
current? (1 mark)
B form an ionic compound
Total 15 marks
C form a metallic lattice
D not bond wit h each ot her

5 onic compounds can only conduct electricity when in
aqueous solution because:

9 a Wit h t he aid of a diagram in EACH case, describe t he
A water molecules conduct electricity lattice str ucture of:
B electrons become free when t hey are in aqueous i) sodium chloride (3 marks)
solution ii) graphite. (3 marks)
b Wit h reference to t he str ucture and type of bonding,

C t he ions become free when t hey are in aqueous
explain each of t he following:

solution
i) sodium chloride is able to conduct electricity

D protons become free when t hey are in aqueous
when molten (2 marks)

solution
ii) graphite is able to conduct electricity in t he solid
6 Which of t he following is/are t he proper ties of a simple

state (2 marks)
molecular compound?
iii) bot h sodium chloride and graphite have high
 They are usually soluble in water.

melting points. (3 marks)
 They conduct electricity in any state. c Some types of sand consist of silica, SiO . Silica is
2
 They have low melting points. relatively hard, does not conduct electricity in any
state and has a high melting point. Describe t he

A  and  only
bonding which you would expect to nd in silica.
B  and  only
(2 mark)
C  and  only
Total 15 marks
D  only
88
Chemical equations and
A6
reactions
Chemical equations use symbols and formulae to

Objectives
represent chemical change. There are universal

be able to:
standards for writing chemical equations which make it
● understand the different

possible for chemists all over the world to interpret the
conventions used when writing
equations written by others. The theory behind chemical

chemical equations
reactions is very important in the chemical industry. It ● write balanced chemical
equations
reduces the risk of accidents, can improve productivity
● predict whether a compound is
and can increase the yield of chemicals.

soluble or insoluble in water
● write balanced ionic equations.
A6.1 Writing and balancing chemical equations
A chemical equation is a shor t hand representation of a chemical reaction
using symbols and formulae. The chemicals t hat are reacting, i.e. t he
reactants, are shown on t he lef t side of t he equation and t he chemicals
formed during t he reactions, i.e. t he products, are shown on t he right side.
The reactants and products are separated by an arrow:
reactants products
Understanding chemical equations
Chemists all use the same conventions when writing chemical equations so
that any person reading a chemical equation will understand exactly what it
means. The conventions used when writing chemical equations are as follows:
● The symbol or chemical formula of each reactant is placed on t he lef t
side of t he equation and t he symbol or formula of each product is placed
on t he right side.
● An arrow ( ) is used to separate t he reactants from t he products.
The arrow means ‘produces’.
● A plus sign ( ) is used to separate each reactant and each product. The
plus sign on t he lef t means ‘reacts wit h’ and on t he right it means ‘and’.
● A state symbol is written in brackets af ter t he symbol or formula of each
reactant and product. This indicates t he physical state of t he reactants
and products. The state symbols used are as follows:
(s)  solid
(l)  liquid
(g)  gas
(aq)  aqueous solution, i.e. a solution where water is t he solvent.
● Any conditions which are required for t he reaction to occur can be
written above t he arrow, e.g. a specic temperature, a specic pressure
or a specic catalyst. A catalyst is a chemical substance which speeds up
a reaction wit hout being used up in t he reaction. You will learn more
about catalysts in Unit 11.2. For example,
898 °C
CaCO (s) CaO(s)  CO (g)

3 2
This shows t hat calcium carbonate requires heating to 898 °C for it to
decompose into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
89
Writing and balancing chemical equations Chemical equations and reactions
● f t he reaction is reversible, a double arrow ( ) is used. For example,
NH Cl(s) NH (g)  HCl(g)

4 3
You will learn more about reversible reactions in Unit 6.2.
● The equation must balance so t hat t he number of atoms or ions of each
element on each side of t he arrow is t he same. You will learn how to
balance equations in t he sections t hat follow.
When reading an equation, each par t represents a word or a statement.
Consider t he following example:
AgNO (aq)  KCl(aq) AgCl(s)  KNO (aq)

3 3
The equation reads as follows: ‘silver nitrate solution reacts wit h potassium
chloride solution to produce solid silver chloride and potassium nitrate
solution’.
Balancing chemical equations
You should have noticed t hat in t he t hree chemical equations above, t he
atoms are not changed during t he reactions. The way in which t he atoms are
bonded to each ot her changes, but t here is t he same number of atoms of each
element on bot h sides of each equation. n ot her words, atoms are neit her
created nor destroyed in chemical reactions, t hey are only rearranged.
When writing a chemical equation, you must ensure t hat t he number of
atoms of each element on t he right side of t he equation is t he same as t he
number on t he lef t side. A chemical equation t hat conforms to t his is known
as a balanced chemical equation .
You learnt about writing chemical formulae in Unit 5. To help you to
understand how to balance chemical equations, consider t he following:
● 2H represents two atoms of hydrogen, not bonded toget her

2H
● H represents one molecule of hydrogen, consisting of two atoms of

2
hydrogen bonded toget her
● 2H represents two molecules of hydrogen and, in total, four atoms of

2
H hydrogen
2
● 3CO represents t hree molecules of carbon dioxide. n total, t he number

2
of atoms of each element is 3C and 6O atoms
● Ca(NO ) represents one formula unit of calcium nitrate, which consists

3 2
2
of one Ca ion and two NO ions; t herefore, t he number of atoms of

3
2H
2
each element is 1Ca, 2N and 6O.
● 2Ca(NO ) represents two formula units of calcium nitrate. n total, t he

3 2
 Figure 6.1.1 Different representations
number of atoms of each element is 2Ca, 4N and 12O.
of atoms and molecules
The number in front of each formula in t he list above is called t he coefcient.
A coefcient of one is not written. Coefcients are used when balancing
equations. Consider t he reaction between hydrogen gas and chlorine gas
to produce hydrogen chloride gas. We can summarise t his reaction using
formulae as follows:
H (g)  Cl (g) HCl(g)

2 2
Studying t his equation we can see t hat t here are two atoms of hydrogen on
t he lef t side, but only one atom on t he right side. Also, t here are two atoms of
chlorine on t he lef t side, but only one atom on t he right side. The equation
is, t herefore, not balanced. f a coefcient, 2, is placed in front of t he formula
90
Chemical equations and reactions Writing and balancing chemical equations
for hydrogen chloride, t his now gives two atoms of hydrogen and two atoms
of chlorine on t he right side:
H (g)  Cl (g) 2HCl(g)

2 2
The equation is now balanced.
t is ver y impor tant to note t hat when balancing equations t he formulae
cannot be changed. The number of atoms of t he elements can only be
changed by changing t he coefcient in front of a formula. The subscripts
af ter t he elements must always remain t he same.
How to write balanced chemical equations
When writing and balancing chemical equations, t he guidelines outlined
below should be followed.
● Write t he correct chemical formula for each reactant and product, taking
note of t he following:
– Seven of t he common elements exist as diatomic molecules when in
t heir free st ate. These are H , N , O , F , Cl , Br and  . n reactions

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
involving any of t hese elements, wr ite t he for mula for t he diatomic
molecule.
– n reactions involving ot her elements in t heir free st ate, wr ite t he
atomic symbol of t he element, e.g. if a reaction involves magnesium,
wr ite Mg.
● Separate t he reactants and products by an arrow.
● Separate each reactant and each product by a plus sign.
● Write t he state symbol af ter each reactant and product.
● Star t balancing t he elements in t he product immediately af ter t he arrow
rst.
● Any polyatomic ion which appears unchanged from one side to t he
ot her can be balanced as a unit, e.g. if SO appears at bot h sides, Exam tip
4
✔
consider it as a single unit (see Example 4).
It is essential that you can write
● f any compounds contain hydrogen or oxygen, balance hydrogen
balanced chemical equations for
second from last and balance oxygen last (see Examples 2 and 3).
all the reactions you will encounter.
● f any elements occur in t heir free state, leave t hese until t he ver y last to
Always check that you have the
balance, e.g. Fe, Ca, Cl , O

2 2 same type and number of atom
of each element on both sides of

● Use coefcients in front of each formula to balance t he number of atoms
the arrow, and that you have given

of each element on t he lef t and right sides. The formulae must not be
the correct state symbol for each
changed.
reactant and product.
● Check t hat t he coefcients are in t he lowest possible ratio.
Examples
1 Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction in which magnesium
burns in oxygen to form magnesium oxide as the only product.
Write t he chemical formulae of t he reactants and products toget her wit h
t heir state symbols. Af ter doing t his, determine t he number of atoms of
each element on each side of t he arrow:
Mg(s)  O (g) MgO(s)

2
Reactants Products
Mg  1 Mg  1
O  2 O  1
91
O does not balance. Balance by placing a 2 in front of t he MgO
Mg(s)  O (g) 2MgO(s)

2
Reactants Products
Mg  1 Mg  2
O  2 O  2
Now Mg does not balance. Balance by placing a 2 in front of t he Mg

2
Reactants Products
Mg  2 Mg  2
O  2 O  2
2 Write a balanced chemical equation for t he reaction between propane
gas (C H ) and oxygen to form carbon dioxide and steam.

3 8
Write t he chemical formulae of t he reactants and products toget her wit h
t heir state symbols and determine t he number of atoms of each element
on each side of t he arrow:
C H (g)  O (g) CO (g)  H O(g)

3 8 2 2 2
Reactants Products
C  3 C  1
H  8 H  2
O  2 O  2  1  3
None of t he elements balance. Balance t he carbon and hydrogen rst,
leaving t he oxygen in its free state until last. Balance t he C by placing a 3
in front of t he CO . Balance t he H by placing a 4 in front of t he H O

2 2
C H (g)  O (g) 3CO (g)  4H O(g)

3 8 2 2 2
Reactants Products
C  3 C  3
H  8 H  8
O  2 O  6  4  10
O still does not balance. Balance by placing a 5 in front of t he O

2
C H (g)  5O (g) 3CO (g)  4H O(g)

3 8 2 2 2
Reactants Products
C  3 C  3
H  8 H  8
O  10 O  6  4  10
3 Balance t he following equation:
Ca(HCO ) (aq)  HCl(aq) CaCl (aq)  CO (g)  H O(l)

3 2 2 2 2
Determine the number of atoms of each element on each side of the arrow:
Ca(HCO ) (aq)  HCl(aq) CaCl (aq)  CO (g)  H O(l)

3 2 2 2 2
Reactants Products
Ca  1 Ca  1
H  2  1  3 H  2
C  2 C  1
O  6 O  2  1  3
Cl  1 Cl  2
92
Star t by balancing t he elements in t he product immediately af ter t he
arrow. Ca balances, but Cl does not balance. Balance by placing a 2 in
front of t he HCl
Ca(HCO ) (aq)  2HCl(aq) CaCl (aq)  CO (g)  H O(l)

3 2 2 2 2
Reactants Products
Ca  1 Ca  1
H  2  2  4 H  2
C  2 C  1
O  6 O  2  1  3
Cl  2 Cl  2
Balance t he carbon and hydrogen next. Balance t he C by placing a 2 in
front of t he CO . Balance t he H by placing a 2 in front of t he H O

2 2
Ca(HCO ) (aq)  2HCl(aq) CaCl (aq)  2CO (g)  2H O(l)

3 2 2 2 2
Reactants Products
Ca  1 Ca  1
H  2  2  4 H  4
C  2 C  2
O  6 O  4  2  6
Cl  2 Cl  2
4 Balance t he following equation
Al(NO ) (aq)  NaOH(aq) Al(OH) (s)  NaNO (aq)

3 3 3 3
n t his reaction, t he NO and t he OH ions are polyatomic ions which

3
remain unchanged from one side to t he ot her. They are, t herefore,
treated as single units when determining t he number of atoms of each
element at each side of t he arrow.
Al(NO ) (aq)  NaOH(aq) Al(OH) (s)  NaNO (aq)

3 3 3 3
Reactants Products
Al  1 Al  1
NO  3 NO  1
3 3
Na  1 Na  1
OH  1 OH  3
Start with the product immediately after the arrow. OH does not balance.
Balance by placing a 3 in front of the NaOH. Move on to the next product.
NO does not balance. Balance by placing a 3 in front of the NaNO

3 3
Al(NO ) (aq)  3NaOH(aq) Al(OH) (s)  3NaNO (aq)

3 3 3 3
Reactants Products
Al  1 Al  1
NO  3 NO  3
3 3
Na  3 Na  3
OH  3 OH  3
State symbols of ionic compounds
n Unit 5.5 you learnt t hat most ionic compounds are soluble in water. Some
ionic compounds are, however, insoluble in water. When writing equations
involving ionic compounds, it is ver y impor tant to know whet her t he ionic
compound is soluble or insoluble in water. f it is insoluble, t hen it would
93
always be given t he state symbol (s). f it is soluble it would usually be given
t he state symbol (aq). Table 6.1.1 gives t he solubility r ules for determining
t he solubility of ionic compounds in water.
 Table 6.1.1 Solubility of ionic compounds in water
Solubility rule Exceptions
All compounds of Group I metals are None.
soluble, e.g. compounds of lithium, sodium
and potassium.
All ammonium compounds are soluble. None.
Most nitrates and ethanoates are soluble. Silver ethanoate (CH COOAg) is only slightly soluble.
3
Most chlorides, bromides and iodides are Those of lead and silver are insoluble. Lead(II) chloride
soluble (PbCl ) and lead(II) bromide (PbBr ) are moderately

2 2
soluble in hot water.
Most sulfates are soluble. Those of lead and barium are insoluble. Calcium sulfate
(CaSO ) and silver sulfate (Ag SO ) are slightly soluble.

4 2 4
All hydrogencarbonates are soluble. None.
Exam tip
✔ Most carbonates and phosphates are Those of Group I metals and ammonium are soluble.
insoluble
It is essential that you learn the
Most metal hydroxides are insoluble. Those of Group I metals and ammonium are soluble.
solubility rules so that you can

Barium hydroxide (Ba(OH) ) is moderately soluble,
2
give the correct state symbols

calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) ) is slightly soluble and
2
when writing chemical equations. magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH) ) is very slightly soluble.
2
This is particularly important when

Most metal oxides are insoluble. Those of Group I metals, calcium and barium, react
writing ionic equations. with water to form the equivalent hydroxides.
Writing ionic equations
onic equations show only t he atoms or ions which actually take par t in a
reaction and, as a result, end up in a different state from t he one in which
t hey star ted. For example,
● two ions in solution may join to form an insoluble compound wit hin
t he solution, known as a precipitate
● two ions may form a covalent compound composed of molecules
● an ion may be conver ted to an atom, i.e. it may be discharged
● an element in its free state may be conver ted to an ion, i.e. it may
be ionised.
The following steps should be followed when writing ionic equations.
1) Write t he balanced chemical equation for t he reaction.
2) Rewrite t he equation, but show any ions t hat are present in solution as
 Figure 6.1.2 Example of a precipitate individual ions.
formed in a solution
3) Delete any ions which remain unchanged, i.e. which are in solution on
bot h sides of t he equation. These are called spectator ions and t hey do
not take par t in t he reaction.
4) Rewrite t he ionic equation showing only t he atoms or ions which
change, i.e. t hose which actually take par t in t he reaction.
5) Cancel t he coefcients to t he lowest possible ratio if necessar y.
t is impor tant to note t hat when acids, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq)),
nitric acid (HNO (aq)) and sulfuric acid (H SO (aq)), are in aqueous solution
3 2 4
t hey ionise to form hydrogen ions, or H ions, and negative anions.
94
Examples
1 Write t he ionic equation for t he reaction between lead nitrate solution and sodium
chloride solution to produce insoluble lead chloride and sodium nitrate solution.
1) Write t he balanced chemical equation:
Pb(NO ) (aq)  2NaCl(aq) PbCl (s)  2NaNO (aq)

3 2 2 3
2) Rewrite t he equation showing ions present in solution as individual ions:
2  
Pb (aq)  2NO (aq)  2Na (aq)  2Cl (aq) PbCl (s)  2Na (aq)  2NO (aq)
3 2 3
3) Delete t he Na (aq) and NO (aq) ions since t hey remain unchanged:

3
2  
Pb (aq)    2Cl (aq) PbCl (s)  

2
2
4) Rewrite t he ionic equation: Pb (aq)  2Cl (aq) PbCl (s)

2
2 Write t he ionic equation for t he reaction between potassium hydroxide and sulfuric acid
(H SO (aq)) to produce potassium sulfate and water.

2 4
1) 2KOH(aq)  H SO (aq) K SO (aq)  2H O(l)

2 4 2 4 2
  2  2
2) 2K (aq)  2OH (aq)  2H (aq)  SO (aq) 2K (aq)  SO (aq)  2H O(l)

4 4 2
  2  2
 2OH (aq)  2H (aq)    2H O(l)

2
4) 2OH (aq)  2H (aq) 2H O(l)

2
5) OH (aq)  H (aq) H O(l)

2 Key fact
3 Write t he ionic equation for t he reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid It is extremely
(HCl(aq)) to produce magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas. important that you
give the correct
1) Mg(s)  2HCl(aq) MgCl (aq)  H (g)

2 2
state symbols
when writing ionic

 2
2) Mg(s)  2H (aq)  2Cl (aq) Mg (aq)  2Cl (aq)  H (g)

2
equations and
 2
3) Mg(s)  2H (aq)  (aq)   H (g) that the equations

2
balance
 2
4) Mg(s)  2H (aq) Mg (aq)  H (g)

2
Summary questions
1 Write balanced equations for the following reactions:
a Aluminium  oxygen aluminium oxide
b N (g)  H (g) NH (g)

2 2 3
c CH (g)  O (g) CO (g)  H O(g)

4 2 2 2
d The reaction between potassium and water to produce potassium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
e The reaction between aluminium hydrogencarbonate and hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq))
to produce aluminium chloride, carbon dioxide and water.
f The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to produce steam.
2 State whether the following compounds are soluble or insoluble in water:
AgI Fe(NO ) Na CO KMnO (NH ) PO

3 3 2 3 4 4 3 4
3 Balance the following equations and then write the ionic equation for each reaction:
a Na CO (aq)  HCl(aq) NaCl(aq)  CO (g)  H O(l)

2 3 2 2
b KOH(aq)  (NH ) SO (aq) K SO (aq)  NH (g)  H O(l)

4 2 4 2 4 3 2
c Ba(NO ) (aq)  Na SO (aq) BaSO (s)  NaNO (aq)

3 2 2 4 4 3
95
Types of chemical reactions Chemical equations and reactions
Objectives A6.2 Types of chemical reactions
Chemical reactions for m an integ ral par t of our lives, from reactions
be able to:
t hat t ake place in our bodies, suc h as respiration whic h c hanges glucose
● identify the seven main types
into energy, to complex reactions, whic h produce phar maceutical
of chemical reactions
products. There are se ven main types of c hemical reactions whic h are
● give examples of the main
descr ibed below.
types of chemical reactions
● write balanced equations for
the different types of chemical

Synthesis reactions
reactions.
Synthesis reactions are reactions in which two or more substances combine
chemically to form a single product.
A synt hesis reaction is generally symbolised by:
A  B AB
Examples of synt hesis reactions are as follows:

2
2FeCl (s)  Cl (g) 2FeCl (s)

2 2 3
Decomposition reactions
Did you know?
? Decomposition reactions are reactions in which a single reactant is broken
down into two or more products. A decomposition reaction will occur if t he

Many islands of the Caribbean,
compound is unstable, if t he compound is heated (t hermal decomposition)

being coral islands, are composed
or if an electric current is passed t hrough t he compound when in t he liquid

largely of calcium carbonate.
When the sugar industry first state or dissolved in aqueous solution (electrolysis).
started in Barbados, a coral island,
A decomposition reaction is generally symbolised by:
calcium carbonate was quarried
and roasted in lime kilns to produce

A B A  B
calcium oxide. The calcium oxide
Examples of decomposition reactions are as follows:

was then used to clarify the cane
juice during the extraction of heat

3 2
sucrose from sugar cane, which
heat
at one time was a major industry
2Pb(NO ) (s) 2PbO(s)  4NO (g)  O (g)

3 2 2 2
within the island (Unit 2.5).
Single displacement reactions
A single d isplacement reaction involves t he reaction between an element
in its free state and a compound. The element in its free state takes t he place
of (displaces) anot her element in t he compound. A more reactive element
will always displace a less reactive element from a compound. Displacement
reactions can be divided into two types.
● A metal may displace anot her metal from a compound or it may
displace t he hydrogen from an acid.
This type of single displacement reaction can generally be symbolised by:
A  BX AX  B
Examples of t his type of single displacement reaction are as follows:
Mg(s)  CuSO (aq) MgSO (aq)  Cu(s)

4 4
Zn(s)  2HCl(aq) ZnCl (aq)  H (g)

2 2
96
Chemical equations and reactions Types of chemical reactions
Writing t hese as ionic equations:
2 2
Mg(s)  Cu (aq) Mg (aq)  Cu(s)
 2
Zn(s)  2H (aq) Zn (aq)  H (g)

2
n t he above examples, magnesium is more reactive t han copper and zinc
appears above hydrogen in t he reactivity series (see Unit 18.1).
● A non-metal may displace anot her non-metal from a compound.
This type of single displacement reaction can be generally symbolised by:
X  AY AX  Y
An example of t his type of single displacement reaction is as follows:

2 2
Writing t his as an ionic equation:
Cl (g)  2Br (aq) 2Cl (aq)  Br (aq)

2 2
n t his example, chlorine is more reactive t han bromine.
Ionic precipitation reactions
Ionic precipitation reactions are sometimes referred to as double
d isplacement reactions . They usually involve two compounds which are in
solution, where t he compounds exchange ions.
An ionic precipitation reaction is generally symbolised by:
AX  BY AY  BX
To have a successful ionic precipitation reaction, one or bot h of t he products
Key fact
must be incapable of undergoing t he reverse reaction. This is generally
!
because t hey form one product which is insoluble, known as a precipitate
A precipitate is an insoluble solid
Examples of ionic precipitation reactions are as follows: that forms in a solution, often as a
result of a chemical reaction.
AgNO (aq)  KBr(aq) AgBr(s)  KNO (aq)

3 3
BaCl (aq)  Na SO (aq) BaSO (s)  2NaCl(aq)

2 2 4 4
Writing t hese as ionic equations:
Ag (aq)  Br (aq) AgBr(s)
2 2
Ba (aq)  SO (aq) BaSO (s)

4 4
Neutralisation reactions
Neutralisation reactions are reactions between a base (or an alkali) and an
acid. The acid is neutralised by t he base (or alkali) and t he products formed
are a salt and water.
An example of a neutralisation reaction is:
NaOH(aq)  HCl(aq) NaCl(aq)  H O(l)

2
Writing t his as an ionic equation:
OH (aq)  H (aq) H O(l)

2
Redox reactions
Redox reactions, or oxidation–reduction reactions, are chemical reactions
in which one reactant is reduced and t he ot her reactant is oxid ised. Redox
reactions will be covered in more detail in Unit 9.
97
Types of chemical reactions Chemical equations and reactions
Reversible reactions
Reversible reactions occur when t he direction of a chemical change
can be reversed easily, i.e. t he products can react to produce t he original
reactants again. Most reactions are not reversible; t hey can only proceed in
one direction.
f a reaction is reversible, a double arrow ( ) is used. n a reversible
reaction, we refer to t he for ward reaction as proceeding from lef t to right and
t he reverse or backward reaction as proceeding from right to lef t.
A reversible reaction is generally symbolised by:
A  B C  D
For example, when ammonium chloride is heated, it decomposes into
ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases:
white ring of
4 3
ammonium chloride
for ms near the top

f t he ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases are cooled (or mixed at room
temperature) t hey react to form ammonium chloride:
NH (g)  HCl(g) NH Cl(s)

3 4
ammonium
chloride The reaction is, t herefore, reversible and t he equation can be written as
follows:

4 3
n Figure 6.2.1, as t he ammonium chloride is heated it forms ammonia and
hydrogen chloride gases, which diffuse up t he test tube. The top of t he tube
is much cooler and when t he gases reach here, t hey react and form a ring of
Bunsen bur ner
ammonium chloride around t he inside of t he tube.
n many reversible reactions, t he reaction can proceed in bot h directions at
t he same time such t hat t he reaction always contains a mixture of reactants
and products. f t he reaction occurs in a sealed system where no substances
can enter or leave, t hen a stage is reached where t he rates of t he for ward and
 Figure 6.2.1 Heating ammonium

backward reactions are equal. The reaction does not stop and is said to have
chloride
reached dynamic equilibrium
Summary questions
1 Balance the following equations, then classify the reactions as synthesis,
decomposition, single displacement, ionic precipitation or neutralisation
reactions:
a Mg(NO ) (s) MgO(s)  NO (g)  O (g)

3 2 2 2
b Fe(s)  Cl (g) FeCl (s)

2 3
c Zn(s)  HCl(aq) ZnCl (aq)  H (g)

2 2
d NaOH(aq)  H SO (aq) Na SO (aq)  H O(l)

2 4 2 4 2
e AgNO (aq)  MgBr (aq) AgBr(s)  Mg(NO ) (aq).

3 2 3 2
98
Chemical equations and reactions Types of chemical reactions
Key concepts
● Chemical equations are representations of chemical reactions using
symbols and formulae.
● The reactants are shown at t he lef t of an equation and t he products on
t he right.
● The state of each reactant and product is given af ter its formula using (s)
for solid, (l) for liquid, (g) for gas and (aq) for aqueous solution.
● n a balanced chemical equation t here must be t he same number of
atoms of each element on bot h sides of t he equation.
● Coefcients are numbers placed in front of formulae. They are used
when balancing equations. Formulae must never be changed.
● There are solubility r ules which can be used to determine t he solubility
of ionic compounds in water. These are useful in determining state
symbols of ionic compounds.
● Ionic equations show only t he atoms or ions which actually take par t in
a reaction and, as a result, end up in a different situation from t he one in
which t hey star ted.
● Writing ionic equations involves writing t he full equation rst, but
showing any ions t hat are present in solution as individual ions to
determine which ions do not change in any way.
● Spectator ions are t he ions which do not take par t in a reaction and,
t herefore, remain unchanged. These are lef t out of t he nal ionic
equation.
● There are seven main types of chemical reactions: synt hesis,
decomposition, single displacement, ionic precipitation, neutralisation,
redox and reversible reactions.
● A synthesis reaction is any reaction in which two or more reactants
combine to form a single product.
● A decomposition reaction is any reaction where a single reactant is
broken down into two or more products.
● A single d isplacement reaction is any reaction between an element
in its free state and a compound where t he element displaces anot her
element from t he compound.
● An ionic precipitation reaction usually involves two compounds in
aqueous solution reacting to produce a precipitate.
● A precipitate is an insoluble solid t hat forms in a solution, of ten as a
result of a chemical reaction.
● A neutralisation reaction occurs when an acid reacts wit h a base (or
alkali) to form a salt and water.
● A redox reaction occurs when one reactant is reduced and t he ot her is
oxidised.
● A reversible reaction occurs when t he direction of a chemical change
can be reversed easily, i.e. t he products can react to produce t he original
reactants again.
99
Practice exam-style questions Chemical equations and reactions
Equations to write
6 Write a balanced chemical equation for each of t he
Multiple-choice questions following reactions.
a The reaction between aluminium and chlorine to

1 Which of t he following correctly represents t he
produce aluminium chloride as t he only product.

chemical reaction between sodium hydroxide and
sulfuric acid to produce sodium sulfate and water? b The reaction between aluminium oxide and sulfuric
acid (H SO (aq)), which produces aluminium sulfate

2 4
A NaOH(aq)  H SO (aq) NaSO (aq)  H O(l)
2 4 4 2
and water.
B 2NaOH(aq)  H SO (aq) Na SO (s)  2H O(l)

2 4 2 4 2
c The reaction between potassium carbonate solution
C 2NaOH(aq)  H SO (aq) Na SO (aq)

2 4 2 4
and hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq)) to produce
 2H O(l)
2
potassium chloride, carbon dioxide and water.
D Na(OH) (aq)  H SO (aq) NaSO (aq)

2 2 4 4
d The reaction between et hane (C H (g)) and oxygen to

2 6
 2H O(l)
2
make carbon dioxide and steam.
2 Which of t he following compounds is soluble in water?

e The reaction between aqueous solutions of lead(II)
A copper(II) sulfate nitrate and potassium sulfate to make lead(II) sulfate
and potassium nitrate.

B magnesium carbonate
f The reaction between potassium hydroxide solution

C zinc hydroxide
and ammonium sulfate solution to form potassium
D calcium phosphate
sulfate, ammonia gas and water.
3 Aqueous solutions of which of t he following compounds

g The reaction between calcium and hydrochloric
would react to form a precipitate when mixed?

acid (HCl(aq)), which makes calcium chloride and
A sodium chloride and copper(II) nitrate hydrogen.
B zinc sulfate and magnesium chloride h The reaction between sodium and water to produce
sodium hydroxide and hydrogen.

C potassium hydroxide and sodium nitrate
i The reaction between magnesium

D lead nitrate and ammonium carbonate
hydrogencarbonate solution and nitric acid
4 Consider t he following reaction:

(HNO (aq)), which produces magnesium nitrate,
3
Mg(HCO ) (aq)  2HCl(aq) MgCl (aq) carbon dioxide and water.

3 2 2
 2CO (g)  2H O(l)

2 2
j The reaction between sodium hydroxide solution
The best ionic equation for t his reaction is: and sulfuric acid (H SO (aq)) to make sodium sulfate
2 4
2  2 and water.
A Mg (aq)  2HCO (aq)  2H (aq) Mg (aq)
3
 2CO (g)  2H O(l)

2 2
7 Write balanced ionic equations for t he reactions in c, e,
B 2HCO (aq)  2H (aq) 2CO (g)  2H O(l) f, g, i and j in question 6 above.

3 2 2
C HCO (aq)  2H (aq) CO (g)  H O(l)

3 2 2
D HCO (aq)  H (aq) CO (g)  H O(l)

3 2 2
5 What type of reaction would you consider t he following
to be?
2Al(s)  3H SO (aq) Al (SO ) (aq)  3H (g)

2 4 2 4 3 2
A a neutralisation reaction
B a single displacement reaction
C a double displacement reaction
D a synt hesis reaction
100
A7 The mole concept
Chemistry often involves determining the amount of a

Objectives
substance required to produce a product. For example,

be able to:
how much ammonia and nitric acid are required to
● dene the terms relative atomic
produce 1 kg of the fertiliser ammonium nitrate? The
mass, relative molecular mass
mass of an atom is so small that chemists have had

and relative formula mass
● calculate relative molecular and

to devise another method of measuring the amount of
formula masses
substances; this method uses the mole.
● dene the terms mole and
molar mass
● give Avogadro’s constant
A7.1 The mole and mass

● perform calculations involving
moles, masses and number of
Relative atomic, molecular and formula masses

particles.
Yo u lear nt in Unit 3. 3 t ha t be cause t he ma ss of atoms is ex t remely s mal l,
scientists use a m uc h s malle r unit t han a g ram to compare t h eir mas s es ,
known as relative atomic m a ss . They designed a s y st e m wh ic h c ompares
t he mass of an ato m wit h on e -t we lf t h t he ma ss of a carbo n - 12 a tom.
A carbon-12 atom wa s assign e d a mass of 12.0 0 a tomic mass un i ts or
amu, t herefore, on e -t welf t h t he mass of a carb o n - 12 a tom has a ma s s of
1.0 0 amu.
Relative atomic mass, t herefore, compares t he mass of an atom of an
element to one-twe lf t h t he ma ss of a carbo n - 12 a tom. B ec au se it is a
compara tive valu e , re la tive a to mic mass has no units. Relative a to mic
mass is given t he s y mb ol A
r
Key fact
n t he denition of relative atomic mass given in t he Key fact box, we use t he

!
word ‘average’ because relative atomic mass takes into account t he relative
Relative atomic mass, A , is the
r
abundance of each isotope. The relative atomic mass of an element, to t he

average mass of one atom of an
nearest whole number, can be found in t he periodic table on page 360. For
element compared to one-twelfth
example, t he relative atomic mass of calcium is 40 and of uorine is 19. the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
When calculating t he masses of covalent and ionic compounds we use t he
same logic by comparing t heir masses to t he carbon-12 atom.
Key fact
Molecular elements and compounds formed by covalent bonding are
Relative molecular mass, M , is

r
composed of molecules. We use t he term relative molecular mass to
the average mass of one molecule
compare t he mass of a molecule of a molecular element or compound wit h
of an element or compound
one-twelf t h t he mass of a carbon-12 atom. Relative molecular mass is given
compared to one-twelfth the mass
t he symbol M
r
of an atom of carbon-12.
Compounds formed by ionic bonding are represented by formula units. We
use t he term relative formula mass to compare t he mass of a formula unit of
Key fact
an ionic compound wit h one-twelf t h t he mass of a carbon-12 atom.
!
Relative formula mass is the

To determine t he relative molecular mass or relative formula mass, we
average mass of one formula unit

add toget her t he relative atomic masses of all t he elements present in t he
of a compound compared to one-
compound. Since relative molecular and formula masses are comparative
twelfth the mass of an atom of
values, t hey have no units.
carbon-12.
101
The mole and mass The mole concept
Examples
1 Calculate t he relative molecular mass of nitrogen, N

2.
N consists of 2 atoms of N.
2
∴ relative molecular mass of N  (2  14)  28

2
2 Calculate t he relative molecular mass of glucose, C H O

6 12 6.
C H O consists of 6 atoms of H, 12 atoms of H and 6 atoms of O.

6 12 6
∴ relative molecular mass of
C H O  (6  12)  (12  1)  (6  16)  180

6 12 6
3 Calculate t he relative formula mass of magnesium carbonate, MgCO

3.
MgCO consists of 1 atom of Mg, 1 atom of C and 3 atoms of O.

3
∴ relative formula mass of
MgCO  (1  24)  (1  12)  (3  16)  84.

3
The mole
We use different terms to represent a xed amount of somet hing, e.g. a dozen
apples represents 12 apples and a pair of gloves represents two gloves. The
same concept is used in chemistr y. The mole represents a xed number. t
can be used to describe anyt hing, e.g. a mole of apples, a mole of gloves, a
mole of atoms or a mole of molecules. However, a mole represents a ver y
large number and is, t herefore, used mainly as a measurement of atomic
sized par ticles.

Key fact
Like relative atomic mass, t he mole has been dened using t he carbon-12
A mole is the amount of a
isotope because of its high abundance and stability. t was found t hat 12.00 g
substance that contains the same

23
of carbon-12 contains 6.0  10 atoms of carbon-12. One mole represents
number of particles as there are

23
t he number of atoms in 12.00 g of carbon-12, i.e. 6.0  10 . This number is
atoms in 12.00 g of carbon-12.
known as Avogadro’s constant , or N

A
23
n ot her words, a mole is t he amount of a substance t hat contains 6.0  10
par ticles of t he substance.
Looking at t he denition of a mole in t he Key fact box:
● ‘amount’ can refer to t he mass of a substance or t he volume of a
substance if t he substance is a gas
● ‘par ticles’ can refer to atoms, molecules, formula units or ions.
n t he same way t hat it was found t hat 12.00 g of carbon-12 contains
23
6.0  10 carbon-12 atoms, it was found t hat:
23
● 40 g of calcium (Ca) contains 6.0  10 Ca atoms
23
● 28 g of nitrogen (N ) contains 6.0  10 N molecules

2 2
23
● 180 g of glucose (C H O ) contains 6.0  10 C H O molecules

6 12 6 6 12 6
23
● 84 g of magnesium carbonate (MgCO ) contains 6.0  10 MgCO

3 3
formula units.
f we look at t he masses given above we see t hat each mass has t he same
numerical value as t he relative mass of t he element or compound and each
is t he mass of one mole of par ticles of t he substance.
NB When writing t he mole as a unit, it is usually abbreviated to mol
102
The mole concept The mole and mass
Molar mass
Key fact
The mass of one mole of a substance is known as its molar mass, or M

!
Molar mass, M, is the mass, in

The molar mass of an element or a compound is given t he unit grams
1 grams, of one mole of a substance.

per mole or g mol . For example, because 12.00 g of carbon contains
23
6.0  10 carbon atoms, or 1 mol of carbon atoms, t he molar mass of carbon
is 12 g mol
The molar mass of different elements and compounds will be different even
t hough t hey are all t he mass of one mole, just as t he mass of one dozen
apples will be different from t he mass of a dozen g rapes even t hough t hey
are bot h a dozen. This is because t he mass of t he atoms of each element is
different, just as t he mass of an apple is different from t he mass of a g rape.
Calculating molar mass
Looking at t he ndings above, it can be seen t hat:
23
● because 40 g of calcium contains 6.0  10 Ca atoms, or 1 mol of
Ca atoms, t he molar mass of calcium is 40 g mol
23
● because 28 g of nitrogen contains 6.0  10 N molecules, or 1 mol of

2
N molecules, t he molar mass of nitrogen is 28 g mol

2
23
● because 180 g of glucose contains 6.0  10 C H O molecules, or 1 mol

6 12 6
of C H O molecules, t he molar mass of glucose is 180 g mol

6 12 6
23
● because 84 g of magnesium carbonate contains 6.0  10 MgCO

3
formula units, or 1 mol of MgCO formula units, t he molar mass of

3
magnesium carbonate is 84 g mol
Therefore, t he molar mass of an element or compound is t he relative atomic,
molecular or formula mass amount expressed in grams per mole.
More examples
M(H O)  (2  1)  16  18 g mol
2
M(CuSO )  64  32  (4  16)  160 g mol

4
M(Ca (PO ) )  (3  40)  (2  31)  (8  16)  310 g mol

3 4 2
M((NH ) CO )  (2  14)  (8  1)  12  (3  16)  96 g mol

4 2 3
Moles and mass
Molar mass gives us t he relationship between t he number of moles and t he
mass of an element or compound. We can use t he molar mass to calculate
t he mass or number of moles of an element or compound.
Examples
1 Calculate t he number of moles in 10 g of calcium carbonate, CaCO

3
First calculate t he molar mass of CaCO

3
M(CaCO )  40  12  (3  16)  100 g mol

3
i.e. mass of 1 mol CaCO  100 g

3
10
____
∴ number of moles in 10 g  mol  0.1 mol
100
103
The mole and mass The mole concept
2 Calculate t he mass of 0.2 mol of sulfuric acid, H SO

2 4
Exam tip
✔
First calculate t he molar mass of H SO
2 4
When performing calculations

1
M(H SO )  (2  1)  32  (4  16)  98 g mol

2 4
in chemistry, including those
involving the mole, it is essential i.e. mass of 1 mol H SO  98 g

2 4
that you show each step of your
∴ mass of 0.2 mol of H SO  0.2  98 g  19.6 g

2 4
working clearly by making a clear
statement. You must not just put
down a set of numbers without
Moles and number of particles
stating what you are calculating.
23
The number of par ticles in one mole is always 6.0  10 . Using t his fact we
can calculate t he number of par ticles in any number of moles. Remember
t hat t he type of par ticle in a substance depends on t he type of bonding in
t he substance.
● f a substance is an element, e.g. metals and t he noble gases, t hen t he
par ticles are individual atoms
● f a substance is a molecular element, e.g. oxygen, or a covalent
compound, e.g. water, t hen t he par ticles are molecules made up
of atoms
● f a substance is an ionic compound, e.g. sodium chloride, t hen t he
par ticles are formula units made up of ions.
Examples
1 Calculate t he number of atoms in 0.5 mole of copper, Cu.
23
1 mol Cu contains 6.0  10 atoms.
23 23
∴ 0.5 mol Cu contains 0.5  6.0  10 atoms  3.0  10 atoms
2 Calculate t he number of moles of carbon dioxide, CO , t hat contain

2
23
2.0  10 carbon dioxide molecules.
23
1 mol CO contains 6.0  10 molecules.

2
23
2.0  10
23 __________
∴ number of moles in 2.0  10 molecules  mol

23
6.0  10
 0.33 mol
We can extend our calculations of moles and par ticles to look at t he
number of moles or par ticles inside a compound. For example:
● 1 mol of water, H O, consists of: 1 mol of H O molecules, or 2 mol of

2 2
H atoms and 1 mol of O atoms
● 2 mol of potassium carbonate, K CO consists of: 2 mol of K CO

2 3 2 3
 2
formula units, or 4 mol of K ions and 2 mol of CO ions.

3
Exam tip
✔
Example
It is essential that you place the
Calculate t he number of hydrogen atoms in 1.5 mol of met hane, CH

correct unit after each value given 4
in your calculations, especially your
1 mol CH contains 4 mol H atoms.

4
final answers. The only values that
have no units are relative atomic, ∴ 1.5 mol CH contains 1.5  4 mol H atoms  6 mol H atoms
4
molecular and formula masses.

23
1 mol H atoms contains 6.0  10 atoms.
Your answer is incorrect if it has the
23 24
wrong unit or no unit, unless it is
∴ 6 mol H atoms contains 6  6.0  10 atoms  3.6  10 atoms
the value for relative mass.
104
The mole concept The mole and mass
Moles, mass and number of particles
We can now combine our calculation of moles and mass, and moles and
number of par ticles.
Examples
1 Calculate t he number of molecules in 1.8 g of water, H O.

2
M(H O)  (2  1)  16  18 g mol
2
i.e. mass of 1 mol H O  18 g

2
1.8
___
∴ number of moles in 1.8 g  mol  0.1 mol
18
23
1 mol H O contains 6.0  10 molecules

2
23
∴ 0.1 mol H O contains 0.1  6.0  10 molecules

2
22
 6.0  10 molecules
23
2 Calculate t he mass of 1.5  10 molecules of hydrogen chloride, HCl.
23
1 mol HCl contains 6.0  10 molecules
23
1.5  10
23 __________
∴ number of moles in 1.5  10 molecules  mol  0.25 mol

23
6.0  10
M(HCl)  1  35.5  36.5 g mol
i.e. mass of 1 mol HCl  36.5 g
∴ mass of 0.25 mol HCl  0.25  36.5 g  9.13 g
3
3 Calculate t he number of aluminium ions, Al , in 40.8 g of aluminium
oxide, Al O
2 3
M(Al O )  (2  27)  (3  16)  102 g mol

2 3
i.e. mass of 1 mol Al O  102 g

2 3
40.8
_____
102
3
1 mol Al O contains 2 mol Al ions.

2 3
3
∴ 0.4 mol Al O contains 0.4  2 mol Al ions

2 3
3
 0.8 mol Al ions
3 23
1 mol Al ions contains 6.0  10 ions
3 23
∴ 0.8 mol Al ions contains 0.8  6.0  10 ions
23
 4.8  10 ions
Summary questions
1 Calculate the mass of:
a 0.25 mol of sodium sulfate, Na SO b 1.2 mol of glucose, C H O

2 4 6 12 6
2 Calculate the number of moles in:
a 20 g of neon b 63.0 g of magnesium carbonate.
3 Calculate the number of molecules in 1.5 mol of hydrogen chloride, HCl.
23
4 Calculate the mass of 2.5  10 formula units of calcium phosphate,
Ca (PO )
3 4 2.
5 Calculate the number of molecules in 34 g of ammonia, NH

3
6 Calculate the number of chloride ions in 6.8 g of zinc chloride, ZnCl

2
105
The mole and gas volumes The mole concept
Objectives A7.2 The mole and gas volumes
Gases have ver y small masses because of t heir low densities, so chemists have
be able to:
investigated t he relationship between t he number of moles of a gas and t he
● state Avogadro’s law
volume occupied by t he gas.
● dene molar volume
● perform calculations involving n 1811, Amedeo Avo ga dro notice d t h at a ll gase s un d er t h e same c on d iti on s
moles and volumes of gases. of temperature and pre ssure, an d o cc u pying t he same volume, con t ain
t he same number of mo le cules. He propose d Avogad ro’s law
As an example, using Avogadro’s law, we can say t hat 100 cm of oxygen gas
at a temperature of 25 °C and pressure of 101.3 kPa has t he same number of

Key fact
!
3
molecules as 100 cm of nitrogen gas at 25 °C and 101.3 kPa.
Avogadro’s law states that equal
23
f t he number of molecules in each gas is 6.0  10 , i.e. 1 mol, it follows t hat

volumes of all gases, under the
1 mol of all gases under t he same conditions of temperature and pressure

same conditions of temperature
and pressure, contain the same must occupy t he same volume.
number of molecules.
Molar volume
The volume of one mole of a gas is known as its molar volume, or V

m
Key fact
!
Molar volume is, t herefore, t he volume of a gas which contains
23
6.0  10 molecules of t he gas.

Molar volume, V is the volume
m
occupied by 1 mol of a gas.
Since temperature and pressure bot h affect t he volume of a gas, molar
volume will depend on bot h of t hese. Chemists mostly work wit h two sets
of conditions.
● Stand ard temperature and pressure , or stp, which equates to a
temperature of 0 C (273 K) and a pressure of 101.3 kPa (1 atmosphere).
3 3
Molar volume at stp is 22.4 dm or 22 400 cm
● Room temperature and pressure , or rtp, which equates to a
temperature of 25 °C (298 K) and a pressure of 101.3 kPa (1 atmosphere).
3 3
Molar volume at r tp is 24.0 dm or 24 000 cm
Molar volume gives us t he relationship between t he number of moles and
t he volume of a gas. We can use t he molar volume to calculate t he volume or
number of moles of a gas.
Examples
1 Calculate t he volume occupied by 0.25 mol nitrogen, N , at stp.

2
Volume of 1 mol of N at stp  22.4 dm

2
3 3
∴ volume of 0.25 mol of N at stp  0.25  22.4 dm  5.6 dm

2
2 Calculate t he number of moles in 2.4 dm of oxygen gas, O , at r tp.

2
Volume of 1 mol of O at r tp  24.0 dm

2
2.4
3 _____
∴ number of moles in 2.4 dm of O at r tp  mol  0.1 mol

2
24.0
We can now combine our calculations wit h t hose in Unit 7.1 to involve
moles, mass, volume and number of par ticles.
106
The mole concept The mole and gas volumes
Examples
1 Calculate t he volume occupied by 6.4 g of oxygen, O at stp.

2
Calculate t he molar mass of O gas.

2
M(O )  2  16  32 g mol
2
i.e. mass of 1 mol of O  32 g

2
6.4
____
32
volume of 1 mol O at stp  22.4 dm

2
3 3
∴ volume of 0.2 mol O gas at stp  0.2  22.4 dm  4.48 dm

2
2 Calculate t he mass of 600 cm of carbon dioxide, CO , at r tp.

2
Volume of 1 mol CO at r tp  24 000 cm

2
600
3 _______
∴ number of moles in 600 cm  mol
24 000
 0.025 mol
M(CO )  12  (2  16)  44 g mol

2
i.e. mass of 1 mol CO  44 g

2
∴ mass of 0.025 mol CO  0.025  44 g

2
 1.1 g
3 Calculate t he number of molecules in 6.72 dm of ammonia, NH , at stp.

3
Volume of 1 mol NH at stp  22.4 dm

3
6.72
3 _____
∴ number of moles in 6.72 dm  mol
22.4
 0.3 mol
23
1 mol NH contains 6.0  10 molecules

3
23
∴ 0.3 mol NH contains 0.3  6.0  10 molecules

3
23
 1.8  10 molecules
22
4 Calculate t he volume occupied by 4.5  10 molecules of hydrogen
chloride gas, HCl at r tp.
23
1 mol HCl contains 6.0  10 molecules.
22
4.5  10
22 __________
∴ number of moles in 4.5  10 molecules  mol

23
6.0  10
 0.075 mol
volume of 1 mol HCl at r tp  24 dm
∴ volume of 0.075 mol HCl at r tp  0.075  24.0 dm
 1.8 dm
Summary questions
1 Calculate the mass, volume and number of molecules in 2.5 mol of
ammonia, NH
3
2 Calculate the number of atoms in 4.8 dm of neon gas at rtp.
3 Calculate the volume of 16 g of sulfur dioxide, SO , at stp.

2
4 Determine the mass of 840 cm of oxygen gas, O , at rtp.

2
107
The mole and concentration of solutions The mole concept
Objectives A7.3 The mole and concentration of solutions
You have already come across ways of describing solutions such as dilute,
be able to:
concentrated and saturated. However, we can express t he concentration
● explain what is meant by
of a solution in more precise ways, which allow us to perfume calculations
concentration of a solution
involving solutions. The concentration of a solution is a measure of t he
● explain the terms mass
quantity of a solute dissolved in a xed volume of t he solution. The volume
concentration and molar

3 3
of solution usually used is 1 dm , i.e. 1000 cm
concentration
Concentration of a solution can be expressed in two ways.

● dene the term standard
solution ● Mass concentration , which gives t he mass of solute dissolved in 1 dm
● perform calculations involving of solution. The unit for mass concentration is grams of solute per cubic
concentrations of solutions. decimetre of solution or g dm
● Molar concentration , which gives t he number of moles of solute
dissolved in 1 dm of solution. The unit for molar concentration is moles
of solute per cubic decimetre of solution or mol dm
t is ver y impor tant to note t hat concentration is expressed as t he quantity of
3 3
solute in 1 dm of solution and not in 1 dm of solvent.
Example
A solution of sodium hydroxide contains 10.0 g of sodium hydroxide
dissolved in 1 dm of solution. Express t he concentration of t he solution in

Did you know?
?
3 3
g dm and mol dm
Molar concentration may also

3
The solution contains 10.0 g of NaOH in 1 dm
be called molarity. The unit for
3
molarity is M. A solution with a
Therefore, mass concentration  10.0 g dm
concentration of 1 mol dm may
To determine t he molar concentration, nd t he number of moles of sodium

be described as a ‘1 molar solution’
hydroxide present:
or ‘1 M solution’.
M(NaOH)  23  16  1  40 g mol
i.e. mass of 1 mole NaOH  40 g
Key fact
! 10
___
∴ number of moles in 10.0 g NaOH  mol
40
A standard solution is one whose
 0.25 mol
concentration is known accurately.
Therefore, molar concentration  0.25 mol dm
A standard solution
A solution whose concentration is known accurately is referred to as a standard
solution. A standard solution is made in a volumetric ask as shown in Figure

meniscus of the solution
3 3 3
7.3.1. These asks come in various sizes, e.g. 100 cm , 250 cm , 500 cm and
etched line indicating 1 dm . A known mass of solute is added to the ask and distilled water is then
volume, e.g. 250 cm
added until the solution reaches the mark on the neck of the ask.
To make a standard solution which does not have a volume of 1 dm , t he
mass of solute required must be calculated rst.
volumetric flask contains
a fixed volume of solution
Example
when the meniscus is on
the etched line,
Determine t he mass of potassium carbonate which must be dissolved in

3
e.g. 250 cm
distilled water to make 250 cm of potassium carbonate solution wit h a
concentration of 0.2 mol dm
3 3
 Figure 7.3.1 A volumetric ask 1000 cm (1 dm ) of t he required solution contains 0.2 mol K CO
2 3
108
The mole concept The mole and concentration of solutions
0.2
3 _____
∴ 1 cm of t he required solution contains mol K CO

2 3
1000
and 250 cm of t he required solution contains
0.2
_____
 250 mol K CO  0.05 mol K CO

2 3 2 3
1000
Therefore 0.05 mol K CO is required to make t he solution.

2 3
M(K CO )  (2  39)  12  (3  16)  138 g mol

2 3
i.e. mass of 1 mol K CO  138 g

2 3
∴ mass of 0.05 mol K CO  0.05  138 g  6.9 g

2 3
Therefore t he mass of K CO required is 6.9 g

2 3
Making a standard solution
3 3
You are going to make 250 cm of sodium carbonate solution with a concentration of 0.1 mol dm
You will be supplied with sodium carbonate, distilled water, a balance, a sheet of weighing paper, a 100 cm beaker,
a glass rod and a 250 cm volumetric ask.
Method
1 Calculate the mass of sodium carbonate required to make the solution. (Use the calculation given in the example
above to help you.)
2 Weigh a sheet of weighing paper on a balance.
3 Weigh the mass of sodium carbonate you determined in your calculation on the sheet of weighing paper.
4 Carefully transfer the sodium carbonate to the beaker, making sure it is all transferred.
5 Add some distilled water and stir the solution with the glass rod until all the sodium carbonate has dissolved completely.
6 Transfer the solution to the volumetric ask.
7 Rinse the glass rod with distilled water over the beaker and transfer the washings to the ask. Wash the beaker
with distilled water three times and transfer these washings to the ask each time.
8 Add distilled water to just below the line in the volumetric ask. Add the nal quantity of distilled water drop by
drop until the bottom of the meniscus is on the line.
9 Place the stopper on the ask. Holding the stopper in place, invert the ask three times to mix the solution.
Calculations
We can extend our calculations involving solutions as shown in t he examples
below.
Examples
1 Calculate t he molar concentration of a solution of hydrochloric acid,
HCl, which has a mass concentration of 9.125 g dm
M(HCl)  1  35.5  36.5 g mol
i.e. mass of 1 mol HCl  36.5 g
9.125
______
∴ number of moles HCl in 9.125 g  mol  0.25 mol
36.5
109
The mole and concentration of solutions The mole concept
i.e. number of moles HCl in 1 dm  0.25 mol
Therefore, molar concentration  0.25 mol dm
2 Calculate t he molar concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide
which contains 6 g of sodium hydroxide dissolved in distilled water to
make 200 cm of solution.
Calculate t he molar mass of sodium hydroxide, NaOH.
M(NaOH)  40 g mol
i.e. mass of 1 mol of NaOH  40 g
6
___
∴ number of moles in 6 g NaOH  mol  0.15 mol
40
200 cm of solution contains 0.15 mol NaOH
0.15
3 ____
∴ 1 cm of solution contains mol NaOH
200
0.15
3 3 ____
and 1000 cm (1 dm ) of solution contains  1000 mol NaOH
200
 0.75 mol NaOH
Therefore t he molar concentration  0.75 mol dm
3 Determine how many moles of sodium sulfate are present in 250 cm of a
sodium sulfate solution which has a molar concentration of 0.2 mol dm
1 dm of solution contains 0.2 mol Na SO ,

2 4
i.e. 1000 cm of solution contains 0.2 mol Na SO

2 4
0.2
3 _____
∴ 1 cm of solution contains mol Na SO

2 4
1000
0.2
3 _____
and 250 cm of solution contains  250 mol Na SO

2 4
1000
 0.05 mol Na SO
2 4
Therefore, number of moles of sodium sulfate present  0.05 mol
4 You wish to make a sodium chloride solution wit h a molar
concentration of 0.25 mol dm , but you only have 11.7 g of sodium
chloride. What is t he maximum volume of solution you can make?
Calculate t he molar mass of sodium chloride, NaCl.
M(NaCl)  23  35.5  58.5 g mol
i.e. mass of 1 mol  58.5 g.
11.7
_____
∴ number of moles in 11.7 g  mol
58.5
 0.2 mol
Required solution has a molar concentration of 0.25 mol dm ,
i.e. 0.25 mol NaCl is contained in 1 dm of solution
or 0.25 mol NaCl is contained in 1000 cm of solution.
1000
_____ 3
∴ 1 mol NaCl is contained in cm of solution
0.25
1000
_____ 3
and 0.2 mol NaCl is contained in  0.2 cm of solution
0.25
 800 cm of solution
Therefore, the maximum volume of solution which can be made is 800 cm
110
The mole concept The mole and chemical formulae
Summary questions
1 Dene the terms ‘molar concentration’ and ‘standard solution’.
2 Calculate the mass concentration and molar concentration if 2.8 g of potassium hydroxide is dissolved in
distilled water to make up 500 cm of solution.
3 What mass of calcium chloride, CaCl , needs to be weighed to make a solution of volume 200 cm and
2
concentration 0.1 mol dm ?
4 How many moles of sodium carbonate are present in 400 cm of sodium carbonate solution, which has a
concentration of 0.25 mol dm ?
A7.4 The mole and chemical formulae Objectives
Empirical and molecular formulae

be able to:
n terms of moles, a chemical formula shows how many moles of each

● explain the terms empirical
element combine to form one mole of t he compound. For example, H O

2 formula, molecular formula and
represents 2 mol of hydrogen atoms combined wit h 1 mol of oxygen atoms.

percentage composition
n Unit 5.1 you learnt t hat chemical formulae can be written in t hree main
● determine the empirical and
ways. We will be considering two of t hese ways here.

molecular formulae of a
● The empirical formula , which gives t he simplest whole number mole compound
ratio between t he atoms or ions in t he compound. ● determine the percentage
composition of a compound.
● The molecular formula , which gives t he actual number of moles of
atoms of each element present in one mole of t he compound.
onic compounds are always represented by empir ical formulae , which give
t he ratio of t he ions wit hin t he compound.
Covalent compounds are represented by molecular for mulae . The empir ical
and molecular for mulae of covalent compounds may be t he same, e.g. water
(H O), ammonia (NH ) and met hane (CH ), or t he molecular for mula
2 3 4
may be a simple whole number multiple of t he empir ical for mula, e.g. t he
molecular for mula of butene is C H and its empir ical for mula is CH
4 8 2
f we know t he propor tions of t he elements, by mass, in a compound, t hen
we can use t his to work out t he empirical formula of t he compound. f t he
molecular formula of a compound is different from t he empirical formula
and we know t he molar mass of t he compound, we can use t his to work out
its molecular formula.
To determine t he empirical formula, we need to calculate t he number of
moles of each element present and t hen determine t he simplest mole ratio
of t hese elements.
Examples
1 A sample of a solid is decomposed and found to contain 6.52 g of
potassium, 4.34 g of chromium and 5.34 g of oxygen. What is t he
empirical formula of t he compound?
K Cr O
mass (g) 6.52 4.34 5.34
molar mass (g mol ) 39 52 16
6.52 4.34 5.34

____ ____ ____
number of moles  0.167  0.083  0.333
39 52 16
simplest mole ratio 2 1 4
111
The mole and chemical formulae The mole concept
The empirical formula is K CrO

2 4
Note: To determine t he simplest mole ratio, divide t he number of moles
of each element by t he smallest number, i.e. 0.083.
2 On analysis, a sample of glucose was found to contain 40.0% carbon,
6.7% hydrogen and 53.3% oxygen. The molar mass of t he compound is
180 g mol . Determine t he molecular formula of glucose.
f t he mass of t he sample is assumed to be 100 g, t hen t he percentage of
each element can be expresses in grams.
C H O
mass (g) 40 6.7 53.3
molar mass (g mol ) 12 1 16
40 6.7 53.3
___ ___ ____
number of moles  3.3  6.7  3.3
12 1 16
simplest mole ratio 1 2 1
The empirical formula of glucose is CH O

2
To determine t he molecular formula, calculate t he molar mass of CH O:

2
M(CH O)  12  (2  1)  16  30 g mol
2
M(glucose)  180 g mol
180
____
Ratio between M(glucose) and M(CH O)   6

2
30
∴ t he molecular formula is 6  t he empirical formula.
The molecular formula of glucose is C H O .

6 12 6
Percentage composition
The percentage composition of a compound indicates the percentage,
by mass, of each element in the compound. For example, the percentage
composition of water shows what percentage of the mass of a water molecule
is made up of hydrogen and what percentage is made up of oxygen.
f we know t he formula of a compound, t he percentage composition, by
mass, of each element present can be calculated by calculating t he mass of
1 mol of t he compound and t he mass which each element contributes to
1 mol of t he compound.
Examples
1 Calculate t he percentage composition of hydrogen and oxygen in water.
M(H O)  (2  1)  16  18 g mol
2
i.e. mass of 1 mol H O  18 g

2
Mass of hydrogen in 1 mol H O  2  1  2 g

2
2
___
∴ percentage hydrogen   100%
18
 11.11%
Mass of oxygen in 1 mol H O  16 g

2
16
___
∴ percentage oxygen   100%
18
 88.89%
112
The mole concept The mole and chemical reactions
2 Calculate t he percentage, by mass, of nitrogen in ammonium
phosphate, (NH ) PO
4 3 4
M((NH ) PO )  (3  14)  (12  1)  31  (4  16)  149 g mol

4 3 4
i.e. mass of 1 mol (NH ) PO  149 g

4 3 4
Mass of nitrogen in 1 mol (NH ) PO  3  14 g

4 3 4
 42 g
42
____
∴ percentage nitrogen   100%
149
 28.19%
Summary questions
1 On analysis a compound was found to contain 11.64 g of sodium, 16.20 g of sulfur and 12.15 g of oxygen.
Determine the empirical formula of the compound.
2 A liquid used in rocket fuel is found to consist of 3.04 g of nitrogen and 6.94 g of oxygen. The molar mass of the
compound is 92 g mol . Determine the molecular formula of the compound.
3 Calculate the percentage composition of hydrogen, sulfur and oxygen in sulfuric acid, H SO
2 4
4 Determine the percentage, by mass, of carbon in aluminium carbonate, Al (CO )

2 3 3
A7.5 The mole and chemical reactions Objectives
The Law of Conservation of Matter be able to:
n Un i t 6 .1 yo u lear nt t hat a to m s are neit her created nor d e st r oye d in ● state the Law of Conservation
c hemical reactions, t h ey are o n ly rear ranged, and t hat when wr iting a of Matter
c hemical e qu a t i o n t he number of a to m s of eac h element on t he r ight ● apply the mole concept to
side of t he e qu a t i o n m u st be t he same as t he number on t he lef t side. balanced chemical equations
This is summed up in t he L aw of C o n s e r vat i o n of M at te r g i ve n in t he using masses
Key fact b ox . ● apply the mole concept to ionic
equations
Since all t he atoms t hat were present at t he beginning of t he reaction are
● apply the mole concept to
present at t he end of t he reaction, it follows t hat t he total mass of t he products
balanced chemical equations
must be t he same as t he total mass of t he original reactants.
using volumes of gases
● apply the mole concept to

We can prove t his using t he reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to make
balanced chemical equations

water. The balanced equation for t he reaction is:
using concentration of solutions.
2H (g)  O (g) 2H O(g)

2 2 2
This means:
2 molecules of H  1 molecule of O 2 molecules of H O

2 2 2
Or, on a bigger scale, t he coefcients show t he number of moles of each
reactant and product. The equation, t herefore, means:

Key fact
2 mol of H  1 mol of O 2 mol of H O

2 2 2
The Law of Conservation of
f we now take t his a step fur t her and use our mole/mass relationship, Matter states that matter can
neither be created nor destroyed

it means:
during a chemical reaction.
2(2  1) g of H  1(2  16) g of O 2[(2  1)  16)] g of H O

2 2 2
4 g of H  32 g of O 36 g of H O
2 2 2
113
The mole and chemical reactions The mole concept
We can clearly see t hat t he mass of t he water produced is t he same as t he
total mass of t he original reactants, hydrogen and oxygen, i.e. 36 g.
We can use balanced chemical equations to determine t he quantities of
unknown reactants and products in a reaction. f t he quantity of one reactant
or product is known, it is possible to calculate t he quantities of any of t he
ot her reactants and products.
Mass and chemical reactions
When answering questions involving masses of reactants and products, you will
always be given the mass of one reactant or product and be asked to determine
the mass of another reactant or product. To do this we use our mole/mass
relationship and the mole ratio from the balanced equation for the reaction.
The steps involved in solving mass–mass problems are as follows:
1) Calculate t he number of moles of t he known reactant or product using
its given mass and its molar mass. The known reactant or product is t he
one whose mass you have been given in t he question.
2) Use t he balanced chemical equation to determine t he mole ratio
between t he known and t he unknown reactants and/or products. The
unknown reactant or product is t he one whose mass you are calculating.
3) Use t he number of moles of t he known reactant or product found in step
1), and t he mole ratio found in step 2), to calculate t he number of moles
of t he unknown reactant or product.
4) Use t he number of moles of t he unknown reactant or product found in
step 3), and its molar mass, to determine its mass
Note: f you have not been given t he equation for t he reaction, you must
write t he balanced chemical equation before you begin your calculation.
Examples
1 Calculate t he mass of magnesium oxide formed by burning 12 g of
magnesium in excess oxygen.
The balanced equation for t he reaction is:
2Mg(s)  O (g) 2MgO(s)

2
The mass of t he reactant, magnesium is known. The mass of t he product,
magnesium oxide, is to be determined.
1) Find t he number of moles of Mg using its mass and molar mass:
Calculate t he molar mass of Mg.
M(Mg)  24 g mol
i.e. mass 1 mol of Mg  24 g
12
___
∴ number of moles in 12 g of Mg  mol  0.5 mol
24
2) Use t he balanced chemical equation to determine t he mole ratio
between Mg and MgO:
2 mol Mg form 2 mol MgO.
∴ 1 mol Mg forms 1 mol MgO
3) Use t he number of moles of Mg from 1), and t he mole ratio from 2),
to calculate t he number of moles of MgO produced:
0.5 mol Mg forms 0.5 mol MgO
114
4) Use t he number of moles of MgO from 3), and its molar mass, to
determine t he mass of MgO produced.
M(MgO)  24  16  40 g mol
i.e. mass of 1 mol of MgO  40 g
∴ mass of 0.5 mol of MgO  0.5  40 g  20 g
2 Determine t he mass of sodium carbonate required to produce 23.4 g
of sodium chloride, when t he sodium carbonate reacts wit h excess
hydrochloric acid.
Na CO (s)  2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq)  CO (g)  H O(l)

2 3 2 2
The mass of t he product, sodium chloride, is known. The mass of t he
reactant, sodium carbonate, is to be determined.
1) M(NaCl)  23  35.5  58.5 g mol
i.e. mass of 1 mol NaCl  58.5 g
23.4
_____
58.5
2) 1 mol Na CO forms 2 mol NaCl.

2 3
1
__
3)  0.4 mol Na CO forms 0.4 mol NaCl  0.2 mol Na CO

2 3 2 3
4) M(Na CO )  (2  23)  12  (3  16)  106 g mol

2 3
i.e. mass of 1 mol Na CO  106 g

2 3
∴ mass of 0.2 mol  0.2  106 g  21.2 g
3 Determine t he decrease in mass t hat would occur when 21.0 g of
magnesium carbonate is heated until its mass remains constant.
MgCO (s) MgO(s)  CO (g)

3 2
The decrease in mass is due to t he loss of carbon dioxide, t herefore, to
nd t he decrease in mass, t he mass of carbon dioxide produced must be
determined.
The mass of t he reactant, magnesium carbonate, is known. The mass of
t he product, carbon dioxide, is to be determined.
1) M(MgCO )  24  12  (3  16)  84 g mol

3
i.e. mass of 1 mol MgCO  84 g

3
21.0
_____
84
2) 1 mol MgCO forms 1 mol CO

3 2
3) 0.25 mol MgCO forms 0.25 mol CO

3 2
4) M(CO )  12  (2  16)  44 g mol

2
i.e. mass of 1 mol CO  44 g

2
∴ mass of 0.25 mol CO  0.25  44 g  11.0 g

2
Therefore, t he decrease in mass is 11.0 g
We can also apply t he mole concept to ionic equations using t he same
four steps.
115
Example
Calculate t he mass of lead(II) hydroxide t hat could be produced when a
solution containing 3.4 g of hydroxide ions reacts wit h a solution containing
excess lead ions.
The ionic equation for t he reaction is:
2
Pb (aq)  2OH (aq) Pb(OH) (s)

2
The mass of t he hydroxide ions present in t he solution is known. The mass
of t he product, lead(II) hydroxide, is to be determined.
1) M(OH )  16  1  17 g mol
i.e. mass of 1 mol OH ions  17 g
3.4
____
17
2) 2 mol OH ions form 1 mol Pb(OH)

2
3) 0.2 mol OH ions form 0.1 mol Pb(OH)

2
4) M(Pb(OH) )  207  (2  16)  (2  1)  241 g mol

2
i.e. mass of 1 mol Pb(OH)  241 g

2
∴ mass of 0.1 mol Pb(OH)  0.1  241 g  24.1 g

2
Gas volumes and chemical reactions
Exam tip
✔ A balanced chemical equation for a reaction which involves gases can also be
used to determine t he unknown volume of a reactant or product using t he
You must pay very careful attention
mole/volume relationship and t he mole ratio from t he balanced equation
to the conditions under which
for t he reaction.
reactions involving gases occur,
i.e. stp or rtp, to ensure that you

When answering questions involving volumes of gases, use t he same four
use the correct value for molar

steps as are used in solving mass–mass problems.
volume.
Example
Nitrogen reacts wit h hydrogen to produce ammonia. Calculate t he minimum
volume of hydrogen t hat would be required to react completely wit h 6.0 dm
of nitrogen at r tp.
N (g)  3H (g) 2NH (g)

2 2 3
The volume of t he reactant, nitrogen, is known. The volume of t he ot her
reactant, hydrogen, is to be determined.
1) Volume of 1 mol N at r tp  24 dm
2
6.0
3 ____
∴ number of moles in 6.0 dm  mol  0.25 mol
24
2) 1 mol N reacts wit h 3 mol H

2 2
3) 0.25 mol N reacts wit h 3  0.25 mol H  0.75 mol H

2 2 2
4) Volume of 1 mol H at r tp  24.0 dm

2
3 3
∴ volume of 0.75 mol H at r tp  0.75  24.0 dm  18.0 dm

2
Problems can also be solved involving bot h mass and volume using t he same
four steps.
116
Example
Calculate t he volume of sulfur trioxide gas formed at r tp when 9.6 g of oxygen
reacts wit h excess sulfur dioxide.
2SO (g)  O (g) 2SO (g)

2 2 3
The mass of t he reactant, oxygen, is known. The volume of t he product, sulfur
dioxide, is to be determined.
1) M(O )  32 g mol
2
i.e. mass of 1 mol O  32 g

2
9.6
____
32
2) 1 mol O forms 2 mol SO

2 3
3) 0.3 mol O forms 2  0.3 mol SO  0.6 mol SO

2 3 3
4) Volume of 1 mol SO at r tp  24.0 dm

3
3 3
∴ volume of 0.6 mol SO at r tp  0.6  24.0 dm  14.4 dm

3
Molar concentration and chemical reactions
A balanced chemical equation for a reaction which involves a solution whose
volume and molar concentration are known can also be used to determine
t he mass of t he ot her reactant, or t he mass or volume of a product, using t he
same four steps as for solving mass and volume problems.
Examples
1 To prepare t he salt, sodium sulfate, a student adds 50 cm of sodium
hydroxide solution wit h a concentration of 2.0 mol dm to excess
sulfuric acid. Calculate t he mass of sodium sulfate t hat would form.
2NaOH(aq)  H SO (aq) Na SO (aq)  2H O(l)

2 4 2 4 2
The volume and molar concentration of t he reactant, sodium hydroxide,
are known. The mass of t he product, sodium sulfate, is to be determined.
3 3
1) 1000 cm (1 dm ) NaOH(aq) contains 2 mol NaOH
2
3 _____
∴ 1 cm NaOH(aq) contains mol NaOH
1000
2
3 _____
and 50 cm NaOH(aq) contains  50 mol NaOH  0.1 mol NaOH
1000
2) 2 mol NaOH forms 1 mol Na SO

2 4
1
__
3) 0.1 mol NaOH forms  0.1 mol Na SO  0.05 mol Na SO

2 4 2 4
4) M(Na SO )  (2  23)  32  (4  16)  142 g mol

2 4
i.e. mass of 1 mol Na SO  142 g

2 4
∴ mass of 0.05 mol Na SO  0.05  142 g  7.1 g

2 4
117
2 What volume of carbon dioxide, measured at stp, would be produced
3 3
when 20 cm of hydrochloric acid wit h a concentration of 1.5 mol dm
reacts wit h excess aluminium carbonate?
Al (CO ) (s)  6HCl(aq) 2AlCl (aq)  3CO (g)  3H O(l)

2 3 3 3 2 2
The volume and molar concentration of t he reactant, hydrochloric
acid, is known. The volume of t he product, carbon dioxide is to be
determined.
1) 1000 cm HCl(aq) contains 1.5 mol HCl.
1.5
3 _____
∴ 1 cm contains mol HCl
1000
1.5
3 _____
and 20 cm contains  20 mol HCl  0.03 mol HCl
1000
2) 6 mol HCl form 3 mol CO

2
∴ 2 mol HCl form 1 mol CO

2
1
__
3) 0.03 mol HCl forms  0.03 mol CO  0.015 mol CO

2 2
4) Volume of 1 mol CO at stp  22.4 dm

2
∴ volume of 0.015 mol CO at stp  0.015  22.4 dm

2
 0.336 dm
Summary questions
1 Ethene (C H ) burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and steam

2 4
according to the following equation:
C H (g)  3O (g) 2CO (g)  2H O(g)

2 4 2 2 2
If 2.8 g of ethene burn in excess oxygen,
a calculate the number of moles in 2.8 g of ethene
b calculate the number of moles of carbon dioxide formed
c calculate the mass of carbon dioxide formed
d calculate the volume of carbon dioxide formed at stp.
2 Calcium carbonate decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide
when heated. Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide released when 300 g
of calcium carbonate is heated.
3 Carbon monoxide gas reacts with oxygen gas to form carbon dioxide
gas. Calculate the volume and mass of carbon monoxide gas required to
produce 4 dm of carbon dioxide gas at rtp.
4 Potassium carbonate reacts with nitric acid (HNO ) to produce potassium

3
nitrate, carbon dioxide and water. Calculate the mass of potassium
chloride formed when 40 cm of potassium carbonate solution with a
concentration of 0.5 mol dm reacts with excess nitric acid.
118
Key concepts
● Relative atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass compare t he
masses of atoms, molecules and formula units wit h one-twelf t h t he mass
of a carbon-12 atom.
● Relative atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass have no units.
● A mole is t he amount of a substance t hat contains t he same number of
par ticles as t here are atoms in 12.00 g of carbon-12.
23
● The number of par ticles in a mole is 6.0  10 , which is also known as
Avogadro’s number or N
A
● Molar mass is t he mass, in grams, of one mole of a substance.
● The molar mass of an element or compound is t he relative atomic mass,
molecular mass or formula mass amount expressed in grams per mole.
Molar mass is given t he unit g mol
● Avogadro’s law states t hat equal volumes of all gases, under t he same
conditions of temperature and pressure, contain t he same number of
molecules.
● Molar volume is t he volume occupied by one mole of a gas. The
molar volume is t he same for all gases under t he same conditions of
temperature and pressure.
● Molar volume at standard temperature and pressure (stp) is 22.4 dm
● Molar volume at room temperature and pressure (r tp) is 24 dm
● The concentration of a solution is a measure of t he quantity of a solute
dissolved in a xed volume of t he solution.
● Mass concentration gives t he mass of solute dissolved in 1 dm of
solution. Mass concentration is given t he unit g dm
● Molar concentration gives t he number of moles of solute dissolved in
3 3
1 dm of solution. Molar concentration is given t he unit mol dm
● A stand ard solution is one whose concentration is known accurately.
A standard solution is made using a volumetric ask.
● The empirical formula of a compound gives t he simplest mole ratio
between t he atoms or ions in t he compound.
● The molecular formula of a compound gives t he actual number of
moles of atoms of each element present in one mole of t he compound.
● f t he propor tions of t he elements, by mass, in a compound are
known, t hen its empirical formula can be determined. f t he molecular
formula of a compound is different from t he empirical formula and t he
molar mass of t he compound is known, its molecular formula can be
determined.
● The percentage composition of a compound indicates t he percentage,
by mass, of each element in t he compound.
● The L aw of Conservation of Matter states t hat matter can neit her be
created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction.
● The coefcients in a balanced chemical equation give t he mole ratios
between t he reactants and t he products.
● Balanced chemical equations can be used to determine quantities of
unknown reactants and products in a reaction. f t he quantity of one
reactant or product is known, it is possible to calculate t he quantities of
any of t he ot her reactants and products.
119
Practice exam-style questions The mole concept
b Calcium hydrogencarbonate reacts wit h nitric acid

according to t he following equation:
Ca(HCO ) (s)  2HNO (aq) Ca(NO ) (aq)  2CO (g)  2H O(l)

3 2 3 3 2 2 2
During an investigation in t he laborator y, a student
1 The mass of 0.25 mol of potassium carbonate is:
added 8.1 g of calcium hydrogencarbonate to excess
A 24.75 g
nitric acid.
B 34.5 g
i) Determine t he number of moles of calcium
C 38.5 g
hydrogencarbonate used by t he student.
D 552.0 g
(2 marks)
ii) Determine t he number of moles of carbon

2 A mass of 32 g of oxygen:
23
dioxide made. (2 marks)
A contains 6.0  10 oxygen atoms
iii) Determine t he volume of carbon dioxide made

B contains 2 mol of oxygen
23
at r tp. (1 mark)
C contains 6.0  10 molecules of oxygen
c Magnesium reacts wit h hydrochloric acid to

D contains t he same number of molecules of oxygen as
produce magnesium chloride and hydrogen. n

35.5 g of chlorine
anot her investigation, a student reacted 20 cm
3 What is t he mass of 448 cm of carbon dioxide at stp?

of hydrochloric acid wit h a concentration of
3
A 0.88 g
1.5 mol dm wit h excess magnesium.
B 224 g
i) Write a balanced chemical equation for t he
C 448 g
reaction. (2 marks)
D 880 g
ii) Calculate t he number of moles of hydrochloric
acid used. (1 mark)

3
4 You are required to make 250 cm of a solution of
iii) Determine t he number of moles of magnesium
sodium hydroxide which has a concentration of
chloride produced. (2 marks)

3
0.1 mol dm . What mass of sodium hydroxide would
iv) Calculate t he mass of magnesium chloride
you need to weigh out?
produced. (2 marks)
A 0.1 g
d On analysis a compound was found to contain
B 1.0 g
24.45 g of iron and 10.55 g of oxygen. Determine t he
C 4.0 g
empirical formula of t he compound. (2 marks)
D 25.0 g
Total 15 marks
5 A compound was found to consist of 30 g of element
W combined wit h 7 g of Z. f t he relative atomic mass

of W is 40 and t he relative atomic mass of Z is 14, which
8 a i) What do you understand by t he term ‘standard
of t he following is t he correct empirical formula for t he
solution’? (1 mark)
compound?
ii) You wish to prepare 250 cm of potassium
A WZ
carbonate solution of concentration
B W Z
2
0.8 mol dm in t he laborator y. Determine t he
C W Z
2 3
mass of potassium carbonate required.
D W Z
3 2
(3 marks)
6 Hydrogen reacts wit h oxygen according to t he following iii) Name t he piece of apparatus you would use to
equation: make your solution in. (1 mark)
b A student wishes to make a sample of t he insoluble

2H (g)  O (g) 2H O(g)
2 2 2
salt, lead(II) chloride, in t he laborator y. Determine
What volume of steam could be produced at stp if 12.8 g
t he mass of lead(II) chloride which could be made by
of oxygen reacts wit h excess hydrogen?
reacting a solution containing excess lead() nitrate

3
A 8.96 dm
wit h a solution containing 23.4 g of sodium chloride.

3
B 12.8 dm
3 (6 marks)
C 17.92 dm
D 25.6 dm c Ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate are used
extensively by gardeners as fer tilisers to supply plants
wit h t he nitrogen t hey need to make protein for use
Structured question in growt h. By calculating t he percentage, by mass, of
nitrogen in each of t he fer tilisers, determine which
7 This question is concerned wit h t he mole and its
would be t he better value for money if t hey bot h cost
application.
t he same per kilogram. (4 marks)
a Give a denition for t he term ‘mole’. (1 mark)
Total 15 marks
120
A8 Acids, bases and salts
The concept of acids, bases and salts has been around

Objectives
for a very long time; as early as the 17th century.

be able to:
As our knowledge of chemistry has developed, the
● explain the ionisation of acids

classification of a compound as an acid, a base or a salt
when dissolved in water
has been refined. Acids, bases and salts are used in all
● dene an acid in terms of
aspects of our lives. protons
aqueous acids
A8.1 Properties and reactions of acids ● describe the reactions
of acids with reactive
People have always known t hat vinegar and lemon juice taste sour, but it
metals, carbonates,
was not until a few hundred years ago t hat it was discovered t hat t hese have
hydrogencarbonates and bases
somet hing in common, t hey bot h contain acids. An acid can be dened as a
● describe the ways in which
substance t hat reacts wit h a base to form a salt and water.

acids can be classied
● dene acid anhydride and give
Acids in t heir anhydrous form, i.e. not dissolved in water, are composed of
examples of acid anhydrides
covalent molecules and t hey may be solid, liquid or gas at room temperature.
● give examples of acids in living
Solids include citric acid, tar taric acid and ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Liquids
systems.
include sulfuric acid and nitric acid. Gases include hydrogen chloride gas.
All acids have hydrogen in t heir formulae, e.g. nitric acid, HNO and sulfuric
3
acid, H SO . Table 8.1.1 gives t he names and formulae of some common

2 4
acids.
 Table 8.1.1 Some common acids
Name Formula
hydrochloric acid HCl
sulfuric acid H SO
2 4
nitric acid HNO

3
phosphoric acid H PO
3 4
methanoic acid HCOOH
ethanoic acid CH COOH

3
(a) (b)
 Figure 8.1.1 (a) Some common laboratory acids, (b) some common household acids
121
Properties and reactions of acids Acids, bases and salts
Ionisation of acids in water
When an acid is added to water, t he acid molecules ionise, i.e. t hey for m
ions. Acids always ionise to for m hyd rogen ions , or H ions, and negative
anions. The H ions t hen become att ac hed to t he polar water molecules
for ming hyd ronium ions or H O ions (sometimes called hydroxonium

3
ions).
Using t he ionisation of hydrogen chloride gas to form hydrochloric acid as
an example:
HCl(g)  water H (aq)  Cl (aq)
 
H (aq)  H O(l) H O (aq)

2 3
hydronium ion
t he overall reaction can be summarised as:
HCl(g)  H O(l) H O (aq)  Cl (aq)

2 3
For simplicity, it is usual to represent t he reaction as follows:
HCl(aq) H (aq)  Cl (aq)
Ot her examples t hat show t he ionisation of acids in water are:
HNO (aq) H (aq)  NO (aq)

3 3
 2
H SO (aq) 2H (aq)  SO (aq)

2 4 4
 3
H PO (aq) 3H (aq)  PO (aq)

3 4 4
CH COOH(aq) CH COO (aq)  H (aq)

3 3
A hydrogen atom, H, has one proton in its nucleus and one electron spinning
1
around t he nucleus in t he rst energy shell. A hydrogen ion is, t herefore, a
single proton since it is formed by a hydrogen atom losing its one valence
Key fact
! electron, leaving only t he nucleus containing t he one proton. The ability of
an acid to donate its hydrogen ions, or protons, to anot her reactant can be
An acid is a proton donor.
used to dene an acid as being a proton donor.
When an acid reacts, t he hydrogen ions, or protons, for med when it
dissolves in water, can be given to t he ot her react ant. For example, when
an aqueous solution of hydroc hlor ic acid reacts wit h sodium hydroxide,
t he hydroc hlor ic acid gives its H ions, or protons, to t he OH ions of t he
sodium hydroxide, for ming water. This can be summar ised by t he following
ionic equation:

2
General properties of aqueous acids
The presence of H ions in aqueous solution gives acids t heir characteristic
proper ties. Aqueous solutions of acids are described as being acid ic and t hey
have t he following common proper ties:
● t hey have a sour taste
● t hey change blue litmus to red
● t hey have a pH value of less t han 7
122
Acids, bases and salts Properties and reactions of acids
● t hey are corrosive
● t hey are electrolytes, i.e. t hey conduct an electric current.
Chemical reactions of aqueous acids
Since all acids form hydrogen ions when in aqueous solution, acids have
common reactions wit h cer tain ot her reactants. n all of t hese reactions, t he
hydrogen ions in t he acid are replaced by metal ions or ammonium ions to
form a salt. A salt is, t herefore, a compound formed when t he hydrogen ion
in an acid is replaced by a metal ion or an ammonium ion.
The reactions of acids are discussed in detail below.
Acids react with reactive metals
Acids, except nitric acid, react wit h reactive metals to produce a salt and
hydrogen. Reactive metals are t hose above hydrogen in t he reactivity series
of metals (see Unit 18.1), i.e. potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium,
aluminium, zinc, iron and lead.
This reaction can be summarised by t he following general word equation:
reactive metal  acid salt  hydrogen
When reactive metals react wit h acids, effervescence (bubbling) is seen
as hydrogen gas is evolved, and t he reactions become hotter because t hey
produce heat, i.e. t he reactions are described as being exothermic
t is impor tant to remember t hat nitric acid does not react in t his way. When
nitric acid reacts wit h metals it produces oxides of nitrogen, e.g. nitrogen
dioxide (NO ), and not hydrogen.

2
Example
Magnesium reacts wit h sulfuric acid to produce magnesium sulfate and
hydrogen:
Mg(s)  H SO (aq) MgSO (aq)  H (g)

2 4 4 2
The ionic equation for t his reaction is:
 2
Mg(s)  2H (aq) Mg (aq)  H (g)

2
Acids react with metal carbonates and hydrogencarbonates
Acids react wit h metal carbonates and metal hydrogencarbonates to produce
a salt, carbon dioxide and water.
These reactions can be summarised by the following general word equations:
carbon
metal carbonate  acid salt   water
d ioxide
metal carbon
 acid salt   water
hydrogencarbonate d ioxide
When metal carbonates and hydrogencarbonates react wit h acids,
effervescence is seen as carbon dioxide gas is evolved.
123
Examples
1 Potassium carbonate reacts wit h nitric acid to produce potassium
nitrate, carbon dioxide and water:
K CO (aq)  2HNO (aq) 2KNO (aq)  CO (g)  H O(l)

2 3 3 3 2 2
2 
CO (aq)  2H (aq) CO (g)  H O(l)

3 2 2
2 Calcium hydrogencarbonate reacts wit h hydrochloric acid to produce
calcium chloride, carbon dioxide and water:
Ca(HCO ) (aq)  2HCl(aq) CaCl (aq)  2CO (g)  2H O(l)

3 2 2 2 2
HCO (aq)  H (aq) CO (g)  H O(l)

3 2 2
Acids react with bases
Did you know?

Acids react wit h bases to produce a salt and water. These are known as
?
neutralisation reactions. t is impor tant to note t hat a base is a metal oxide
Any reactive metals, insoluble

or a metal hydroxide.
carbonates and insoluble bases
that react with acids to form soluble

These reactions can be summarised by t he following general word
salts appear to dissolve because

equations:
the salt produced dissolves.
metal oxide  acid salt  water
metal hydroxide  acid salt  water
When bases react wit h acids, t he reactions become warmer because t hey are
exothermic reactions.
Examples
1 Copper(II) oxide reacts wit h sulfuric acid to produce copper(II) sulfate
and water:
CuO(s)  H SO (aq) CuSO (aq)  H O(l)

2 4 4 2
onic equation:
 2
CuO(s)  2H (aq) Cu (aq)  H O(l)

2
Exam tip
✔
n t his reaction, t he black copper(II) oxide appears to dissolve slowly
and a blue solution forms. This is because soluble copper(II) sulfate is

It is extremely important that you
2
produced and t he solution contains blue Cu ions.

can write balanced chemical
equations for the reactions of
acids. To help you to do this, it is a 2 Sodium hydroxide reacts wit h hydrochloric acid to produce sodium
good idea to memorise the general chloride and water:
word equations given in this section

so that you know the general 2
products for each type of reaction.
onic equation:
You must also learn the formulae of
the common acids.



2
124
Investigating reactions of acids
You will be supplied with magnesium ribbon, zinc, sodium hydrogencarbonate,
copper(II) carbonate, calcium hydroxide, copper( II) oxide, hydrochloric acid, sulfuric
acid, nitric acid, lime water, test tubes and a wooden splint.
Method
1 Reactions between an acid and metals:
a Place 2 cm of hydrochloric acid in a test tube and add a piece of
magnesium ribbon. Observe the reaction. Feel the bottom of the tube to see
if it becomes hotter.
b Place a burning splint at the mouth of the test tube to test for the presence
of hydrogen gas. If hydrogen is being produced, the splint will make a
squeaky pop and the ame will be extinguished.
c Repeat the experiment using a small piece of zinc.
2 Reaction between an acid and a hydrogencarbonate:

delivery tube
a Place 2 cm of sulfuric acid in a test
cork/bung
test tube
tube and add a spatula of sodium
hydrogencarbonate. Observe the
reaction.
b Cork the test tube with a delivery tube
running through the cork into a test tube dilute
sulfuric acid
of colourless lime water, as shown in
Figure 8.1.2, to test for the presence

lime water
sodium
(calcium hydroxid
hydrogencarbonate
of carbon dioxide. If carbon dioxide is
solution)
being produced, a white precipitate will
 Figure 8.1.2 Reaction between
form in the lime water.
sulfuric acid and sodium
3 Reaction between an acid and a carbonate: hydrogencarbonate
a Place 2 cm of sulfuric acid in a test tube
and add a spatula of copper( II) carbonate. Observe the reaction.
b Test for the presence of carbon dioxide as in step 2
c Observe any colour changes occurring during the reaction.
4 Reactions between an acid and bases:
a Place 2 cm of nitric acid in a test tube and add a spatula of calcium
hydroxide. Shake the tube and observe the reaction. Feel the bottom of the
tube to see if it becomes hotter.
b Repeat the experiment using a spatula of copper( II) oxide instead of calcium
hydroxide. This time shake the tube periodically until no further changes
occur. Observe any colour changes.
5 Record all your observations for each reaction, including the results of the tests
for hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
6 Write a balanced chemical equation for each reaction.
7 Explain any colour changes you observed in steps 3c and 4b, and any heat
changes you felt in steps 1a and 4a
125
During t he experiment, you learnt how to test for t he presence of hydrogen
and carbon dioxide gases.
f hydrogen is produced in a reaction, it causes a burning splint to make a
squeaky pop and to be extinguished. The ‘pop’ is t he sound of a small explosion
as t he hydrogen reacts explosively wit h oxygen in t he air to form steam:
2H (g)  O (g) 2H O(g)

2 2 2
f carbon d ioxide is produced in a reaction, it forms a white precipitate when
bubbled into lime water. This is because t he lime water is a solution of
calcium hydroxide, and t he carbon dioxide reacts wit h t his forming white,
insoluble calcium carbonate and water. The calcium carbonate forms t he
white precipitate:
Ca(OH) (aq)  CO (g) CaCO (s)  H O(l)

2 2 3 2
Classification of acids
Acids can be classied in a variety of ways.
Inorganic and organic acids
Did you know?
? Acids can be classied as inorganic acids or organic acids.
● An inorganic acid contains a non-met allic element or polyatomic

Inorganic compounds are
g roup as well as hydrogen. Examples of inorganic acids are given in

of geological origin. Most
Table 8.1.2.
do not contain carbon, the
exceptions being carbonates,

● Most organic acids contain t he carboxyl group, i.e. COOH. n t hese
hydrogencarbonates and carbon

acids it is t he hydrogen at t he end of t he carboxyl group which forms t he
dioxide. Organic compounds are 
H ion when t he acid dissolves in water. Examples of organic acids are
mainly of biological origin, e.g. from
given in Table 8.1.3.
plants and animals. They always
contain carbon and most contain  Table 8.1.2 Common inorganic acids  Table 8.1.3 Common organic acids
hydrogen.
Acid Formula Acid Formula
hydrochloric acid HCl methanoic acid HCOOH
nitric acid HNO ethanoic acid CH COOH

3 3
sulfuric acid H SO lactic acid CH CH(OH)COOH

2 4 3
phosphoric acid H PO ascorbic acid C H O

3 4 6 8 6
nitrous acid HNO citric acid C H O

2 6 8 7
sulfurous acid H SO
2 3
carbonic acid H CO
2 3
Monobasic, dibasic and tribasic acids
Acids can also be classied according to t he number of H ions t hey produce
Key fact
per molecule when dissolved in water, known as t heir basicity.
!
 ● A monobasic acid produces one H ion per molecule when it dissolves

Basicity is the number of H ions
in water. Hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitric acid (HNO ) and et hanoic acid
produced per molecule of acid 3
when it dissolves in water. (CH COOH) are examples of monobasic acids.

3
● A d ibasic acid produces two H ions per molecule when it dissolves in
water. Sulfuric acid (H SO ) is an example of a dibasic acid.

2 4
● A tribasic acid produces t hree H ions per molecule when it dissolves in
water. Phosphoric acid (H PO ) is an example of a tribasic acid.

3 4
126
Dilute and concentrated acids
Did you know?
Acids can also be classied based on t he quantity of water present. ?
● A d ilute acid is one t hat contains a lot of water, e.g. hydrochloric acid,
A concentrated acid is always
which has a concentration of 0.1 mol dm , is dilute.

diluted by adding the acid slowly
to the distilled water. When an acid

● A concentrated acid is one that contains very little water, e.g. hydrochloric
3
ionises on being added to water, the
acid, which has a concentration of 12 mol dm , is concentrated.
reaction gives off a lot of heat energy,
i.e. the reaction is exothermic. This

Strong and weak acids
can cause spattering and can be
Acids can also be classied based on t he degree of ionisation t hat occurs

dangerous. If the acid is added
when t he acid is dissolved in water.

slowly to the water, the larger volume
of water can absorb the heat energy

● A strong acid is fully ionised when dissolved in water, e.g. hydrochloric
produced.
acid and sulfuric acid.
● A weak acid is only par tially ionised when dissolved in water,
e.g. carbonic acid and et hanoic acid.
We will be looking at strong and weak acids in more detail in Unit 8.3.
Key fact
Acid anhydrides
An acid anhydride is a compound
which reacts with water to form an

Cer tain compounds react wit h water to form an acid. These are known as
acid.
acid anhydrides
Acid anhydride literally means ‘an acid wit hout water’. Many acid anhydrides
are acidic oxides of non-metals. Carbon dioxide (CO ), sulfur dioxide

2
Did you know?

(SO ), sulfur trioxide (SO ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO ) are examples of acid
2 3 2 ?
anhydrides:
Nitrogen dioxide is made naturally
CO (g)  H O(l) H CO (aq)

2 2 2 3
in the atmosphere when lightning
carbonic acid
occurs and it is also present in the
SO (g)  H O(l) H SO (aq)

2 2 2 3
exhaust fumes of motor vehicles.
sulfurous acid When it reacts with water vapour
in the air it forms acid rain. This

3 2 2 4
acid rain can then cause statues

sulfuric acid
and buildings made of calcium
2NO (g)  H O(l) HNO (aq)  HNO (aq)

2 2 2 3
carbonate to slowly dissolve as it
nitrous acid nitric acid
reacts with them to make soluble
calcium nitrate. It can also make
water too acidic for certain aquatic
Examples of acids in living systems

organisms to survive.
We come across a variety of organic acids in living organisms. We also use
some of t hese acids in our ever yday activities. These are summarised in
Table 8.1.4.
 Table 8.1.4 Acids in living systems
Acid Occurrence Important points to note
Ascorbic acid In many foods, e.g. citrus A shortage of vitamin C in the diet can lead to scurvy.
or vitamin C fruits, West Indian cherries,

On exposure to heat, e.g. during cooking, vitamin C is destroyed by being oxidised.
(C H O ) sweet peppers, tomatoes,

6 8 6
Sodium hydrogencarbonate is sometimes added to fruits and vegetables to improve their appearance and
green leafy vegetables
texture. This neutralises any vitamin C present, reducing the vitamin C content.
Methanoic In the venom of bee and Causes itching, redness, swelling and pain around the sting.
acid (HCOOH) ant stings

Stings can be treated by applying a paste of sodium hydrogencarbonate or calamine lotion which contains
zinc hydrogencarbonate. These both neutralise the acid.
Lactic acid Produced in muscle cells If too much lactic acid builds up it prevents muscles from contracting and the person collapses.
(C H O ) during strenuous activity

3 6 3
Ethanoic acid In vinegar Vinegar is used to preserve food items. Being acidic, it has a low pH, which denatures (destroys) the
(CH COOH) enzymes that cause decay and inhibits the growth of bacteria and fungi.
3
127
Properties and reactions of bases Acids, bases and salts
 Table 8.1.4 (continued)
Acid Occurrence Important points to note
Citric acid In citrus fruits, e.g. limes Lime juice is used to remove rust stains from clothes. The acid in the lime juice reacts with the iron(III) oxide
(C H O ) (Fe O ) in the rust stains making a soluble compound which can be washed out of the clothes:
6 8 7 2 3
 3
Fe O (s)  6H (aq) 2Fe (aq)  3H O(l)

2 3 2
iron(III) oxide from the stain removed
(rust) acid
Summary questions
1 Dene the terms ‘acid’ and ‘acid anhydride’.
2 Write equations which show how the following acids ionise when placed in water: sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid
and nitric acid.
3 Give three properties, other than their reactions, which are typical of aqueous acids.
4 Give the products that are formed when acids react with:
a metal oxides b carbonates.
5 Write balanced chemical equations for the following:
a the reaction between zinc hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
b the reaction between magnesium hydrogencarbonate and nitric acid
c the reaction between aluminium and sulfuric acid.
6 How does vinegar work to preserve some of the foods we eat?
7 Why is sodium hydrogencarbonate used as a treatment for ant stings?
Objectives A8.2 Properties and reactions of bases
A base can be dened as a substance which reacts wit h an acid to form a salt
be able to:
and water. Bases are normally metal oxides and metal hydroxides. However,
● dene a base in terms of protons
ammonia is also classied as a base. Examples of bases include magnesium
● dene an alkali
oxide (MgO), copper(II) oxide (CuO), magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH) ) and

2
copper(II) hydroxide (Cu(OH) ).

2
aqueous alkalis
You learnt in Unit 8.1 t hat when a base reacts wit h an acid, t he acid donates
● describe the reactions of bases
protons to t he base, forming water. The base has accepted t he protons from
with acids and ammonium salts
t he acid and t his fact can be used to dene a base as a proton acceptor.
● dene an amphoteric substance
● classify oxides into acidic, basic,
Using t he same example as in Unit 8.1, when hydrochloric acid reacts wit h
amphoteric and neutral. 
sodium hydroxide, t he OH ions of t he sodium hydroxide accept t he H
ions, or protons, from t he hydrochloric acid forming water, as summarised
by t he following ionic equation:

Key fact 2
A base is a proton acceptor.

Alkalis
Some bases are soluble in water, ot hers are insoluble. Soluble bases are
known as alkalis. When t hey dissolve in water, t hey form hydroxide ions,
or OH ions.
Key fact
!
The common alkalis include potassium hydroxide (KOH) and sodium
An alkali is a base which dissolves hydroxide (NaOH), which are fully soluble in water, and calcium hydroxide
in water to form a solution (Ca(OH) ), which is moderately soluble. For example:

2
containing OH ions.
NaOH(s)  water Na (aq)  OH (aq)
128
Acids, bases and salts Properties and reactions of bases
When ammonia gas is added to water it reacts wit h water to form ammonium
hydroxide (NH OH), which is also an alkali:

4
NH (g)  H O(l) NH (aq)  OH (aq)

3 2 4
Potassium oxide (K O), sodium oxide (Na O) and calcium oxide (CaO) also
2 2
react wit h water to form t he equivalent hydroxide. For example:
Na O(s)  H O(l) 2Na (aq)  2OH (aq)

2 2
Like acids, alkalis can be classied into strong alkalis and weak alkalis based
on t he degree of ionisation t hat occurs when t he alkali is dissolved in water.
● A strong alkali is fully ionised when dissolved in water, e.g. potassium
hydroxide and sodium hydroxide.
● A weak alkali is only par tially ionised when dissolved in water,
e.g. ammonia.
 Figure 8.2.1 These products contain
We will be looking at strong and weak alkalis in more detail in Unit 8.3.
bases
General properties of aqueous alkalis
The presence of OH ions in aqueous solution gives alkalis t heir characteristic
proper ties. Aqueous solutions of alkalis are described as being alkaline and
t hey have t he following common proper ties:
● t hey have a bitter taste
● t hey change red litmus to blue
● t hey have a pH value of more t han 7
● t hey are corrosive
● t hey are electrolytes, i.e. t hey conduct an electric current
● t hey feel soapy when touched.
Chemical reactions of bases
Since bases contain oxide or hydroxide ions, bases have common reactions with
certain other reactants. The reactions of bases are discussed in detail below.
Bases react with acids
Bases react wit h acids to produce a salt and water.
These reactions, which you looked at in Unit 8.1, can be summarised by t he
following general word equation:
base  acid salt  water
Remember t hat when bases react wit h acids, t he reactions become warmer
because t hey are exot hermic reactions. Also, any insoluble bases which react
to produce soluble salts, appear to dissolve.
Examples
1 Magnesium oxide reacts wit h hydrochloric acid to produce magnesium
chloride and water:
MgO(s)  2HCl(aq) MgCl (aq)  H O(l)

2 2
onic equation:
 2
MgO(s)  2H (aq) Mg (aq)  H O(l)

2
2 Potassium hydroxide reacts wit h sulfuric acid to produce potassium
sulfate and water:
2KOH(aq)  H SO (aq) K SO (aq)  2H O(l)

2 4 2 4 2
onic equation:

2
129
Properties and reactions of bases Acids, bases and salts
Bases react with ammonium salts
Bases react wit h ammonium salts to produce a salt, ammonia and water:
base  ammonium salt salt  ammoni a  water
n order to react, t he reactants need to be heated.
Examples
1 Copper(II) oxide reacts wit h ammonium chloride to produce copper(II)
chloride, ammonia and water:
CuO(s)  2NH Cl(s) CuCl (s)  2NH (g)  H O(l)

4 2 3 2
2 Calcium hydroxide reacts wit h ammonium sulfate to produce calcium
sulfate, ammonia and water:
Ca(OH) (s)  (NH ) SO (s) CaSO (s)  2NH (g)  2H O(l)

2 4 2 4 4 3 2
Investigating the reaction between calcium hydroxide and
ammonium chloride
You will be supplied with calcium hydroxide, ammonium chloride, red litmus
paper, a dry test tube and tongs.
Method
1 Place two small spatulas of calcium hydroxide in the test tube.
2 Add two small spatulas of ammonium chloride and shake the tube to
mix the solids.
Did you know?
?
3 Carefully heat the mixture and while heating hold a piece of moist red
Ammonia gas causes moist red litmus paper across the mouth of the tube to test for the presence of
litmus paper to turn blue because

ammonia gas. If ammonia gas is produced the litmus paper will turn blue.
it reacts with the water present to
4 Look at the sides of the test tube to see if any water droplets form.
form ammonium hydroxide which is
alkaline: 5 Write a balance chemical equation for the reaction.
NH (g)  H O(l) NH OH(aq) 6 Explain the formation of the water droplets.

3 2 4
Amphoteric oxides and hydroxides
Key fact
!
Some metal oxides and hydroxides can behave as bases because t hey can
react wit h acids and also behave as acids because t hey can react wit h strong
An amphoteric substance is a
alkalis. These substances are referred to as being amphoteric

substance which can react with
both acids and with strong alkalis.
The following general word equations summarise how amphoteric oxides
and hydroxides react.
● The amphoteric substance reacting as a base:
amphoteric oxide or hydroxide  acid salt  water
● The amphoteric substance reacting as an acid:
strong alkali  amphoteric oxide or hydroxide salt  water
The amphoteric oxides and hydroxides are listed in Table 8.2.1.
130
Acids, bases and salts Properties and reactions of bases
 Table 8.2.1 Amphoteric oxides and hydroxides
Amphoteric oxide Formula Amphoteric hydroxide Formula
aluminium oxide Al O aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)

2 3 3
zinc oxide ZnO zinc hydroxide Zn(OH)

2
lead(II) oxide PbO lead(II) hydroxide Pb(OH)

2
Examples
1 Aluminium hydroxide reacts wit h hydrochloric acid to produce
aluminium chloride and water:
Al(OH) (s)  3HCl(aq) AlCl (aq)  3H O(l)

3 3 2
2 Aluminium hydroxide reacts wit h t he strong alkali, sodium hydroxide,
to produce sodium aluminate and water:
NaOH(aq)  Al(OH) (s) NaAlO (aq)  2H O(l)

3 2 2
sodium
aluminate
3 Zinc oxide reacts wit h hydrochloric acid to produce zinc chloride and
water:
ZnO(s)  2HCl(aq) ZnCl (aq)  H O(l)

2 2
4 Zinc oxide reacts wit h t he strong alkali, sodium hydroxide, to produce
sodium zincate and water:
2NaOH(aq)  ZnO(s) Na ZnO (aq)  H O(l)

2 2 2
sodium
zincate
Classification of oxides
So far in t his unit you have come across acidic, basic and amphoteric oxides.
Anot her type of oxide also exists, known as a neutral oxide. Oxides can,
t herefore, be classied as acidic, basic, amphoteric and neutral.
Acidic oxides
Key fact
Acid ic oxides are oxides of cer tain non-metals which react wit h alkalis to !
form a salt and water, for example,
Acidic oxides are oxides of certain
2NaOH(aq)  CO (g) Na CO (aq)  H O(l) non-metals which react with alkalis

2 2 3 2
to form a salt and water.
Acidic oxides also react wit h water to form an acid, for example,

3 2 2 4
Examples of acidic oxides include carbon dioxide (CO ), sulfur dioxide (SO ),
2 2
sulfur trioxide (SO ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO ).

3 2
Basic oxides
Key fact
Basic oxides are oxides of metals which react wit h acids to form a salt and !
water, for example,
Basic oxides are oxides of metals
CuO(s)  2HNO (aq) Cu(NO ) (aq)  H O(l) which react with acids to form a
3 3 2 2
salt and water.
A few basic oxides also react wit h water to form a hydroxide, i.e. t hey are
alkalis, for example,
K O(s)  H O(l) 2KOH(aq)

2 2
Examples of basic oxides include magnesium oxide (MgO), iron(III) oxide
(Fe O ) and copper(II) oxide (CuO).

2 3
131
Strength of acids and alkalis Acids, bases and salts
Basic oxides which are alkalis include potassium oxide (K O), sodium oxide
2
(Na O) and calcium oxide (CaO).

2
Amphoteric oxides
Key fact
! Amphoteric oxides are t he oxides of cer tain metals which react wit h bot h
acids and strong alkalis to form a salt and water, for example,
Amphoteric oxides are the oxides
of certain metals which react with PbO(s)  2HNO (aq) Pb(NO ) (aq)  H O(l)
3 3 2 2
both acids and strong alkalis to

2NaOH(aq)  PbO(s) Na PbO (aq)  H O(l)
2 2 2
form a salt and water.
sodium
plumbate
The t hree amphoteric oxides are aluminium oxide (Al O ), zinc oxide (ZnO)
3 3
and lead(II) oxide (PbO).
Neutral oxides
Key fact
! Neutral oxides are oxides of cer tain non-metals which do not react wit h
acids or alkalis. These include carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen monoxide
Neutral oxides are oxides of
(NO) and dinitrogen monoxide (N O).

2
certain non-metals which do not
react with acids or alkalis.
Summary questions
1 Dene the terms ‘base’, ‘alkali’ and ‘amphoteric substance’.
2 Give three properties, other than their reactions, which are typical of
aqueous alkalis.
3 Write balanced chemical equations for the following:
a the reaction between magnesium hydroxide and nitric acid
b the reaction between calcium oxide and ammonium nitrate
c the reaction between sodium hydroxide and zinc hydroxide.
Objectives
4 Calcium oxide is a basic oxide. Explain, using a chemical equation, why
calcium oxide is basic.

be able to:
a strong acid and a weak acid
● give examples of strong and
A8.3 Strength of acids and alkalis

weak acids
Aqueous solutions of both acids and alkalis can be classied as strong or weak
a strong alkali and a weak
based on the degree of ionisation which occurs when they are dissolved in water.
alkali
You must not confuse this with concentration. The concentration of an acid or
● give examples of strong and
alkali is based on the quantity of water present in the solution (see Unit 8.1).
weak alkalis
● explain the relationship
Strong and weak acids

between acidity, alkalinity and
the pH scale When an acid dissolves in water, its molecules ionise to form hydrogen ions,
● give the pH values for strong or H ions, and negative anions.
acids, weak acids, strong
Strong acids
alkalis and weak alkalis
● explain how to determine the

A strong acid is fully ionised when it dissolves in water. This means t hat all

pH of a solution
of t he acid molecules ionise and t here is a high concentration of H ions in
● give the colours of certain

t he solution. Hydrochloric acid is an example of a strong acid:
indicators in acidic and alkaline
solutions.
Ot her strong acids include nitric acid (HNO ) and sulfuric acid (H SO ).
3 2 4
132
Acids, bases and salts Strength of acids and alkalis
Weak acids
A weak acid is only partially ionised when it dissolves in water. This means
that the solution contains a mixture of acid molecules which have not ionised
and ions produced from the molecules which have ionised. The solution has a
low concentration of H ions. Ethanoic acid is an example of a weak acid:

3 3
et hanoate ion
At any one time, only about 1% of et hanoic acid molecules are ionised,
i.e. t he solution contains 1% et hanoate ions (CH COO ) and hydrogen ions
3
(H ) and 99% et hanoic acid molecules (CH COOH).

3
Most organic acids are weak. Weak inorganic acids include nitrous acid
(HNO ), sulfurous acid (H SO ) and carbonic acid (H CO ).

2 2 3 2 3
Strong and weak alkalis
When an alkali is added to water, it ionises to form positive cations and
hydroxide ions, or OH ions.
Strong alkalis
A strong alkali is fully ionised when it dissolves in water. The solution
contains a high concentration of OH ions. Sodium hydroxide is an example
of a strong alkali:
NaOH(aq) Na (aq)  OH (aq)
Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is anot her example of a strong alkali.
Weak alkalis
A weak alkali is only par tially ionised when it dissolves in water. The solution
contains a low concentration of OH ions. Ammonia is an example of a weak
alkali:
NH (g)  H O(l) NH (aq)  OH (aq)

3 2 4
Measuring the strength of acids and alkalis
The strengt h of an aqueous acid or alkali is measured using t he pH scale.
The pH scale is a number scale wit h numbers ranging from 0 to 14. Aqueous
solutions wit h a pH less t han 7 are considered to be acidic and t hose wit h a
pH greater t han 7 are considered to be alkaline. An aqueous solution wit h a
pH of 7 is dened as a neutral solution. Distilled water is neutral.
The pH scale also tells us how strong t he acidic or alkaline solution is. n
general, t he lower t he pH, t he stronger t he acid, and t he higher t he pH, t he
stronger t he alkali.
● A strong acid has a pH close to 1, e.g. hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitric acid
(HNO ) and sulfuric acid (H SO ).

3 2 4
● A weak acid has a pH of about 4 or 5, e.g. et hanoic acid (CH COOH).

3
● A neutral substance has a pH of 7, e.g. distilled water (H O).

2
● A weak alkali has a pH of about 9 or 10, e.g. aqueous ammonia (NH OH).
4
● A strong alkali has a pH close to 14, e.g. sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
and potassium hydroxide (KOH).
133
Strength of acids and alkalis Acids, bases and salts
universal indicator
There are two main met hods t hat are used in t he laborator y to
pH paper
measure t he pH of a solution. One is universal indicator and t he
0 ot her is a pH meter.
very
acidic
● Universal ind icator is a chemical substance which

1 hydrochloric acid
indicates t he pH of a solution by colour, i.e. its colour
2 lemon juice
acidic
changes depending on t he pH of t he solution. Universal
orange juice
3
indicator can be in paper form or solution form. When
vinegar
using t he paper, a small piece of paper is dipped into t he
solution and its colour is compared wit h a pH colour char t.
slightly
5 black coffee Figure 8.3.1 shows t he colour of universal indicator paper at

acidic
different pH values.
rainwater
6
● A pH meter is an electronic instr ument. t consists of a
pure water neutral

7
measuring probe connected to an electronic meter, which
sea water
8
displays t he pH reading. A pH meter is a more accurate
baking soda
slightly
met hod for determining t he pH of a solution t han universal

milk of magnesia
alkaline
soap
indicator paper.
10
11
Other acid–alkali indicators
12 washing soda alkaline
There are ot her ind icators which change to one colour in an
13
acidic solution and anot her colour in an alkaline solution. t is
very
oven cleaner
14 impor tant to note t hat t hese indicators do not measure t he pH

alkaline
sodium hydroxide
of a solution, t hey only indicate if it is acidic or alkaline.
 Figure 8.3.1 The pH scale
Litmus is an example of t his type of indicator. Ot her indicators which
you may come across in t he laborator y include met hyl orange, screened
met hyl orange, phenolpht halein and bromot hymol blue. These are used in
Did you know?
neutralisation experiments to indicate t he neutralisation point (see Unit 8.5).
?
The common indicators and t heir colours in acidic and alkaline solutions
compounds called anthocyanins are given in Table 8.3.1.
which are red in acidic conditions
 Table 8.3.1 Indicators used in the laboratory

and purple-blue in alkaline
conditions. They are responsible
Indicator Colour in acidic solution Colour in alkaline solution
for the colour of many flowers
and fruit skins. Anthocyanins can litmus red blue
be extracted easily from these
methyl orange red yellow
plant parts, e.g. the leaves of red
cabbage, and used as a crude screened methyl orange red green
acid–alkali indicator. Litmus is a
phenolphthalein colourless pink
naturally occurring indicator which
is made by extracting dyes from bromothymol blue yellow blue
certain species of lichens.
Investigating the acidity and alkalinity of various solutions
You will be supplied with samples of solutions to be tested, test tubes,
universal indicator paper, pH colour chart, red and blue litmus paper, methyl
orange and phenolphthalein.
134
Acids, bases and salts Salts
Method
1 You are going to measure the pH of each of the solutions and investigate
the colour of each indicator in each solution. Only use methyl orange
and phenolphthalein when the solution you are testing is colourless.
a Place 2 cm of the solution to be tested in each of four test tubes.
b Dip a piece of universal indicator paper into the solution in the rst
tube and observe its colour. Compare the colour with the pH colour
chart to determine the pH of the solution.
c Dip a piece of red and a piece of blue litmus paper into the solution in
the second tube. Observe their colours.
d Place two drops of the methyl orange and phenolphthalein,
respectively, into each of the other two tubes. Observe their colours.
2 If there is a pH meter available, use the meter to determine the pH of
each of the solutions. Ensure that you rinse the measuring probe of the
meter in distilled water after each reading.
3 Record all your results in a table.
4 Classify each substance as a strong acid, a weak acid, a strong alkali, a
weak alkali or a neutral substance.
Summary questions
1 What is the difference between a strong acid and a weak acid?
2 Name three strong acids and three weak acids.
3 Describe the pH scale, giving the range of the scale and the pH values
of acidic, alkaline and neutral solutions.
4 Give the colours of methyl orange and phenolphthalein and the pH
values for each of the following:
a aqueous ethanoic acid b sodium hydroxide solution
c aqueous ammonia d aqueous hydrochloric acid.
Objectives
A8.4 Salts
be able to:
You have already learnt t hat all acids form at least one hydrogen ion per
● dene the term salt

molecule when t hey dissolve in water, e.g. hydrochloric acid (HCl) forms
● distinguish between a normal

one hydrogen ion per molecule and sulfuric acid (H SO ) forms two. These
2 4
salt and an acid salt

hydrogen ions can be replaced by ot her positive ions when acids react and
● explain water of crystallisation

t hey are known as replaceable hydrogen ions . When acids react and t he
● distinguish between a hydrated

hydrogen ions are replaced by metal or ammonium ions from t he ot her
salt and an anhydrous salt

reactant, a salt is formed.
● decide on the most appropriate
method of preparing a salt
Classification of salts
● describe the different methods
Salts can be classied into two groups, normal salts and acid salts, based on
of preparing salts
whet her all or only some of t he hydrogen ions are replaced:

● describe the uses of salts in
everyday life
● state some of the dangers of
salts.
135
Salts Acids, bases and salts
Normal salts
Normal salts are formed when all of the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced
by metal or ammonium ions. For example, when sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

Key fact
! 
reacts with sulfuric acid (H SO ), if all of the H ions in the acid are replaced by
2 4
A salt is a compound formed when Na ions, the normal salt, sodium sulfate (Na SO ), is formed:
2 4
some or all of the hydrogen ions in
2NaOH(aq)  H SO (aq) Na SO (aq)  2H O(l)

2 4 2 4 2
an acid are replaced by metal or
ammonium ions.
All acids can form normal salts.
Acid salts
Acid salts are formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are only partially
replaced by metal or ammonium ions. For example, when sodium hydroxide
reacts with sulfuric acid, if only one of the H ions in the acid is replaced by a
Na ion, the acid salt, sodium hydrogensulfate (NaHSO ), is formed:

4
NaOH(aq)  H SO (aq) NaHSO (aq)  H O(l)

2 4 4 2
Only dibasic and tr ibasic acids can form acid salts.
The type of salt formed by dibasic and tribasic acids depends on t he relative
quantity of each reactant. For example, in t he two reactions above, when
2 mol of sodium hydroxide and 1 mol of sulfuric acid reacted, a normal salt
was produced. However, when only 1 mol of sodium hydroxide reacted wit h
1 mol of sulfuric acid, an acid salt was produced.
The tribasic acid, phosphoric acid (H PO ), can produce one normal salt
3 4
and two different acid salts. For example, in t he reaction wit h sodium
hydroxide, it can form t he normal salt, sodium phosphate (Na PO ), when

3 4
all t hree H ions are replaced. t can also form t he two acid salts, sodium
hydrogenphosphate (Na HPO ) when two H ions are replaced and sodium
2 4
dihydrogenphosphate (NaH PO ) when one H ion is replaced:

2 4
3NaOH(aq)  H PO (aq) Na PO (aq)  3H O(l)

3 4 3 4 2
2NaOH(aq)  H PO (aq) Na HPO (aq)  2H O(l)

3 4 2 4 2
NaOH(aq)  H PO (aq) NaH PO (aq)  H O(l)

3 4 2 4 2
Again, you can see t hat t he relative quantity of t he two reactants determines
which salt is produced.
Table 8.4.1 shows t he salts formed by t he common acids.
 Table 8.4.1 Salts formed by common acids
Acid Formula Salt(s) formed Anion Type of Example
present salt
hydrochloric acid HCl chlorides Cl normal salt NaCl
nitric acid HNO nitrates NO normal salt NaNO

3 3 3
ethanoic acid CH COOH ethanoates CH COO normal salt CH COONa

3 3 3
2
sulfuric acid H SO sulfates normal salt
2 4 SO Na SO
4 2 4
hydrogensulfates acid salt

HSO NaHSO
4 4
2
carbonic acid H CO carbonates normal salt
2 3 CO Na CO
3 2 3
hydrogencarbonates acid salt

HCO NaHCO
3 3
3
phosphoric acid H PO phosphates normal salt
3 4 PO Na PO
4 3 4
2
hydrogenphosphates acid salt
HPO Na HPO
4 2 4
dihydrogenphosphates acid salt

H PO NaH PO
2 4 2 4
136
Water of crystallisation
Some salts contain a  xed number of water molecules between t he
ions in t heir cr yst al lattice, known as water of cr ystallisation . Salts
containing water of cr yst allisation are refer red to as hyd rated salts . Water
of cr ystallisation can be given in t he for mula of t he salt as shown in t he
following examples.
● CuSO .5H O represents hydrated copper(II) sulfate. The formula shows

4 2
2 2
t hat for ever y mole of Cu and SO ions wit hin t he cr ystal lattice,
4
t here are ve moles of water molecules.
● CoCl .6H O represents hydrated cobalt(II) chloride.

2 2
● MgSO .7H O represents hydrated magnesium sulfate.

4 2
● FeSO .7H O represents hydrated iron(II) sulfate.

4 2
Water of cr ystallisation is essential to develop t he cr ystalline str ucture,
and sometimes t he colour, of t he cr ystals containing it. f t his water of
cr ystallisation is removed by heating, t he solid loses its cr ystalline str ucture,
it becomes powder y and its colour may also change. For example, hydrated
copper(II) sulfate cr ystals are bright blue and have a regular shape. When
heated t hey become white and powder y:
heat
CuSO .5H O(s) CuSO (s)  5H O(g)

4 2 4 2
white
blue cr ystals
powder
Salts wit hout water of cr ystallisation are known as anhydrous salts
Preparation of salts
We use salts in all aspects of our lives. Some of t hese uses will be discussed
later in t his unit. There are many different met hods by which t hese salts can
be produced, some of which we will be discussing in t his section.
When deciding on a preparation met hod, it is impor tant to know t he
solubilit y of t he salt t hat is to be produced and t he solubilit y of t he compounds
whic h may be used to prepare t he salt. Met hods of prepar ing insoluble salts
differ from t hose used to prepare soluble salts.
You can nd a table summarising t he solubility r ules in Unit 6.1.
Preparation of insoluble salts
Insoluble salts can be prepared by reacting two solutions, one containing
t he cations of t he salt being prepared and t he ot her containing t he anions
of t he salt. This is known as ionic precipitation . n an ionic precipitation
reaction, t he two soluble salts in solution react to form an insoluble salt, i.e. a
precipitate, and a soluble salt. For example, barium nitrate solution reacts
wit h sodium sulfate solution to form insoluble barium sulfate and sodium
nitrate solution:
Ba(NO ) (aq)  Na SO (aq) BaSO (s)  2NaNO (aq)

3 2 2 4 4 3
onic equation:
2 2
Ba (aq)  SO (aq) BaSO (s)

4 4
137
Method
The following general met hod is used for preparing insoluble salts.
1) Choose two soluble salts, one containing t he cations required to make t he
salt and t he ot her containing t he anions required.
2) Dissolve t he two salts in water to make solutions.
3) Mix t he two solutions to form t he insoluble salt as a precipitate.
4) Filter t he mixture and collect t he precipitate as t he residue
5) Wash t he residue wit h distilled water while it is still in t he lter funnel
and leave it to dr y.
When c hoosing t he two salts to use in your preparation it is impor tant to
remember t hat all nitrates are soluble, as are all sodium salts. Therefore,
t he best salts to c hoose would be a nitrate to supply t he cations, i.e. bar ium
nitrate in t he above preparation, and a sodium salt to supply t he anions,
e.g. sodium sulfate.
To prepare an insoluble salt by ionic precipitation
You will be supplied with solutions of barium nitrate and sodium sulfate,
two beakers, a lter funnel and lter paper.
adding barium
Method
nitrate solution to
3
sodium sulfate
1 Place 10 cm of sodium sulfate solution into a small beaker.
solution
2 Add 10 cm of barium nitrate solution and swirl to mix.
3 Using the lter funnel and lter paper, lter the mixture.
4 Wash the residue with distilled water while it is still in the lter funnel and
allow it to dry.
5 Record all your observations as you prepare the sample of the salt.
6 Write both a balanced chemical equation and an ionic equation for the
 Figure 8.4.1 Preparation of the
insoluble salt, barium sulfate reaction and name the insoluble salt that you have prepared.
Preparation of soluble salts
There are three main met hods for preparing soluble salts:
● direct combination
● t he reaction between a reactive metal, an insoluble carbonate or an
insoluble base and an acid
● t he reaction between a soluble base, i.e. an alkali, and an acid, known as
a titration.
Direct combination
Salts composed of two simple ions, such as metal chlorides, can be prepared
by reacting two elements, a metal and a non-metal, directly wit h each ot her.
The metal supplies t he cations of t he salt and t he non-metal supplies t he

 Figure 8.4.2 A precipitate of barium
sulfate anions.
138
For example, aluminium chloride can be prepared in a fume cupboard by
passing a stream of dr y chlorine gas over heated aluminium foil in a long
glass tube as shown in Figure 8.4.3.
aluminium foil
dry chlorine unreacted
in chlorine
out
heat
 Figure 8.4.3 Preparation of aluminium chloride
The equation for t he reaction is:
2Al(s)  3Cl (g) 2AlCl (s)

2 3
Since t he reaction occurs in t he absence of any moisture, t he salt formed
is an anhydrous salt. This is par ticularly suitable for preparing anhydrous
aluminium chloride and anhydrous iron(III) chloride.
Reactions with acids
Many soluble salts can be prepared by reacting a reactive metal, insoluble
carbonate or insoluble base wit h an acid as shown in t he examples below.
● Reacting a reactive metal and an acid, e.g. to prepare magnesium chloride:
Mg(s)  2HCl(aq) MgCl (aq)  H (g)

2 2
This met hod cannot be used to prepare salts of ver y reactive metals,
e.g. potassium or sodium salts, because t he reaction of t hese metals wit h
an acid is too violent.
● Reacting an insoluble carbonate and an acid, e.g. to prepare calcium
nitrate:
CaCO (s)  2HNO (aq) Ca(NO ) (aq)  CO (g)  H O(l)

3 3 3 2 2 2
● Reacting an insoluble base and an acid, e.g. to prepare copper(II) sulfate:
CuO(S)  H SO (aq) CuSO (aq)  H O(l)

2 4 4 2
n t hese reactions, t he nal product will only be a pure solution of t he required
salt if t he reaction has reached completion and no acid remains. One way to
achieve t his is by using a reactant which is insoluble. This reactant is added
to t he acid until some remains. This indicates t here is no more acid lef t for
t he reactant to react wit h and, since it is insoluble, t he excess will remain
Exam tip
✔
undissolved in t he solution of t he salt.
Being able to describe the
Method
methods used to prepare salts
is very important for exams. If

The following general met hod is used to prepare soluble salts using reactions
you are asked to describe how
wit h acids.
to prepare a soluble salt using a
1) Choose the appropriate reactive metal, insoluble carbonate or insoluble
reaction with an acid and you can
base to provide the cations and the appropriate acid to provide the anions
choose the reactants, it is a good
2) Place t he acid into a beaker and add t he metal, carbonate or base until idea to choose the appropriate
excess solid remains and effer vescence stops if a metal or carbonate is insoluble carbonate to supply the
cations since the reaction between

used. This indicates t hat all t he acid has reacted. Heating may be required
a carbonate and an acid is rapid,

to speed up t he reaction when using a metal or a base.
it doesn’t need heating and visible
3) Dip a piece of blue litmus paper into t he solution to ensure all t he acid has
effervescence stops when the
reacted. The litmus should remain blue.
reaction has reached completion.
4) Remove t he excess, unreacted solid by ltration.
139
5) Collect the ltrate and evaporate the water over a beaker of boiling water. f
a hydrated salt is required, evaporate some of the water to concentrate the
solution and leave the concentrated solution to cr ystallise.
To prepare a soluble salt by reacting a base with an acid
You will be supplied with samples of copper( II) oxide and sulfuric acid, a
beaker, an evaporating dish, a lter funnel and lter paper.
Method
Add the copper(II) oxide to 3
1 Place 20 cm of sulfuric acid into the beaker.
the sulfuric acid while
heating gently, until no

2 Add copper( II) oxide to the acid a spatula at a time, heating and stirring
more will dissolve
gently, until no more will react, i.e. until you can see excess copper( II)
oxide in the beaker.
3 Using the lter funnel and lter paper, lter the mixture to remove the
excess copper( II) oxide and collect the ltrate.
4 Pour the ltrate into the evaporating dish. Place the evaporating dish over a
beaker of boiling water and heat until the solution becomes concentrated.
5 Place a piece of lter paper over the evaporating dish containing the
concentrated solution and leave it to crystallise and form hydrated
copper(II) sulfate crystals.
6 Record all your observations as you prepare the salt.
7 Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
8 To produce anhydrous copper( II) sulfate, you can heat the ltrate in the
evaporating dish over a beaker of boiling water until all the water has
evaporated.
Filter off the excess
copper(II)oxide
Titration
Potassium, sodium and ammonium salts cannot be prepared by the method
which you have just learnt for two reasons. Firstly, potassium and sodium react
in a violent way with acids making the reactions too dangerous. Secondly,
potassium, sodium and ammonium carbonates and hydroxides are all soluble,
To produce hydrated so when the reaction has reached completion and no more acid remains, the
copper(II) sulfate allow the
excess solid dissolves and the solution of the salt will then not be pure.
crystals to form over a few
days. To produce
Potassium, sodium and ammonium salts are prepared by adding an acid to an
anhydrous copper(II) sulfate
aqueous alkali until t he solution is just neutral, indicating t hat t he reaction

evaporate over a beaker
of boiling water has reached completion. For example, to prepare potassium sulfate, sulfuric
acid is added to potassium hydroxide solution until t he resulting solution is

 Figure 8.4.4 Steps involved in the
just neutral:
preparation of hydrated copper( II)
sulfate crystals
2KOH(aq)  H SO (aq) K SO (aq)  2H O(l)

2 4 2 4 2
The colour change of an indicator is used to determine t he neutralisation
point. The technique used to determine t he exact volume of acid needed
to neutralise a xed volume of aqueous alkali is known as a titration. A
carbonate solution may also be used in place of t he aqueous alkali.
140
Method
The general met hod for performing a titration is as follows.
1) Choose an appropriate alkali or soluble carbonate to provide t he cations
and an appropriate acid to supply t he anions
2) Measure a xed volume of t he aqueous alkali or carbonate using a pipette.
Run it into a conical ask and add a few drops of indicator solution,
e.g. phenolpht halein.
3) Place t he acid in a burette and take an initial burette reading.
4) Add t he acid to t he aqueous alkali or carbonate until t he neutralisation
point is reached.
5) Take a nal burette reading and determine t he volume of acid added.
6) Repeat t he titration until you have t hree volumes of acid wit hin 0.1 cm
of each ot her. Average t hese volumes to determine t he volume of acid
needed.
7) Add t his volume of acid to t he xed volume of aqueous alkali or carbonate
wit hout t he indicator.
8) Evaporate t he water from t he solution.
To prepare a soluble salt by titration
3 3
You will be supplied with 0.1 mol dm sodium hydroxide solution, 0.1 mol dm hydrochloric acid, phenolphthalein
solution, a 25 cm pipette, a conical ask and a burette.
Method
1 Rinse the burette with some hydrochloric acid and ll it with the acid.
2 Rinse the pipette with some sodium hydroxide solution. Measure 25 cm of sodium hydroxide solution in the
pipette and run it into the conical ask.
3 Add a few drops of phenolphthalein solution to the conical ask and swirl the contents.
4 Take an initial burette reading, remembering to take the reading from the bottom of the meniscus.
5 Slowly add the hydrochloric acid to the conical ask, swirling constantly, until the solution just turns from pink
to colourless. The neutralisation point is the point where the colour changes after the addition of just one drop
of the acid.
6 Take a nal burette reading and determine the volume of hydrochloric acid added. This is your rough titration.
7 Discard the contents of the conical ask and rinse the ask thoroughly with distilled water.
8 Repeat your titration until you have three volumes of acid which are within 0.1 cm . Each time you can add the
acid rapidly until you have added about 1 cm less than you added in your rough titration, then almost close the
tap and add the acid drop by drop until the neutralisation point is reached.
9 Average the three volumes of acid, which are within 0.1 cm . This is the accurate volume of acid needed to
neutralise 25 cm of the sodium hydroxide solution. You can now prepare the salt.
10 Repeat your titration, but this time do not add the phenolphthalein solution. When you approach the volume
determined in step 9, add the acid drop by drop until you have added the correct volume.
11 Place the solution into an evaporating dish and carefully evaporate all the water to obtain sodium chloride.
141
12 Record your results in a table like the one opposite.

Titration number
Burette reading
Rough 1 2 3
13 Write a chemical equation for the reaction.
Final reading/cm
Initial reading/cm
Volume of acid added/cm
safety
burette
filler
these valves
allow you to
fill and empty
when pipette is
the pipette
these graduations
filled to this mark

measure how
it contains exactly
much solution
25 cm of solution
has been added
tap
conical
flask
(a) (b)
 Figure 8.4.5 (a) Using a pipette to measure a xed volume of sodium  Figure 8.4.6 Phenolphthalein changes from (a)
hydroxide solution and (b) using a burette to add a varying volume of pink to (b) colourless when hydrochloric acid is
hydrochloric acid added to sodium hydroxide solution
Preparation of acid salts
You learnt earlier in t his unit t hat when sodium hydroxide (NaOH) reacts
wit h sulfuric acid (H SO ) t here are two possibilities:

2 4
The formation of a normal salt:
2NaOH(aq)  H SO (aq) Na SO (aq)  2H O(l)

2 4 2 4 2
The formation of an acid salt:
NaOH(aq)  H SO (aq) NaHSO (aq)  H O(l)

2 4 4 2
Looking at t he balanced equations for t hese two reactions:
● to produce a normal salt, t he ratio of reactants is 2 mol of sodium
hydroxide to 1 mol of sulfuric acid
● to produce an acid salt, t he ratio of reactants is 1 mol of sodium
hydroxide to 1 mol of sulfuric acid.
f t he concentrations of t he sodium hy d r ox i d e solution and t he sulfur ic
acid are t he same, we can a p p ly t he ratio to vo l u m e s . Fo r e xa mp l e , if we
3 3
use 0 .1 mol dm sodium hy d r ox i d e solution and 0 .1 mol dm sulfur ic
acid:
● to produce a normal salt, we would react 50 cm of sodium hydroxide
solution wit h 25 cm of sulfuric acid
● to produce an acid salt, we would react 50 cm of sodium hydroxide
solution wit h 50 cm of sulfuric acid.
Comparing t he two, to prepare t he acid salt we would need double t he volume
of acid t hat we used to prepare t he normal salt.
142
Method
The general met hod for preparing t he acid salt, sodium hydrogensulfate, is
as follows.
● Determine t he volume of sulfuric acid needed to neutralise a xed
volume of sodium hydroxide solution using a titration.
● Repeat t he titration wit hout t he indicator and adding twice t he volume
of sulfuric acid determined.
● Evaporate t he water from t he solution.
Summary of salt preparation
You have just learnt t hat t here are several met hods t hat can be used to prepare
salts and it is impor tant t hat you choose t he correct met hod. The ow char t
in Figure 8.4.7 outlines a series of questions to ask which will help you decide
which met hod to choose.
Use a
reactive metal  acid
or an insoluble carbonate
Is
NO
 acid or an insoluble
the salt
Is base  acid
an anhydrous
NO
the salt a
chloride?
YES
potassium, sodium
Is
YES
Use direct
or ammonium
the salt
YES
combination
salt ?
soluble in
Use a
water?
NO titration
Use ionic
precipitation
 Figure 8.4.7 Flow chart for the preparation of salts
Uses of salts in everyday life
Salts play an extremely impor tant par t in our ever yday lives, from t he sodium
chloride t hat we use to avour our food to t he sodium carbonate t hat we use
as washing soda. Table 8.4.2 gives some of t he uses of salts.
 Table 8.4.2 Uses of salts
Salt Use Explanation
Sodium An ingredient Baking powder is used to make cakes rise. It contains sodium
hydrogencarbonate in baking hydrogencarbonate and an acid. When mixed with the liquid
(NaHCO ) powder in the cake mixture, the two compounds react forming carbon
3
dioxide:
 Figure 8.4.8 Washing soda is a salt
HCO (aq)  H (aq) CO (g)  H O(l)

3 2 2
which some of us have in our homes
The carbon dioxide forms bubbles in the cake which expand on
heating causing the cake to rise.
Sodium carbonate To soften hard Hard water does not lather with soap. It is caused by dissolved
(washing soda) water calcium and magnesium salts. When sodium carbonate is
2 2
(NaCO ) added, the Ca and Mg ions precipitate out as insoluble

3
calcium and magnesium carbonate:
2 2
Ca (aq)  CO (aq) CaCO (s)

3 3
The water becomes soft and will lather with soap.
Calcium carbonate Manufacture To make cement, calcium carbonate is heated with small
(limestone) (CaCO ) of cement quantities of other materials such as silicon dioxide (sand) in
3
for use in the a kiln to about 1400 °C. The calcium carbonate decomposes
construction forming calcium oxide (quicklime):
industry

3 2
The calcium oxide is then blended with the other materials
inside the kiln to form clinker. The clinker is then ground with a
small amount of calcium sulfate (gypsum) to make cement.
143
Salt Use Explanation
Magnesium sulfate Various Added to bath water, Epsom salt is used to ease stress and
Did you know?
?
(Epsom salt) medicinal relax the body, soothe back pain and aching limbs, ease muscle
(MgSO .7H O) uses strain, help reduce inflammation, help cure skin problems and
4 2
Epsom salt derives its name
help heal cuts. Taken orally, Epsom salt is used as a saline
from the town of Epsom in Surrey,

laxative and to help eliminate toxins from the body.
England where the salt was first

Sodium chloride Food Sodium chloride is used to preserve food items, such as meat
discovered in a bitter saline spring.

(NaCl) preservation and fish, by withdrawing water from their cells by osmosis so
that the water is unavailable for the reactions that cause decay.
The healing power of the waters from
It also withdraws water from the microorganisms which cause

the spring were realised in about
decay, preventing them from growing.
1618 and news of these powers
Sodium nitrate Food Sodium nitrate and sodium nitrite are often used with sodium
spread rapidly. Epsom quickly
(NaNO ) and preservation chloride to preserve meat. They destroy certain bacteria that
3
developed into a spa town and

sodium nitrite cause severe food poisoning and retard the development of
people travelled from far and wide to

(NaNO ) rancidity. Sodium nitrite gives an attractive red colour to the
2
meat, e.g. ham and bacon, and adds flavour.

visit Epsom and ‘take the waters’.
Sodium benzoate Food Sodium benzoate is used to preserve foods with a low pH,
(C H COONa) preservation e.g. fizzy drinks and fruit juices. At a pH of below 4.5, sodium
6 5
benzoate is converted to benzoic acid (C H COOH) which

6 5
inhibits the growth of microorganisms.
Calcium sulfate Manufacture Plaster of Paris (gypsum plaster) is made of calcium sulfate
(gypsum) of plaster of which has been heated to about 300 °C to remove the water
Did you know?
? (CaSO .2H O) Paris, which of crystallisation. Bandages are then impregnated with the dry
4 2
is used when plaster of Paris powder. When water is added to the bandage, a
The origins of gypsum plaster

setting broken paste forms and heat is given off. The bandage, with its paste,
date back more than 9000 years

bones and is then wrapped around the damaged limb, where it hardens
and it was used through the as a building forming an orthopaedic cast.
material Plaster of Paris is also used as a building material. Water is

centuries in many parts of the
added to the dry plaster to make a paste which is used to coat
world. By the 1700s, Paris had
walls and ceilings.
become the centre for its use and it
became known as plaster of Paris.
Dangers of salts
At the time, the houses in Paris
were made of wood and, by law, While salts play such an impor tant role in our ever yday lives, some have also
plaster of Paris was used to cover

been implicated in causing various healt h problems. Table 8.4.3 summarises
the walls to make them fireproof so

some of t hese dangers.
that Paris did not suffer the same
 Table 8.4.3 Dangers of salts
fate as London had in the Great
Fire of 1666. Salt Dangers
Sodium chloride (NaCl) Excessive consumption can lead to hypertension (high blood pressure).
Sodium nitrate (NaNO ) and May increase a person’s risk of developing cancer.
3
sodium nitrite (NaNO ) Have been implicated in causing brain damage in children.
2
Sodium benzoate Has been implicated in increasing hyperactivity and asthma in children.
(C H COONa) May increase a person’s risk of developing cancer.

6 5
Summary questions
1 Explain the difference between a normal salt and an acid salt.
2 What is water of crystallisation?
3 Name the most appropriate method for preparing each of the following
salts. In each case name the two compounds you would choose to
prepare the salt and write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction:
a magnesium chloride b lead( II) sulfate
c anhydrous iron( III) chloride d potassium nitrate.
4 Describe, giving full details, how you would prepare magnesium
carbonate starting with magnesium nitrate.
5 Describe how we use the following salts in our everyday lives:
a calcium sulfate b sodium hydrogencarbonate
c magnesium sulfate.
144
Acids, bases and salts Neutralisation reactions
A8.5 Neutralisation reactions Objectives
n Unit 6.2 you learnt t hat a neutralisation reaction is any reaction between
be able to:
a base and an acid. n a neutralisation reaction a salt and water are always
● explain a neutralisation reaction
formed.
● describe how to carry out
When a strong alkali reacts wit h a strong acid, t he reaction is complete when neutralisation reactions using
neit her alkali nor acid is present in excess. At t his point t he products have a an indicator, pH meter and
pH of 7, i.e. t hey are neutral. This point is known as t he neutralisation point temperature change
or end point. ● describe how we use
neutralisation reactions in our
n a neutralisation reaction between an aqueous alkali and an acid, t he
daily lives.
actual reaction occurring is between t he hydroxide ions of t he alkali and
t he hydrogen ions of t he acid. These ions react to form water and t he ot her
ions remain in solution as spectator ions. For example, t he reaction between
sodium hydroxide solution and hydrochloric acid can be summarised by t he
Key fact
following chemical equation:
!

A neutralisation reaction is a
2
reaction between a base and an


The OH ions from the sodium hydroxide and the H ions from the hydrochloric
acid to form a salt and water.
acid react to form water, as shown in the following ionic equation:

2
 Key fact
!
The Na and Cl ions remain in solution as spectator ions.
The reaction between t he hydroxide and hydrogen ions is described as being The neutralisation point is the
an exothermic reaction (see Unit 12.1) because it produces heat energy. We point in an acid–alkali reaction
where the reaction is complete and

can make use of t his fact when determining t he neutralisation point of such
neither acid nor alkali is present in

a reaction.
excess.
Determining the neutralisation point in an
acid–alkali reaction
The neutralisation point of a reaction between an aqueous alkali and an
aqueous acid is deter mined by perfor ming a titration. Dur ing t he titration,
t he volume of one solution required to neutralise a xed volume of anot her
solution is deter mined, and t he neutralisation point is identied in one
of three ways: using an indicator, using a pH meter or using temperature
c hange. We will now look at two of t hese ways, using an indicator and
using temperature c hange.
Using an indicator
Did you know?

n Unit 8.3 you learnt t hat an ind icator is a substance which has one colour
?
in an acidic solution and anot her colour in an alkaline solution.
The neutralisation point can be
When performing a titration using an indicator, a xed volume of one determined using a pH meter
instead of an indicator. One solution

solution, usually t he alkali, is placed in a conical ask and a few drops of t he
is added in small quantities, e.g.

indicator are added. The ot her solution, usually t he acid, is added from t he
2 cm , to a fixed volume of the

burette and t he indicator will change colour at t he neutralisation point. This
other solution and the pH of the
point is determined when t he colour changes on t he addition of a single
solution changes sharply to 7 at the
drop of solution from t he burette.
neutralisation point.
Phenolpht halein and met hyl orange are t he most commonly used indicators
to determine t he neutralisation point in a titration.
145
Neutralisation reactions Acids, bases and salts
Using temperature change
When using a temperature change to deter mine t he neutralisation point,
a  xed volume of one solution is placed in an insulated container, e.g. a
polystyrene cup, and its temperature is recorded. The ot her solution is added
in small quantities, e.g. 2 cm , from t he burette. Using t he t her mometer,
t he solution is quic kly stir red af ter eac h addition and t he temperature
is recorded. The procedure is continued until several successive drops
in temperature have been recorded. This is known as a thermometr ic
titration
A graph is t hen drawn showing temperature against t he volume of solution
added from t he burette.
To draw t he graph, t he points are plotted and t hen two straight lines of best
t are drawn, one t hrough t he points where t he temperature is increasing
and one t hrough t he points where the temperature is decreasing. The point
of intersection of t he two lines is t he neutralisation point.
An example of a graph which might be obtained when hydrochloric acid
is added to 25 cm of sodium hydroxide solution is shown in Figure 8.5.1.
The graph shows t hat 11.0 cm of hydrochloric acid is needed to neutralise
25 cm of sodium hydroxide solution.
neutralisation
the temperature
point
increases as more
acid is added
the temperature
decreases as more
)C°(
acid is added
erutarepmeT
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Volume of hydrochloric acid added (cm )
 Figure 8.5.1 Graph showing temperature against volume of hydrochloric acid
added to 25 cm of sodium hydroxide solution
The reaction between t he OH ions in t he sodium hydroxide and t he H ions
in t he hydrochloric acid produces heat:

2
The temperature increases as more acid is added because more H ions are
being added to react wit h t he OH ions. The temperature stops increasing
when all t he OH ions have reacted and t here are none lef t in t he solution.
This is t he neutralisation point. The temperature t hen decreases for t hree
reasons; no more heat is being produced because t he reaction has reached
completion, acid at a lower temperature is being added which cools t he
solution and heat is being lost to t he environment.
146
Acids, bases and salts Neutralisation reactions
To determine the neutralisation point by using temperature change
● observation, recording and reporting ● manipulation and measurement ● analysis and interpretation.
3 3 3
You will be supplied with 1.0 mol dm sodium hydroxide solution, 1.0 mol dm sulfuric acid, a 25 cm pipette, a
polystyrene cup, a burette and a thermometer.
Method
1 Rinse the burette with some sulfuric acid and ll it with the acid.
2 Rinse the pipette with some sodium hydroxide solution. Measure 25 cm of sodium hydroxide solution in the
pipette and run it into the polystyrene cup.
3 Using the thermometer, measure and record the temperature of the sodium hydroxide solution.
4 Keeping the thermometer in the sodium hydroxide solution, add 2 cm of acid from the burette. Quickly stir the
solution with the thermometer and record its maximum temperature.
5 Immediately add another 2 cm of hydrochloric acid, quickly stir the solution and record its maximum temperature.
6 Repeat step 5 until you have recorded four successive drops in temperature. It is essential that you do this as
quickly as possible.
8 Use your results to draw a graph showing the temperature of the solution against the volume of sulfuric acid
added. Draw two straight lines of best t.
9 Use your graph to determine the volume of sulfuric acid needed to neutralise 25 cm of sodium hydroxide solution.
10 Explain:
a why the temperature of the solution increased (use an ionic equation to help you)
b why the temperature of the solution stopped increasing
c why the temperature of the solution decreased.
11 Suggest reasons why this method of determining the neutralisation point is less accurate than using an indicator.
Using neutralisation reactions
We have already studied how neutralisation reactions can be used to
treat ant and bee stings. Table 8.5.1 summarises t hree ot her ways we use
neutralisation reactions.
 Table 8.5.1 Using neutralisation reactions
Where used Action
Antacids Antacids are taken to treat indigestion and acid reflux. They may contain sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO ), magnesium hydroxide
3
[Mg(OH) ] aluminium hydroxide [Al(OH) ], magnesium carbonate (MgCO ) or calcium carbonate (CaCO ). They work by neutralising the
2 , 3 3 3
excess hydrochloric acid in the stomach.
Toothpaste Acid, produced by bacteria in the mouth, causes tooth decay by reacting with the calcium hydroxyapatite [Ca (PO ) (OH) ] in tooth
10 4 6 2
enamel. Two active ingredients in toothpaste, sodium hydrogencarbonate and sodium monofluorophosphate (Na FPO ), help reduce
2 3
decay. The sodium hydrogencarbonate neutralises any acid in the mouth. The fluoride ions in the sodium monofluorophosphate displace
the hydroxide ions in the calcium hydroxyapatite forming calcium fluoroapatite [Ca (PO ) F ]:
10 4 6 2
Ca (PO ) (OH) (s)  2F (aq) Ca (PO ) F (s)  2OH (aq)

10 4 6 2 10 4 6 2
Acids do not react with calcium fluoroapatite hence the tooth enamel does not decay.
Soil treatment Most plants grow best if the soil is neutral. Finely ground calcium carbonate (limestone, CaCO ) or lime in the form of calcium oxide
3
(quicklime, CaO) or calcium hydroxide (slaked lime, Ca(OH) ) can be added to soil to neutralise any acids present. However, lime cannot
2
be added at the same time as an ammonium fertiliser because the two react to make a salt, ammonia gas and water which eliminates the
beneficial effects of both:
 2
CaO(s)  2NH (aq) Ca (aq)  2NH (g)  H O(l)

4 3 2
147
Volumetric analysis Acids, bases and salts
Summary questions
1 What is a neutralisation reaction?
2 Outline how you would perform a neutralisation reaction using:
a an indicator b temperature change.
3 Give three uses of neutralisation reactions in our daily lives.
4 Why should lime and an ammonium fertiliser not be added at the same
time to soil?
Objectives A8.6 Volumetric analysis
Volumetric analysis involves performing a titration to determine t he exact

be able to:
volume of one solution, usually an acid, required to neutralise a xed volume
● explain volumetric analysis
of anot her solution, usually an aqueous alkali or carbonate. The results of
● determine the mole ratio in
t he titration can t hen be used quantitatively in one of two ways:
which reactants combine
● to determine t he mole ratio in which t he two reactants combine
● determine the mass
● to determine t he molar concentration and mass concentration of one

concentration and molar
of t he reactants.
concentration of one reactant
used in a titration.
Determining mole ratios
The mole ratio in which reactants combine can be determined using a
titration if t he mass or molar concentration of bot h reactants is known, i.e. if
t hey are bot h standard solutions.
Example
During a titration it was found t hat 25 cm of potassium hydroxide of molar
3 3
concentration 0.6 mol dm was neutralised by 10 cm of sulfuric acid of
molar concentration 0.75 mol dm . Determine t he mole ratio in which t he
reactants combine.
Calculate t he number of moles of potassium hydroxide t hat reacted:
Molar concentration of KOH(aq)  0.6 mol dm
3 3
i.e. 1000 cm (1 dm ) KOH(aq) contains 0.6 mol KOH.
0.6
3 _____
∴ 1 cm KOH(aq) contains mol KOH
1000
0.6
3 _____
and 25 cm KOH(aq) contains  25 mol KOH
1000
 0.015 mol KOH
Calculate t he number of moles of sulfuric acid t hat reacted:
Molar concentration of H SO (aq)  0.75 mol dm

2 4
3 3
i.e. 1000 cm (1 dm ) H SO (aq) contains 0.75 mol H SO

2 4 2 4
0.75
3 _____
∴ 1 cm H SO (aq) contains mol H SO

2 4 2 4
1000
0.75
3 _____
and 10 cm H SO (aq) contains  10 mol H SO

2 4 2 4
1000
 0.0075 mol H SO
2 4
148
Acids, bases and salts Volumetric analysiss
Use t he number of moles of each reactant to determine t he mole ratio:
0.015 mol KOH reacts wit h 0.0075 mol H SO

2 4
∴ 2 mol KOH react wit h 1 mol H SO .

2 4
The mole ratio in which t he reactants combine is 2 mol potassium hydroxide
to 1 mol sulfuric acid.
Determining concentration
The concentration of one reactant used in a titration can be determined if
t he mass or molar concentration of t he ot her reactant is known, i.e. if it is a
standard solution. This is done by following t he same four steps, i.e. 1) to 4),
t hat you followed in your calculations in Unit 7.5.
Examples
1 A student performed a titration to determine t he concentration of a
solution of hydrochloric acid. The student used a standard solution of
potassium hydroxide wit h a concentration of 0.1 mol dm and added
t he hydrochloric acid to 25 cm of t he potassium hydroxide solution.
The results of t he experiment are shown in t he table.
Titration number
Burette reading
Rough 1 2 3
Final reading/cm 21.5 20.5 41.0 20.4
Initial reading/cm 0.0 0.0 20.5 0.0
Volume of acid added/cm 21.5 20.5 20.5 20.4
Determine t he molar concentration of t he hydrochloric acid.
Calculate t he average volume of hydrochloric acid used:
20.5  20.5  20.4

__________________ 3
average volume of HCl(aq)  cm

( )
3
 20.5 cm
3 3
i.e. it takes 20.5 cm of hydrochloric acid to neutralise 25 cm of potassium
hydroxide solution, which has a concentration of 0.1 mol dm
The balanced chemical equation for t he reaction is:
KOH(aq)  HCl(aq) KCl(aq)  H O(l)

2
1) Calculate t he number of moles of potassium hydroxide t hat reacted:
Molar concentration of KOH(aq)  0.1 mol dm
3 3
i.e. 1000 cm (1 dm ) KOH(aq) contains 0.1 mol KOH.
0.1
3 _____
∴ 1 cm KOH(aq) contains mol KOH
1000
0.1
3 _____
and 25 cm KOH(aq) contains  25 mol KOH
1000
 0.0025 mol KOH
2) Use t he balanced equation to determine t he mole ratio between
KOH and HCl:
1 mol KOH reacts wit h 1 mol HCl.
149
3) Use t he number of moles of KOH from 1) and t he mole ratio from 2)
to calculate t he number of moles of HCl reacting:
0.0025 mol KOH reacts wit h 0.0025 mol HCl
4) Use t he number of moles of HCl from 3) and t he volume used to
calculate t he number of moles of HCl in 1 dm :
Volume of HCl(aq) used  20.5 cm
i.e. 20.5 cm HCl(aq) contains 0.0025 mol HCl.
0.0025
3 _______
∴ 1 cm HCl(aq) contains mol HCl
20.5
0.025
3 3 ______
and 1000 cm (1 dm ) HCl(aq) contains  1000 mol HCl
20.5
 0.122 mol HCl
Therefore, molar concentration of HCl(aq)  0.122 mol dm
2 A student found t hat 20.0 cm of hydrochloric acid of unknown
concentration were required to neutralise 25 cm of sodium carbonate
solution wit h a concentration of 0.12 mol dm . Calculate t he mass
concentration of t he hydrochloric acid.
The balanced chemical equation for t he reaction is:
Na CO (aq)  2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq)  CO (g)  H O(l)

2 3 2 2
1) Molar concentration of Na CO (aq)  0.12 mol dm

2 3
3 3
i.e. 1000 cm (1 dm ) Na CO (aq) contains 0.12 mol Na CO

2 3 2 3
0.12
3 _____
∴ 1 cm Na CO (aq) contains mol Na CO

2 3 2 3
1000
0.12
3 _____
and 25 cm Na CO (aq) contains  25 mol Na CO

2 3 2 3
1000
 0.003 mol Na CO
2 3
2) 1 mol Na CO reacts wit h 2 mol HCl.

2 3
3) 0.003 mol Na CO reacts wit h 2  0.003 mol HCl

2 3
 0.006 mol HCl
4) Volume of HCl(aq) used  20.0 cm
i.e. 20.0 cm HCl(aq) contains 0.006 mol HCl.
0.006
3 ______
∴ 1 cm HCl(aq) contains mol HCl
20.0
0.006
3 3 ______
and 1000 cm (1 dm ) HCl(aq) contains  1000 mol HCl
20.0
 0.3 mol HCl
Therefore, molar concentration of HCl(aq)  0.3 mol dm
M(HCl)  1  35.5  36.5 g mol
i.e. mass of 1 mol HCl  36.5 g
∴ mass of 0.3 mol HCl  0.3  36.5 g
 10.95 g
Therefore, mass concentration of HCl(aq)  10.95 g dm
150
Acids, bases and salts Volumetric analysis
To determine the concentration of a solution of
hydrochloric acid
● analysis and interpretation
You will be supplied with 0.2 mol dm sodium hydroxide solution,
hydrochloric acid of unknown concentration, methyl orange indicator, a
25 cm pipette, a conical ask and a burette.
Method
1 Rinse the burette with some hydrochloric acid and ll it with the acid.
2 Rinse the pipette with some sodium hydroxide solution. Measure 25 cm of
sodium hydroxide solution in the pipette and run it into the conical ask.
3 Add a few drops of methyl orange to the conical ask and swirl to mix
the contents.
4 Carry out a titration as described in the practical activity on page 141.
This time add the acid until the solution just turns from yellow to
orange on adding one drop of acid. If it turns red you have added too
much acid.
5 Record your results in a table as outlined in the practical activity on page
142 and average the three volumes of acid which were within 0.1 cm .
6 Use this volume to calculate the molar concentration and mass
concentration of the hydrochloric acid. Use the examples above to
help you.
Determining vitamin C content
The vitamin C (ascorbic acid) content of vitamin C tablets, fresh fr uit juices
or packaged fr uit juices can be determined by performing a titration using
iodine solution. odine acts as an oxid ising agent (see Unit 9.3) during t he
titration and oxidises t he ascorbic acid to dehydroascorbic acid. The ascorbic
acid acts as a reducing agent and reduces t he iodine to  ions. The reaction
is summarised in t he following equation:
C H O (aq)   (aq) C H O (aq)  2H(aq)

6 8 6 2 6 6 6
ascorbic acid dehydroascorbic acid
During t he titration, brown iodine solution is added from t he burette to a
xed volume of fr uit juice or a solution of a vitamin C tablet. As t he iodine
is added it is immediately reduced by t he ascorbic acid to colourless  ions.
At t he point where all of t he ascorbic acid has just reacted, iodine will no
longer be reduced. The iodine remains in t he solution and reacts wit h t he
starch to produce a blue-black colour. The end point of t he titration is when
a permanent blue-black colour just forms.
f t he concentration of t he iodine solution is known, t he concentration
of ascorbic acid in t he fr uit juice or solution of a vitamin C tablet can be
calculated since 1 mol of ascorbic acid reacts wit h 1 mol of iodine.
151
To determine the vitamin C content of a fruit juice
You will be supplied with a sample of a fruit juice without pulp,
e.g. grapefruit juice, iodine solution of concentration 0.005 mol dm ,
1% starch indicator solution, a 25 cm pipette, a conical  ask and a
burette.
Method
1 Rinse the burette with some iodine solution and ll it with the iodine
solution.
Summary questions
3
2 Rinse the pipette with some of the fruit juice. Measure 25 cm of the fruit
3
juice in the pipette and run it into the conical ask.
1 A volume of 40 cm of
sodium carbonate solution of 3 Add ten drops of starch indicator to the conical ask and swirl to mix the
concentration 0.2 mol dm contents.
reacts with 20 cm of nitric

4 Carry out a titration as described in the practical activity on page 141.
acid of concentration
This time add the iodine solution until the rst permanent trace of a blue-
0.8 mol dm . Determine

black colour is obtained.
the mole ratio in which the
5 Record your results in a table as outlined in the same practical activity
reactants combine.
on page 142 and average the three volumes of iodine solution which
2 A volume of 30 cm of 3
were within 0.1 cm .
sodium hydroxide solution of
6 Use this volume to calculate the molar concentration and mass
concentration 0.4 mol dm
concentration of ascorbic acid in the grapefruit juice. Use the examples
were neutralised by 20 cm of
on pages 149–50 to help you.
sulfuric acid. Determine the
concentration of the sulfuric
You could adapt t he experiment which you have just performed to determine
acid in:
t he effect of heat on t he vitamin C content of a fr uit juice. Planning and

3
a mol dm
designing experiments is discussed in more detail in t he School-Based

3
b g dm
Assessment section on t he CD.
Key concepts
● An acid is a substance which forms hydrogen ions (H ) when dissolved
in water.
● An acid is dened as a proton donor.
● Aqueous solutions of acids have a sour taste, change t he colour of litmus
to red, have a pH value of less t han 7 and conduct an electric current.
● Aqueous acids react wit h reactive metals to form a salt and hydrogen;
react wit h carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to form a salt, carbon
dioxide and water; and react wit h bases to form a salt and water.
● Aqueous acids may be classied as organic or inorganic; monobasic,
dibasic or tribasic; dilute or concentrated; and strong or weak.
● An acid anhydride is a compound that reacts with water to form an acid.
● We come across a variety of organic acids in living organisms and we
make use of some of t hese organic acids in our ever yday activities.
152
Acids, bases and salts Volumetric analysis
● A base is dened as a proton donor.
● An alkali is a base which dissolves in water to form a solution containing
hydroxide ions (OH ).
● Aqueous solutions of alkalis have a bitter taste, change the colour of
litmus to blue, have a pH value greater than 7, conduct an electric current
and feel soapy.
● Bases react with acids to form a salt and water and react with ammonium
salts to form a salt, ammonia and water.
● Amphoteric substances can react with acids and strong alkalis.
● Oxides can be classied as acidic, basic, amphoteric and neutral.
● Strong acids and alkalis are fully ionised when dissolved in water.
● Weak acids and alkalis are partially ionised when dissolved in water.
● The strength of an acid or alkali is measured using the pH scale which
ranges from 0 to 14
● The stronger the acid, the lower the pH. The stronger the alkali, the higher
the pH.
● Neutral substances have a pH of 7.
● Universal indicator or a pH meter is used to measure pH.
● Other acid–alkali indicators have one colour in an acidic solution and
another colour in an alkaline solution.
● A salt is a compound formed when some or all of the replaceable
hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by metal or ammonium ions.
● A normal salt is formed when all the hydrogen ions in an acid are
replaced. An acid salt is formed when only some of the hydrogen ions are
replaced.
● Some salts contain water molecules trapped between their ions in the
cr ystal lattice. This is known as water of crystallisation
● nsoluble salts can be prepared by ionic precipitation.
● Anhydrous binar y salts can be prepared by direct combination.
● Potassium, sodium and ammonium salts can be prepared using a titration.
● Other soluble salts can be prepared by reacting a reactive metal, an
insoluble carbonate or an insoluble base with an acid.
● Salts play an extremely important part in our ever yday lives, but can also
be dangerous.
● A neutralisation reaction is a reaction between a base and an acid to form
a salt and water.
● The neutralisation point is the point in an acid–alkali reaction where the
reaction is complete and neither acid nor alkali is present in excess.
● The neutralisation point of an acid–alkali reaction can be determined
during a titration by using an indicator, a pH meter or temperature
change.
● Neutralisation reactions are used in various aspects of our daily lives.
● Volumetric analysis involves performing a titration to determine the
exact volume of one solution required to neutralise a xed volume of
another solution.
● Results of a titration can be used to determine the mole ratio in which the
two reactants combine or to determine the concentration of one reactant.
● The vitamin C content of a vitamin C tablet or fr uit juice can be
determined using a titration.
153
Practice exam-style questions Acids, bases and salts
9 Magnesium sulfate can be prepared by:

 reacting magnesium carbonate wit h sulfuric acid
 reacting magnesium nitrate wit h sulfuric acid
 reacting magnesium wit h sulfuric acid.
1 Which of t he following is not a proper ty of hydrochloric
A  and  only
acid?
B  and  only
A t turns blue litmus red.
C ,  and 
B t is a strong electrolyte.
D  only
C t reacts wit h magnesium to form magnesium
chloride and water.

10 Which of t he following cannot be used to determine t he
D t reacts wit h sodium carbonate to form sodium

neutralisation point in a reaction between an acid and
chloride, carbon dioxide and water.

an alkali?
A An anemometer
2 Which of t he following is/are proper ties of aqueous
B A t hermometer
alkalis?
C A pH meter
 They react wit h acids to form a salt and hydrogen.
D An indicator
 They have a pH less t han 7.
 They react wit h ammonium salts to form a salt,

3
11 A volume of 25 cm of a carbonate solution of
ammonia and water.

3 3
concentration 0.2 mol dm was neutralised by 20 cm of
A  and  only 3
an acid of concentration 0.5 mol dm . The mole ratio in
B  and  only
which t he reactants combine is:
C ,  and 
A 1 mol of carbonate to 1 mol of acid
D  only
B 1 mol of carbonate to 2 mol of acid
3 A weak acid is one which: C 2 mol of carbonate to 1 mol of acid
A is dilute D 3 mol of carbonate to 1 mol of acid.
B ionises fully in aqueous solution
 12 A volume of 10 cm of sulfuric acid of unknown

C has a low concentration of H ions
concentration neutralised 25 cm of sodium

D does not ionise in aqueous solution.
hydroxide solution of concentration 0.4 mol dm . The
4 A solution which has a pH of 11:
concentration of t he acid is:
A is more alkaline t han a solution wit h a pH of 12

3
A 0.1 mol dm
B is less alkaline t han a solution wit h a pH of 9

3
B 0.25 mol dm
C is more acidic t han water

3
C 0.4 mol dm
D is less alkaline t han a sodium hydroxide solution of

3
D 0.5 mol dm
t he same concentration.
5 The actual change which occurs when sodium
hydroxide solution reacts wit h sulfuric acid is:
Structured question
 2
A 2Na (aq)  SO (aq) Na SO (aq)

4 2 4

13 A titration is used to determine t he volume of one
B OH (aq)  H (aq) H O(l)
2
solution needed to neutralise a xed volume of anot her

C 2NaOH(aq)  H SO (aq) Na SO (s)  2H O(l)
2 4 2 4 2
solution. Titrations can be used as a means of preparing

D NaOH(aq)  H SO (aq) Na SO (aq)  H O(l)
2 4 2 4 2
cer tain soluble salts and in volumetric analysis to
6 Which of t he following acids is found in an ant sting?
determine t he concentration of one of t he solutions
A Met hanoic acid
used. During a titration, t he neutralisation point is
B Et hanoic acid
usually determined by using an indicator.
C Lactic acid
a What is meant by t he neutralisation point of a

D Hydrochloric acid
titration? (2 marks)
7 Which of t he following is not an amphoteric substance?
b n order to determine t he concentration of a sodium

A Lead(II) oxide
hydroxide solution, a student is provided wit h two

B Aluminium hydroxide
solutions labelled X and Y.

C ron(III) oxide
D Zinc hydroxide – X is aqueous sulfuric acid wit h a mass
concentration of 19.6 g dm
8 A pure sample of lead(II) chloride can be prepared by
– Y is a sodium hydroxide solution of unknown

reacting:
concentration.
A lead wit h dilute hydrochloric acid
B lead(II) hydroxide wit h dilute hydrochloric acid To determine t he concentration of Y, t he student
C lead(II) nitrate solution wit h sodium chloride titrates X against 25.0 cm of Y. The gure shows
solution t he readings from t he burette before and af ter each
D lead(II) carbonate wit h hydrochloric acid. titration using 25.0 cm of solution Y.
154
Acids, bases and salts Practice exam-style questions
c Salts can be prepared in t he laborator y by a variety of
0 17 2 19 4 22
different met hods.
i) Describe how you would prepare a pure sample
of anhydrous copper(II) sulfate in t he laborator y
star ting wit h copper(II) carbonate. nclude in
your answer a balanced chemical equation for
1 18 3 20 5 23
t he reaction. (5 marks)
ii) How would your met hod be different if you
wanted to prepare hydrated copper(II) sulfate
before after before after before after

cr ystals? (1 mark)
titration 1 titration 2 titration 3
Total 15 marks
Burette readings
i) Using t he information from t he gure, complete
t he table below.
Titration number
1 2 3
Final burette reading/cm
Initial burette reading/cm
Volume of solution X used/cm
(3 marks)
ii) Calculate t he volume of X needed to neutralise
25 cm of Y. (1 mark)
iii) Calculate t he concentration of sulfuric acid in
solution X in mol dm (1 mark)
iv) Calculate t he number of moles of sulfuric acid
used in t he titration. (1 mark)
v) Write a balanced equation for t he reaction.
(2 marks)
vi) Determine t he number of moles of sodium
hydroxide in t he 25.0 cm of solution Y used.
(1 mark)
vii) Calculate t he concentration of sodium
hydroxide in solution Y in mol dm . (1 mark)
c How would t he student use t he titration carried out
in b above:
i) to prepare a pure dr y sample of sodium sulfate
(2 marks)
ii) to prepare a pure sodium hydrogensulfate
solution? (1 mark)
Total 15 marks
14 a An acid can be dened as a proton donor and a base
as a proton acceptor. Explain t he reason for EACH
denition. (4 marks)
b Carbonic acid and sulfuric acid are bot h acidic.
However, t hey have different pH values. You are
supplied wit h a 1.0 mol dm solution of each acid.
i) Suggest a pH value for EACH solution. (2 marks)
ii) Explain t he reason for t heir different pH values.
(2 marks)
iii) Give one way you could use to nd out if your
suggested pH values are correct. (1 mark)
155
Oxidation–reduction
A9
reactions
Oxidation and reduction reactions form a very important

Objectives
part of our everyday lives, for example, in batteries,

be able to:
photography, photosynthesis and the rusting of cars. In
● describe the action of common

all these reactions electrons are being transferred. It was
oxidising and reducing
only after the discovery of oxygen that the chemistry

substances in everyday
activities behind oxidation–reduction reactions was understood.
● dene oxidation and reduction
in terms of electron transfer
● identify the reactant being A9.1 Oxidation and reduction – an introduction
oxidised and the reactant being
The discover y and laborator y preparation of oxygen was a ver y impor tant
reduced using electron transfer.
stepping stone in chemistr y. Antoine Lavoisier (1743–94) discovered t hat
when metals are burned, t hey combine wit h oxygen from t he air to form
oxides. The term oxid ation was used later to dene any reaction in which a
reactant gains oxygen. An example, according to t his denition of oxidation,
is t he reaction between magnesium and oxygen where t he magnesium has
gained oxygen, forming magnesium oxide:

2
The removal of oxygen from a metal oxide was described as a reduction
reaction because t he metal oxide was reduced to t he pure metal. The term
reduction was used to dene any reaction in which a reactant loses oxygen.
An example, according to t his denition of reduction, is t he reaction between
iron(III) oxide and carbon where t he iron(III) oxide has lost oxygen to form
iron:
2Fe O (s)  3C(s) 4Fe(s)  3CO (g)

2 3 2
These denitions were later extended to include reactions involving hydrogen.
Hydrogen is chemically opposite to oxygen, therefore, oxidation was dened as
a loss of hydrogen and reduction was dened as a gain of hydrogen.
With the discovery of protons, neutrons and, most importantly, electrons,
scientists rened their denitions of oxidation and reduction, and the denitions
were rened again using the concept of oxidation number or oxidation state.
You will be studying these denitions in detail later in this unit.
Oxidation and reduction in our everyday activities
We encounter, and make use of, many oxidation and reduction reactions in
our ever yday lives. We will look at some of t hese below.
Action of bleaches
Bleach is added to clothes to remove coloured stains. The most commonly
used bleaches are chlorine bleaches containing sodium chlorate(I) (NaClO)
and oxygen bleaches containing hydrogen peroxide (H O ). Both types

2 2
of bleach remove stains by oxidising the coloured chemicals, or dyes, in the
 Figure 9.1.1 The copper from which stain to their colourless form, hence the stain disappears. The equation below
the statue of Marcus Garvey is made

summarises how the chlorate(I) ion (ClO ) in a chlorine bleach works:
has started to turn green because of
oxidation ClO (aq)  coloured dye Cl (aq)  colourless dye
156
Oxidation–reduction reactions Oxidation and reduction – an introduction
Rusting
When iron and its a lloy, ste el, co me into con t ac t w it h oxyg en an d mo isture
t he iron is oxidised by t he oxygen to fo r m hydra te d ir on (I II) oxid e (Fe O

2 3
xH O), ot her wise known as r ust . Given sufficient t ime a nd ex po su re to

2
oxygen and moist ure , a ny iro n ob j ec t w ill even tu ally oxid ise e n tir ely to
r ust and disinteg ra t e .
Browning of cut f ruits and vege tab les
As so on as cer t ain fr uit s suc h as a pple s an d ban an as, or cer t ain veget ables
suc h as pot atoes, a re pee led or cut , t he cu t su r f ac e is ex p ose d to oxyg en in
t he air. Enzymes in t he plan t c ells on t he su r f ac e of t he fr u it or ve get ab le
 Figure 9.1.2 A cut apple turns brown
begin to oxidise cer t ain c hemica ls in t he ce lls to brown compounds
on exposure to oxygen in the air
known as melanins . These melanins c a us e t he cut or da maged su r f ac e to
tur n brown.
Did you know?

n many cases, b rown in g is un desirab le b ec au se it cau se s c h an ges in
?
appearance, flavo ur, qualit y and t aste. Th e me la n ins for med a re not tox ic
Melanins are dark brown and
and in some case s t h e ir pro ductio n is use f u l sinc e it con tr ib u tes to t he
black pigments responsible for the
colour and flavour of ite ms suc h as raisins, pr u n es, coffee, t ea and coc oa.
colour of skin, hair, scales, feathers
and eyes of animals. Exposure
to ultraviolet light stimulates the
Food preservation
production of melanin pigments
Sodium sulfite and s ulfur diox ide are use d as food preservative s to in human skin, which is why skin
enhance flavour, pre s e r ve fre sh ne ss and r ed u c e or preven t spoilage and darkens in sunlight.
discolouration of fo o ds suc h as wine , fr u it j u ices, dr ie d fr u it s, dr ied
pot atoes and shr imp. Th ey do t his by p reven ting ox id atio n . Th ey p reven t
bacter ia oxidising win e to vine ga r and p reven t t he vit amin C in fr u it ju ic e
being de stroyed by ox idat io n . They a lso p reven t b r own ing of dr ie d fr u its ,
dr ied pot ato produc t s a nd sh r imp by reducing c hemicals produc e d dur in g
t he browning pro c e ss ba c k to t h eir c olo u rle ss for m.
The breathalyser te st
The bre at halyser test is used to test t he a lco h o l leve l in t he b reat h of
dr iver s. n t he te st , t he dr ive r blow s in to a sample of oran ge p ot assi um
dic hromate(VI) c r y st a ls (K Cr O ) whic h have be e n acidified wit h

2 2 7
sulfur ic acid. Any et h an o l vapo ur s in t he dr ive r ’s b reat h w ill reduce t he
2 3
orange dic hromate(VI) io n (Cr O ) to t he green c h romium(III) io n (Cr ),

2 7
tur ning t he cr yst a ls g re en (se e Un it 9.3).
Key fact
Oxidation–reduc tion and electrons
Oxidation is the loss of electrons
by an element in its free state or an

By t h e tur n of t he 2 0t h ce nt ur y, c he mists realise d t h at ox id atio n reac tion s
element in a compound.
always seemed to invo lve a lo ss of ele c tron s. Th ey develo ped a mo d el for
oxidation reactio n s t hat invo lved a tran sfer of ele c tron s. A su b st an c e t h at
lost electrons was sai d to h ave b ee n oxid ised and a subst ance t hat gained
electrons was said to h ave be en reduced .
Key fact
Oxidation and reduc t ion can be d ef ined in t er ms of ele c tron t ran s fer,
Reduction is the gain of electrons
oxidation being t he loss of electrons and re duc tio n b ein g t he gain of
by an element in its free state or an
electrons.
element in a compound.
157
Oxidation and reduction – an introduction Oxidation–reduction reactions
A substance will not lose electrons unless t here is anot her substance available
to gain t he electrons, i.e. for ever y oxidation reaction t here will always be a
Exam tip
✔
reduction reaction. These oxidation–reduction reactions are known as redox
You must be able to define reactions. The equation t hat only shows t he loss of electrons is known as
oxidation and reduction in terms of

t he oxid ation half equation and t he equation t hat only shows t he gain of
electron transfer. An easy way to

electrons is known as t he reduction half equation
remember these definitions is by
remembering two words: OlL RlG
Examples of redox reactions
OlL Oxidation Is Loss
1 Burning magnesium in oxygen:

RlG Reduction Is Gain

2
The magnesium oxide (MgO) produced in t he reaction is an ionic
Key fact 2 2
! compound consisting of Mg ions and O ions. During t he reaction:
● Each magnesium atom loses two electrons to form a magnesium ion.
A redox reaction is a chemical
Magnesium (Mg) is oxid ised:

reaction in which one reactant is
2
reduced and the other is oxidised.
Mg  2e Mg
This is more correctly written as:
2
Mg Mg  2e
The overall oxidation half equation is:
Exam tip
✔ 2
2Mg(s) 2Mg (s)  4e
When writing balanced oxidation ● Each oxygen atom in t he oxygen molecule gains two electrons to
and reduction half equations you form an oxide ion. Oxygen (O ) is reduced:
2
must always include state symbols

2
O  2e O
and it is important to ensure that
the number of atoms and charges

The overall reduction half equation is:
balance at each side of the
O (g)  4e 2O (s)
2
equation.
2 Adding zinc to copper(II) sulfate solution:
Zn(s)  CuSO (aq) ZnSO (aq)  Cu(s)

4 4
The zinc displaces t he copper in t he copper(II) sulfate to form zinc
sulfate and copper. Writing t he ionic equation for t he reaction:
2 2
Zn(s)  Cu (aq) Zn (aq)  Cu(s)
During t he reaction:
● Each zinc atom loses two electrons to form a zinc ion. Zinc (Zn) is
oxid ised:
2
Zn(s) Zn (aq)  2e
● Each copper (II) ion gains two electrons to form a copper atom. The
2
copper(II) ions (Cu ) are reduced:
2
Cu (aq)  2e 2Cu(s)
3 Bubbling chlorine gas t hrough potassium bromide solution:

2 2
The chlorine gas displaces t he bromine in t he potassium bromide to
form potassium chloride and bromine. Writing t he ionic equation for
t he reaction:
Cl (g)  2Br¯(aq) 2Cl¯(aq)  Br (aq)

2 2
158
Oxidation–reduction reactions Oxidation numbers
During t he reaction:
● Each bromide ion loses one electron to form a bromine atom. The
bromide ions (Br ) are oxid ised:
2Br¯(aq) Br (aq)  2e
2
● Each chlorine atom in t he chlorine molecule gains one electron to
form a chloride ion. Chlorine (Cl ) is reduced:

2
Cl (g)  2e 2Cl¯(aq)
2
onic bonding always involves a transfer of electrons from the metal atom to
the non-metal atom. Any reaction in which ionic bonds are formed is a redox
reaction. Using the reaction between sodium and chlorine as an example:
2Na(s)  Cl (g) 2NaCl(s)

2
● Each sodium atom loses one electron to form a sodium ion. Sodium (Na)
is oxid ised:
2Na(s) 2Na (s)  2e
● Each chlorine atom in t he chlorine molecule gains one electron to form
a chloride ion. Chlorine (Cl ) is reduced:

2
Cl (g)  2e 2Cl (s)

2
Summary questions
1 Dene oxidation and reduction in terms of a transfer of electrons.
2 State whether each of the following half equations shows oxidation or
reduction:
3 2 3
a Fe (aq)  3e Fe(s) b Fe (aq) Fe (aq)  e
 2
c Br (aq) 2Br (aq)  2e d Cu  2e Cu(s).

2
3 In the following redox reaction, state what has been oxidised and what
has been reduced:
Br (aq)  2KI(aq) 2KBr(aq)  I (aq)

2 2
4 Why does an apple turn brown when it is cut in half?
A9.2 Oxidation numbers Objectives
Redox chemistr y developed fur t her when chemists recognised t hat
be able to:
oxidation–reduction reactions did not always involve t he transfer of
● dene oxidation number

electrons. For example, in t he reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to
● determine oxidation numbers

for m water, t here is no change in t he number of valence electrons on any
from formulae
of t he atoms, i.e. t here is no transfer of valence electrons. However, t he
● dene oxidation and reduction

reaction is denitely a redox reaction because t he reaction involves bot h
in terms of oxidation number

hydrogen and oxygen:
● identify redox reactions using a
2H (g)  O (g) 2H O(g)

2 2 2
change in oxidation number
● identify the reactant being

The model of oxidation–reduction reactions was expanded by t he
oxidised and the reactant being

development of t he concept of oxid ation number or oxid ation state.
reduced using a change in

Oxidation number indicates t he number of electrons lost, gained or shared
oxidation number.
as a result of chemical bonding.
159
Oxidation numbers Oxidation–reduction reactions
Oxidation numbers can be positive, negative or zero. When writing t he
oxidation number of an element, unless t he number is zero, a plus or minus

Key fact
!
sign is placed before t he number to indicate if it is positive or negative,
The oxidation number of an

e.g. 1, 2, and t here is always a number af ter t he sign, i.e. t he number 1 is
element is the theoretical charge

always written.
that an atom of the element would
Oxidation numbers play an impor tant role in t he naming of cer tain

have if all the bonds between the
compounds as you will learn in sections t hat follow.

atoms in the compound containing
it were ionic and the compound
was composed entirely of ions.
Rules for determining oxidation numbers
Before you can learn how to recognise redox reactions using t he concept of
oxidation number, you must learn how to determine t he oxidation numbers
of elements. To do t his, a set of r ules need to be followed.
● The oxidation number of each atom of an element in its free state is zero.
For example:
oxidation number of an Al atom in Al  0
oxidation number of each N atom in N  0.

2
● The oxidation number of each simple ion in an ionic compound is equal
to t he charge on t he ion. For example:
3
in Al O : oxidation number of each Al ion  3

2 3
oxidation number of each O ion  2.
● The oxidation number of hydrogen when present in a compound is always
1 except when bonded to a metal in a metal hydride where its oxidation
number is 1, e.g. in sodium hydride (NaH) and calcium hydride (CaH ).
2
● The oxidation number of oxygen when present in a compound is always
2 except in peroxides where it is 1, e.g. in hydrogen peroxide (H O ).

2 2
● The sum of t he oxidation numbers of all elements present in a
compound is zero. For example, in H O, t he oxidation number of each

2
atom must add up to zero:
2(oxidation number of H)  (oxidation number of O)  0
2(1)  (2)  0
(2)  (2)  0
● The sum of t he oxidation numbers of all elements present in a
polyatomic ion is equal to t he charge on t he ion. For example, in t he
OH ion, t he oxidation number of each atom must add up to 1:
(oxidation number of O)  (oxidation number of H)  1
(2)  (1)  1
Following these r ules, the oxidation number of any element can be determined
from the formula of the compound or polyatomic ion in which the element
occurs.
Examples
1 Determine t he oxidation number of sulfur in sulfur dioxide (SO ).

2
(oxidation number of S)  2(oxidation number of O)  0
(oxidation number of S)  2(2)  0
(oxidation number of S)  (4)  0
∴ oxidation number of S  4
The compound sulfur dioxide (SO ) can be called sulfur( IV) oxide
2
because t he oxidation number of sulfur in t he compound is 4.
160
2 Determine t he oxidation number of nitrogen in t he nitrate ion (NO ).

3
(oxidation number of N)  3(oxidation number of O)  1
(oxidation number of N)  3(2)  1
(oxidation number of N)  (6)  1
∴ oxidation number of N  5
The nitrate ion (NO ) is more correctly called t he nitrate( V) ion

3
because t he oxidation number of nitrogen in t he ion is 5.
3 Determine t he oxidation number of C  4(1)  0
carbon in met hane (CH ). C  (4)  0

4
∴ C  4
The oxidation number of carbon is 4
4 Determine t he oxidation number of Mn  4(2)  1
manganese in t he MnO ion and name Mn  (8)  1

4
t he ion. ∴ Mn  7
The oxidation number of manganese is 7. The ion is called t he
manganate( VII) ion because of t he oxidation number of manganese
in t he ion.
5 Determine t he oxidation number 2(1)  2Cr  7(2)  0
of chromium in K Cr O and (2)  2Cr  (14)  0

2 2 7
name t he compound. 2Cr  12
∴ Cr  6
The oxidation number of chromium is 6.
The compound is called potassium d ichromate( VI) because of t he
oxidation number of chromium in t he compound.
6 Determine t he oxidation number of S  3(2)  2
sulfur in t he sulte ion (SO ) and S  (6)  2

3
suggest an alternative name for t he ion. ∴ S  4
The oxidation number of sulfur is 4. The ion can also
be called t he sulfate( IV) ion
Oxidation number and naming compounds
Cer tain elements have more t han one possible oxidation number. For
t his reason, when naming a compound or ion t hat contains any of t hese
elements, it is impor tant to include t he oxidation number as par t of t he
name. This is done by placing t he oxidation number of t he element,
wit hout its charge, in Roman numerals in brackets af ter its name.
When naming ions, t he name always ends in ‘ ate’. Tables 9.2.1, 9.2.2
and 9.2.3 give examples.
 Table 9.2.1 Names of compounds  Table 9.2.2 Names of compounds and  Table 9.2.3 Names of compounds and
containing manganese ions containing nitrogen ions containing sulfur
Compound Oxidation Name Compound Oxidation Name Compound Oxidation Name
number number number
of Mn of N of S
MnO 4 manganese(IV) NO 2 nitrogen(II) oxide SO 4 sulfur(IV) oxide

2 2
oxide
NO 4 nitrogen(IV) oxide SO 6 sulfur(VI) oxide

2 3
KMnO 7 potassium
4
2
NO 3 nitrate(III) ion SO 4 sulfate(IV) ion

2 3
manganate(VII)
NO 5 nitrate(V) ion SO 6 sulfate(VI) ion

3 4
161
Oxidation numbers Oxidation–reduction reactions
Redox reactions and oxidation number
Key fact
! f we consider t he loss or gain of electrons and a change in oxidation number,
we can see a clear link between t he two.

Oxidation is the increase in the
oxidation number of an element ● Whenever an atom or ion loses electrons it has been oxidised. At t he
in its free state or an element in a

same time, its oxidation number increases. For example, when a sodium
compound.
atom forms a sodium ion it loses one electron and its oxidation number
increases from 0 to 1. The sodium atom has been oxid ised:
Na  e Na
Key fact
!
oxidation numbers: (0) (1)
Reduction is the decrease in the ● Whenever an atom or ion gains electrons it has been reduced. At t he same
oxidation number of an element time, its oxidation number decreases. For example, when a chlorine atom
in its free state or an element in a

forms a chloride ion it gains one electron and its oxidation number
compound.
decreases from 0 to 1. The chlorine atom has been reduced:
Cl  e Cl
oxidation numbers: (0) (1)
Exam tip
✔
By considering t he change in oxidation number of each element in a reaction
It is easy to remember that it is possible to determine if it is a redox reaction. f it is a redox reaction, t he
reduction is a decrease in oxidation oxidation number of one element will increase and t he oxidation number of
number, because when you reduce

anot her element will decrease.
anything, you make it less
Consider t he following reaction again:

2
We can write t he half equation for t he conversion of magnesium to
magnesium ions and show t he oxidation number of each below:
2
2Mg(s) 2Mg (s)  4e
(0) (2)
Looking at t his, we can see t hat t he oxidation number of each magnesium
atom has increased from 0 to 2. Magnesium (Mg) has been oxid ised
We can write t he half equation for t he conversion of oxygen to oxide ions
and show t he oxidation numbers below:
O (g)  4e 2O (s)
2
(0) (2)
Looking at t his, we can see t hat t he oxidation number of each oxygen atom
in t he oxygen molecule has decreased from 0 to 2. Oxygen (O ) has been

2
reduced
t is impor tant to note t hat in writing t he oxidation number of each element
we disregard any subscripts or coefcients. We are writing t he oxidation
number of a single atom or ion of t he element only.
Recognising redox reactions using oxidation numbers
Changes in oxidation number are not always brought about by a transfer of
electrons. The oxidation numbers of elements in covalent substances can
also change when t hey react to form ot her covalent substances. For example,
when hydrogen and oxygen react to form water:
2H (g)  O (g) 2H O(g)

2 2 2
(0) (0) (1) ( 2)

oxidation numbers:
162
● The oxidation number of each hydrogen atom in t he hydrogen molecule
has increased from 0 to 1. Hydrogen (H ) has been oxid ised

2
● The oxidation number of each oxygen atom in t he oxygen molecule has
decreased from 0 to 2. Oxygen (O ) has been reduced

2
Redox reactions which involve a transfer of electrons and also t hose which
don’t involve a transfer of electrons can be recognised using oxid ation
number by t he steps outlined below.
1) Write t he balanced chemical equation for t he reaction.
2) Write t he oxidation number of each element in brackets below it. You do
not need to determine t he oxidation numbers of elements in polyatomic
ions which remain unchanged during a reaction.
3) Determine which element shows an increase in its oxidation number.
This is t he element which has been oxidised.
4) Determine which element shows a decrease in its oxidation number. This
is t he element which has been reduced.
5) f t here is no increase in oxidation number of one element and a
decrease in oxidation number of anot her element, t hen t he reaction is
not a redox reaction.
Examples
1 Determine which element has been oxidised and which element has
been reduced in t he reaction between copper(II) oxide and hydrogen.
CuO(s)  H (g) Cu(s)  H O(g)

2 2
(2)( 2) (0) (0) (1)( 2)
reduced
oxidised
● The oxidation number of each hydrogen atom in the hydrogen molecule
has increased from 0 to 1. Hydrogen (H ) has been oxidised.

2
2
● The oxidation number of t he Cu ion in t he copper(II) oxide has
decreased from 2 to 0. Copper(II) oxide (CuO) has been reduced.
2 Determine which element has been oxidised and which has been
reduced in t he reaction between met hane and oxygen.
CH (g)  2O (g) CO (g)  2H O(g)

4 2 2 2
( 4)(1) (0) (4)( 2) (1)( 2)
oxidised
reduced
● The oxidation number of t he carbon atom in t he met hane molecule
has increased from 4 to 4. Met hane (CH ) has been oxid ised.
4
● The oxidation number of each oxygen atom in t he oxygen molecule
has decreased from 0 to 2. Oxygen (O ) has been reduced.

2
3 Determine whet her t he following reaction is a redox reaction or not.
2AgNO (aq)  MgCl (aq) 2AgCl(s)  Mg(NO ) (aq)

3 2 3 2
(1) (2)( 1) (1)( 1) (2)
Because t he NO ion remains unchanged in t he reaction, i.e. it is one of

3
t he spectator ions, t he oxidation numbers of t he nitrogen and oxygen in
t he ion do not need to be considered.
None of t he elements has undergone a change in oxidation number.
This is not a redox reaction.
163
Oxidising and reducing agents Oxidation–reduction reactions
4 Determine which element has been oxidised and which has been
reduced in t he reaction between magnesium and zinc sulfate.
Mg(s)  ZnSO (aq) MgSO (aq)  Zn(s)

4 4
(0) (2) (2) (0)
oxidised
reduced
Because t he SO ion remains unchanged in t he reaction, t he oxidation

4
numbers of t he sulfur and oxygen in t he ion do not need to be
considered.
● The oxidation number of t he magnesium has increased from 0 to 2.
Magnesium (Mg) has been oxid ised.
2
● The oxidation number of each Zn ion in t he zinc sulfate has decreased
from 2 to 0. Zinc sulfate (ZnSO ) has been reduced.

4
Summary questions
1 Dene oxidation and reduction in terms of oxidation number.
2 Determine the oxidation number of:
a copper in CuO
b sulfur in H S
2
c carbon in each of CO, CO , H CO and C H

2 2 3 2 4
d nitrogen in each of NH , Mg N and NH Cl

3 3 2 4
e chlorine in each of AlCl , NaClO and KClO

3 3
3 Use oxidation number to determine whether the following are redox
reactions. If they are redox reactions give the reactant which has been
oxidised and the reactant which has been reduced:
a Cl (g)  2KI(aq) 2KCl(aq)  I (aq)

2 2
b 4Al(s)  3O (g) 2Al O (s)

2 2 3
c Mg(s)  2HCl(aq) MgCl (aq)  H (g)

2 2
d BaCl (aq)  H SO (aq) BaSO (s)  2HCl(aq).

2 2 4 4
Objectives

A9.3 Oxidising and reducing agents
be able to:
n any redox reaction, oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously.

● dene the terms oxidising and
reducing agent in terms of ● One reactant brings about t he oxidation of t he ot her reactant. This is
electrons known as t he oxid ising agent
● dene the terms oxidising and

● One reactant brings about t he reduction of t he ot her reactant. This is
reducing agent in terms of

known as t he reducing agent
oxidation number
This can generally be symbolised as follows, where A is t he reactant t hat has

● recognise oxidising and
been oxidised and B is t he reactant t hat has been reduced:

reducing agents
● give examples of compounds

A  B C  D
oxidised reduced
which can act as both an
oxidising agent and a reducing

n t he above reaction:
agent
● A must have been oxidised by B. B is t he oxidising agent.
● describe tests to identify
● B must have been reduced by A. A is t he reducing agent.

oxidising and reducing agents.
164
Oxidation–reduction reactions Oxidising and reducing agents
Oxidising and reducing agents in terms of electrons
Key fact
Consider t he example of aluminium reacting wit h chlorine gas: !
2Al(s)  3Cl (g) 2AlCl (s)

2 3 An oxidising agent brings about

● The aluminium has been oxidised because each atom has lost t hree
3 by causing an atom or ion in that

electrons to form an aluminium ion (Al ):
reactant to lose electrons.

3
2Al(s) 2Al (s)  6e
The chlorine atoms brought about t his loss by taking t hese electrons.
Chlorine (Cl ) is t he oxid ising agent

2
● The chlorine has been reduced because each atom in t he molecule
Key fact
!
gained one electron to form a chloride ion (Cl ):
3Cl (g)  6e 6Cl (s) A reducing agent brings about

2
the reduction of another reactant
The aluminium atoms brought about t his gain by donating t hese
by causing an atom or ion in that
electrons. Aluminium (Al) is t he reducing agent.
reactant to gain electrons.
An oxid ising agent, t herefore, causes anot her reactant to lose electrons and
a reducing agent causes anot her reactant to gain electrons.
Oxidising and reducing agents in terms of oxidation

Exam tip
✔
number
It can be very confusing to try to
Consider t he example of magnesium burning in oxygen again:
learn the definitions of oxidation and
2Mg(s)  O (g) 2MgO(s) reduction as well as those of oxidising

2
(0) (0) (2)( 2)

agent and reducing agent. It is better
oxidised to work them out when needed.
reduced
You know that Oxidation Is the Loss
of electrons (OIL). An oxidising agent
● The magnesium has been oxidised because t he oxidation number of
must cause this loss by taking these
each magnesium atom has increased from 0 to 2. Oxygen (O ) is t he

2
electrons. The oxidising agent itself
oxid ising agent because it is t he reactant t hat caused t he increase in
gains electrons.
oxidation number.
You know that Reduction Is the
● The oxygen has been reduced because t he oxidation number of each

Gain of electrons (RIG). A reducing
oxygen atom has decreased from 0 to 2. Magnesium (Mg) is t he

agent must cause this gain by giving
reducing agent because it is t he reactant t hat caused t he decrease in

electrons. The reducing agent itself
oxidation number. loses electrons.
An oxid ising agent, t herefore, causes t he oxidation number of an atom or
ion in anot her reactant to increase. A reducing agent causes t he oxidation
number of an atom or ion in anot her reactant to decrease Key fact
Examples
An oxidising agent brings about
1 Determine which reactant is t he oxdising agent and which is t he
by causing the oxidation number of
reducing agent in t he reaction between copper(II) oxide and hydrogen.
an atom or ion in that reactant to
CuO(s)  H (g) Cu(s)  H O(g)

2 2 increase
(2)( 2) (0) (0) (1)( 2)
reduced
oxidised
Key fact
!
● Copper (II) oxide (CuO) is t he oxid ising agent because it oxidised
t he hydrogen by causing t he oxidation number of each hydrogen A reducing agent brings about the
reduction of another reactant by

atom to increase from 0 to 1.
causing the oxidation number of
● Hydrogen (H ) is the reducing agent because it reduced the copper(II)

2
an atom or ion in that reactant to

2
oxide by causing the oxidation number of the Cu ion to decrease from
decrease
2 to 0.
165
2 Determine which reactant is t he oxdising agent and which is t he
reducing agent in t he reaction between zinc and sulfuric acid.

Exam tip
✔
Zn(s)  H SO (aq) ZnSO (aq)  H (g)

2 4 4 2
It is better to work out the
(0) (1) (2) (0)
definitions of oxidising agent and
oxidised
reducing agent using the concept
reduced
of oxidation number when you
need them.
● Sulfuric acid (H SO ) is t he oxid ising agent because it oxidised t he
2 4
If you remember that oxidation zinc by causing t he oxidation number of t he zinc atom to increase
involves an increase in oxidation

from 0 to 2.
number, an oxidising agent must
● Zinc (Zn) is t he reducing agent because it reduced t he sulfuric acid
cause this increase.


by causing t he oxidation number of each H ion to decrease from 1
If you remember that reduction
to 0.
involves a decrease in oxidation
number, a reducing agent must
3 s iron(III) oxide behaving as an oxdising agent or a reducing agent when
cause this decrease.
it reacts wit h carbon monoxide?
Fe O (s)  3CO(g) 2Fe(s)  3CO (g)

2 3 2
(3)( 2) (2)( 2) (0) (4)( 2)
oxidised
To determine t he behaviour of iron(III) oxide we need to look to see if
t he carbon monoxide has been oxidised or reduced.
The carbon monoxide has been oxidised. The iron(III) oxide (Fe O ) is
2 3
behaving as an oxidising agent because it caused the oxidation number of
the carbon atom in the carbon monoxide (CO) to increase from 2 to 4.
Substances that can behave as both oxidising and
reducing agents
There are some compounds which can act as bot h oxidising and reducing
agents. Their behaviour depends on t he ot her reactant. Examples of two
compounds which can behave in t his way are given below.
Sulfur dioxide, SO
2
Sulfur dioxide usually acts as a reducing agent. This is seen, for example, when
it reacts wit h chlorine:
SO (g)  Cl (g)  2H O(l) H SO (aq)  2HCl(aq)

2 2 2 2 4
(0) ( 1)
reduced by SO
2
The sulfur dioxide reduced t he chlorine by causing t he oxidation number of
each chlorine atom in t he chlorine molecule to decrease from 0 to 1.
When it reacts wit h a stronger reducing agent t han itself, such as hydrogen
sulde, sulfur dioxide behaves as an oxidising agent:
2H S(g)  SO (g) 3S(s)  2H O(l)

2 2 2
( 2) (0)
oxidised by SO
2
The sulfur dioxide oxidised t he hydrogen sulde by causing t he oxidation
number of t he sulfur atom in t he hydrogen sulde molecule to increase from
2 to 0.
166
Acidified hydrogen peroxide, H /H O

2 2
Acidied hydrogen peroxide is hydrogen peroxide solution to which sulfuric
acid has been added. t usually behaves as an oxidising agent. This is seen, for
example, when it reacts wit h potassium iodide:
2K(aq)  H O (aq)  H SO (aq)  (g)  K SO (aq)  2H O(l)

2 2 2 4 2 2 4 2
( 1) (0)
oxidised by H O
2 2
The hydrogen peroxide oxidised t he potassium iodide by causing t he
oxidation number of t he  ion to increase from 1 to 0.
When it reacts wit h a stronger oxidising agent t han itself, such as acidied
potassium manganate(VII), acidied hydrogen peroxide behaves as a reducing
agent:
2KMnO (aq)  5H O (aq)  3H SO (aq) K SO (aq)  5O (g)  2MnSO (aq)  8H O(l)

4 2 2 2 4 2 4 2 4 2
(7) ( 2)
reduced by H O
2 2
The hydrogen peroxide reduced t he potassium manganate(VII) by causing
t he oxidation number of t he manganese to decrease from 7 to 2.
Tests for oxidising agents and reducing agents
There are cer tain chemicals which undergo oxidation or reduction in a
chemical reaction in a ver y distinct way, e.g. they may change to a distinct
colour, they may form a par ticular precipitate or they may give off a par ticular
gas. Chemists use these chemicals to determine whether unknown substances
are oxidising agents or reducing agents. They do this by reacting the unknown
substance with these chemicals and obser ving the products. These chemicals
form the basis of tests for oxidising agents and reducing agents.
Examples
Potassium iod ide solution, K (aq)
Potassium iod ide solution is used in t he laborator y to test for an oxidising
agent. There is a distinct colour change in t he solution from colourless to
brown when t he potassium iodide is oxidised. The colour change occurs
because t he oxidising agent oxidises t he colourless iodide ion ( ) to iodine
( ) which dissolves forming a brown solution.

2
2 (aq)  (aq)  2e
2
( 1) (0)
oxidised
The potassium iodide is, itself, a reducing agent.
Acid ied potassium manganate(VII) solution, H /KMnO (aq)

4
Acid ied potassium manganate(VII) solution is used in t he laborator y to
test for a reducing agent. There is a distinct colour change in t he solution
from purple to colourless when t he potassium manganate(VII) is reduced.
The colour change occurs because t he reducing agent reduces t he pur ple
2
manganate(VII) ion (MnO ) to t he colourless manganese(II) ion (Mn ).

4
2
MnO (aq) Mn (aq)

4
(7) (2)
reduced
The acidied potassium manganate(VII) is, itself, an oxidising agent.
167
Tests for oxidising agents
Table 9.3.1 summarises t he names and colour changes of t he main two
chemicals which can be used as t he reactants to test for oxidising agents.
These chemicals are, t hemselves, reducing agents.
 Table 9.3.1 Reducing agents used to test for the presence of an oxidising agent
Reducing agent used Visible change when Explanation
for test agent is oxidised
Potassium iodide solution Colourless to brown The colourless iodide ion (I ) is oxidised to
(KI(aq)) iodine (I ) which dissolves forming a brown

2
solution
2
Iron(II) sulfate solution Pale green to yellow-brown The pale green iron(II) ion (Fe ) is oxidised
 Figure 9.3.1 Potassium iodide turns 3
(FeSO (aq)) to the yellow-brown iron(III) ion (Fe )

4
from colourless to brown when
oxidised
There are several ot her chemicals which behave as reducing agents in
reactions, alt hough t hey are not usually used to test for t he presence of an
oxidising agent. These are given in Table 9.3.2.
 Table 9.3.2 Other common reducing agents
Reducing agent Visible change when agent Explanation
is oxidised
Hydrogen sulfide gas (H S(g)) A yellow precipitate forms Yellow insoluble sulfur (S) is
2
produced
Concentrated hydrochloric acid A yellow-green gas is evolved Yellow-green chlorine gas (Cl )
2
(HCl(aq)) is produced
Others: hydrogen gas (H ); carbon (C); carbon monoxide (CO); reactive metals
2
Tests for reducing agents
Table 9.3.3 summarises t he names and colour changes of t he main two
chemicals which can be used as t he reactants to test for reducing agents.
These chemicals are, t hemselves, oxidising agents.
 Table 9.3.3 Oxidising agents used to test for the presence of a reducing agent
Oxidising agent used for Visible change when agent Explanation
test is reduced
Acidified potassium Purple to colourless The purple manganate(VII) ion
manganate(VII) solution (MnO ) is reduced to the

4
(H /KMnO (aq)) colourless manganese(II) ion

4
2
(Mn )
Acidified potassium dichromate(VI) Orange to green The orange dichromate(VI) ion
 2
solution (H /K Cr O (aq)) (Cr O ) is reduced to the

2 2 7 2 7
3
green chromium(III) ion (Cr )
 Figure 9.3.2 (a) Acidied potassium
manganate( VII) turns from purple to
colourless when reduced. (b) Acidied
potassium dichromate( VI) turns from
orange to green when reduced
(a) (b)
168
There are several ot her chemicals which behave as oxidising agents, alt hough
t hey are not usually used to test for t he presence of a reducing agent. These
are given in Table 9.3.4.
 Table 9.3.4 Other common oxidising agents
Oxidising agent Visible change when agent Explanation
is reduced
Iron(III) sulfate solution Yellow-brown to pale green The yellow-brown iron(III) ion
3
(Fe (SO ) (aq)) (Fe ) is reduced to the pale

2 4 3
2
green iron(II) ion (Fe )
Dilute or concentrated nitric acid A brown gas is evolved Brown nitrogen dioxide gas
(HNO (aq)) (NO ) is produced

3 2
Hot concentrated sulfuric acid A pungent gas is evolved Sulfur dioxide gas (SO ) is
2
H SO (l)) which turns acidified potassium produced

2 4
manganate(VII) colourless
Others: sodium chlorate( ) solution (NaClO); oxygen gas (O ); chlorine gas (Cl ); manganese(IV) oxide (MnO )
2 2 2
To investigate the reactions of oxidising agents and reducing agents
You will be supplied with aqueous solutions of acidied potassium manganate( VII), acidied potassium
dichromate( VI), potassium iodide, iron( II) sulfate and acidied hydrogen peroxide and ve test tubes.
Method
1 Place 2 cm of acidied potassium manganate( VII) solution into the rst test tube. Slowly add potassium iodide
solution, shaking as you add the solution, until you see no further colour change.
3 3
2 Place 2 cm of acidied potassium manganate( VII) solution into the second test tube, 2 cm of acidied potassium
3 3
dichromate( VI) solution into the third tube, 2 cm of potassium iodide solution into the fourth tube and 2 cm of
iron(II) sulfate solution into the fth tube. Slowly add acidied hydrogen peroxide solution to each tube, shaking
as you add the solution, until you see no further colour change.
3 Record in a table the original colour of each solution and the nal colour after mixing.
4 Explain the reason for the colour change that you observed in each reaction. Use the information given in
Tables 9.3.1 and 9.3.3 above to help you.
5 Comment on the behaviour of the acidied hydrogen peroxide.
Summary questions
1 Dene the terms oxidising agent and reducing agent
a in terms of electrons b in terms of oxidation number.
2 In each of the following reactions identify the oxidising agent and the
reducing agent:
a 2Fe O (s)  3C(s) 3CO (g)  4Fe(s)

2 3 2
b 2NO(g)  2CO(g) N (g)  2CO (g)

2 2
c Mg(s)  2HCl(aq) MgCl (aq)  H (g)

2 2
3 Give an example of a compound which can act both as an oxidising
agent and as a reducing agent.
169
Key concepts
● We encounter, and make use of, oxidation and reduction reactions in
our ever yday lives. We encounter t hem in r usting and t he browning
of fr uits, and make use of t hem in bleaches, food preser vation and t he
breat halyser test.
● Oxidation–reduction reactions are known as redox reactions
● Many redox reactions involve a transfer of electrons.
● Oxid ation is dened as t he loss of electrons by an element in its free
state or an element in a compound.
● Reduction is dened as t he gain of electrons by an element in its free
state or an element in a compound.
● Oxidation and reduction can also be dened using t he concept of
oxidation number.
● Oxid ation number is t he t heoretical charge t hat an atom of an element
would have if all t he bonds between t he atoms in t he compound
containing it were ionic and t he compound was composed entirely of
ions.
● n any redox reaction t here will always be a change in t he oxidation
numbers of two elements.
● Oxid ation is dened as an increase in oxidation number of an element
in its free state or an element in a compound.
● Reduction is dened as a decrease in oxidation number of an element in
its free state or an element in a compound.
● An oxid ising agent is t he reactant t hat brings about t he oxidation of
anot her reactant.
● A reducing agent is t he reactant t hat brings about t he reduction of
anot her reactant.
● An oxidising agent causes t he ot her reactant to lose electrons.
● A reducing agent causes t he ot her reactant to gain electrons.
● An oxidising agent causes t he oxidation number of anot her element to
increase.
● A reducing agent causes t he oxidation number of anot her element to
decrease.
● The distinctive colour changes t hat accompany t he oxidation or
reduction of cer tain compounds allow t hese compounds to be used
when testing for t he presence of oxidising or reducing agents.
● Potassium iodide and iron (II) sulfate are reducing agents which can be
used to test for t he presence of an oxidising agent.
● Acidied potassium manganate (VII) and acidied potassium
dichromate(VI) are oxidising agents which can be used to test for t he
presence of a reducing agent.
170
Oxidation–reduction reactions Practice exam-style questions
8 n t he following reaction:

Cu(s)  4HNO (aq) Cu(NO ) (aq)  2NO (g)  2H O(l)
3 3 2 2 2
which of t he following statements about copper is tr ue?
A Copper undergoes reduction and its oxidation
1 Oxidation is:
number decreases.
 a gain of oxygen
B Copper undergoes oxidation and its oxidation
 a gain of electrons
number decreases.
 a decrease in oxidation number

C Copper undergoes reduction and its oxidation
number increases.
A  only
D Copper undergoes oxidation and its oxidation

B  and  only
number increases.
C ,  and 
D  only
9 n separate experiments, sulfur dioxide was bubbled
2
into acidied solutions of potassium dichromate(VI)
2 The oxidation number of sulfur in t he S O ion is:
2 3
and acidied potassium manganate(VII). Which of t he

A 2
following pairs correctly describes t he colour changes

B 4
obser ved in t he experiment?

C 6
Colour of potassium Colour of potassium

D 8
d ichromate(VI) manganate(VII)
3 The name of t he BrO ion is:

3
A orange to green colourless to pur ple
A bromite(I)
B orange to green pur ple to colourless
B bromate(I)
C green to orange colourless to pur ple
C bromite(V)
D green to orange pur ple to colourless
D bromate(V)
10 When acidied hydrogen peroxide solution is added to
4 Consider t he following:
iron(II) sulfate solution:
2
M(s) M (aq)
A a pale green solution is formed
B t he iron(II) ion is oxidised to t he iron(III) ion

n t he reaction represented above, metal M:
C t he oxidation number of t he iron(II) ion decreases

 has been oxidised
D t he acidied hydrogen peroxide is acting as a

 has increased in oxidation number
reducing agent
 has gained electrons
A  only
Structured question
B  and  only
C  and  only
11 a The gure below shows t he label on a multivitamin
D ,  and 
and mineral supplement bottle. Much of t he
information has been lef t out.

5 Which of t he following is tr ue about a reducing agent?
A t causes an increase in oxidation number.
B t causes a loss of electrons.
C ts oxidation number increases.
D t gains electrons.
6 n which of t he following reactions does t he oxidation
Each tablet contains
number of nitrogen show t he greatest increase?
……………………………
A 2NO(g)  O (g) 2NO (g)

2 2
……………………………
B 4NO (g)  O (g)  2H O(l) 4HNO (aq) ……………………………

2 2 2 3
Potassium iodide 0.1 mg

C N (g)  3H (g) 2NH (g)
2 2 3
……………………………
D 2NH (g)  3CuO(s) N (g)  3Cu(s)  3H O(l)

3 2 2
……………………………
7 Which of t he following reactions is not a redox reaction?
A 2Na(s)  2H O(l) 2NaOH(aq)  H (g) A multivitamin and mineral supplement bottle

2 2
B Fe(s)  2HCl(aq) FeCl (aq)  H (g) A solution is made of one of t he tablets and acidied
2 2
hydrogen peroxide is added to t he solution.

C MgO(s)  H SO (aq) MgSO (aq)  H O(l)
2 4 4 2
i) State what you would expect to obser ve. (1 mark)

D C(s)  O (g) CO (g)
2 2
ii) Write an ionic half equation to represent t he
reaction. (2 marks)
iii) Wit h a reason, state whet her t he reaction
represents oxidation or reduction. (1 mark)
b Three redox reactions are represented by t he
171
Practice exam-style questions Oxidation–reduction reactions
equations given below. For EACH reaction, name t he
substance which has been oxidised. n EACH case,
give t he reason for your choice based on oxidation
number.
i) Zn(s)  2HCl(aq) ZnCl (aq)  H (g)

2 2
(2 marks)
2 3
ii) 2Fe (aq)  Cl (g) 2Fe (aq)  2Cl (aq)

2
(2 marks)
iii) 2NH (g)  3CuO(s) N (g)  3Cu(s)

3 2
 3H O(l)
2
(2 marks)
c One type of t he breat halyser test uses acidied
potassium dichromate(VI) cr ystals.
i) For what pur pose is t he breat halyser test used?
(1 mark)
ii) Describe what you would obser ve if t he result of
t he test is positive. (1 mark)
iii) Explain t he chemistr y involved in t he
breat halyser test. (2 marks)
d Using oxidation number, suggest a name for t he
ClO ion. (1 mark)

2
Total 15 marks
12 a Dene oxidation in terms of:
i) electrons
ii) oxidation number. (2 marks)
b Suppor t EACH denition given in a above by
reference to t he following reaction:
Cl (g)  2Br (aq) 2Cl (aq)  Br (g)

2 2
(4 marks)
c ‘Metals are reducing agents and non-metals are
oxidising agents.’
Use EACH of t he reactions below to determine
whet her t he above statement is tr ue. Give reasons for
your answers based on oxidation number.
i) 2PbO(s)  C(s) Pb(s)  CO (g)

2
(2 marks)
ii) The reaction between magnesium and copper(II)
sulfate solution. (3 marks)
d You are provided wit h two bottles labelled X and Y
containing an oxidising agent and a reducing agent,
respectively. Bot h agents are colourless liquids.
Describe T WO tests you could carr y out to conrm
what you are told about X and Y. (4 marks)
Total 15 marks
172
A10 Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry is the study of the relationship

Objectives
between chemical reactions and electrical energy.

be able to:
An electrochemical reaction is one which either
● give the electrochemical series

produces electrical energy or requires electrical energy
of the common metals
in order to proceed. From the reactions that occur

● determine if a displacement
in a battery to produce an electric current, to the reaction will occur between
metals and their compounds
electrolysis of aluminium oxide to produce aluminium,
based on their relative
electrochemistry is important in our lives.

positions in the electrochemical
series
● determine if a metal will
displace hydrogen from an acid
A10.1 The electrochemical series

based on its position in the
electrochemical series
The electrochemical series of metals
● give the electrochemical series
n Unit 5.2 you learnt t hat when atoms bond ionically, t he metal atom always
of some common non-metals
loses electrons to form a positive metal cation. Some metals lose electrons
● determine if a displacement
much more easily t han ot hers. When metals are placed in order of ease wit h
reaction will occur between
which t hey lose electrons, i.e. ease wit h which t hey ionise, a series known as
certain non-metals and
t he electrochemical series of metals is created.

their compounds based on
their relative positions in the

A section of t he electrochemical series of t he common metals is given in
electrochemical series.
Table 10.1.1. n t his table, t he ease of ionisation increases going upwards.
The more easily a metal atom ionises, t he more stable are t he ions t hat it
forms. Metals at t he top of t he series form ver y stable ions which are hard to
 Table 10.1.1 The electrochemical
conver t back to atoms. Metals at t he bottom of t he series form unstable ions series of the common metals
which are easy to conver t back to atoms.
Metal Cation

Since metals lose electrons when t hey ionise, t hey act as reducing agents
potassium K
when t hey react wit h ot her substances, i.e. t hey give electrons to t he ot her
2
calcium Ca
reactant. The more easily t hey give electrons, t he stronger t heir reducing
sodium Na
power. The strengt h as a reducing agent, t herefore, increases going up
2
magnesium Mg
t he series.
3
aluminium Al
Potassium is highest in t he series, which means t hat it ionises t he most
2
easily, forms t he most stable ions and is t he strongest reducing agent. Silver is zinc Zn
t he lowest in t he series, which means t hat it ionises t he least easily, forms t he 2
iron Fe
least stable ions and is t he weakest reducing agent.

2
lead Pb
We can make use of t he electrochemical series of metals to predict cer tain


hydrogen H
chemical reactions.
2
copper Cu
silver Ag
Displacement of metals
A met al will displace a met al t hat is below it in t he electroc hemical ser ies
from a compound cont aining t he lower met al. This is because t he higher
met al is a stronger reducing agent, t herefore, readily gives electrons to t he
ions of t he lower met al. As a result, t he higher met al ionises and t he ions
of t he lower met al are conver ted to atoms, i.e. t he ions are said to have
been d ischarged
173
The electrochemical series Electrochemistry
Examples
1 Will a reaction occur if a strip of magnesium ribbon is placed in
copper(II) sulfate solution?
Magnesium is higher t han copper in t he electrochemical series, t herefore,
2
magnesium can displace t he Cu ions from t he copper(II) sulfate.
Magnesium is a stronger reducing agent, t herefore, it gives electrons to
2 2 2
t he Cu ions. The magnesium ionises forming Mg ions and t he Cu
ions are d ischarged forming copper atoms:

4 4
The ionic equation is:
2 2
blue copper(II) Mg(s)  Cu (aq) Mg (aq)  Cu(s)
sulfate solution
The transfer of electrons is shown in t he ionic half equations:
magnesium
2
Mg(s) Mg (aq)  2e
2
Cu (aq)  2e Cu(s)
As t he reaction proceeds t he following are obser ved:
● The magnesium ribbon gradually gets smaller as it ionises and t he
colourless magnesium
2
Mg ions dissolve in t he solution.

sulfate solution
pink copper ● A pink solid builds up in t he solution as copper is formed.
● The blue colour of t he copper (II) sulfate solution gradually fades as

 Figure 10.1.1 Magnesium is added to
2
copper( II) sulfate solution t he blue Cu ions are discharged from t he solution, forming copper.
2 Will a reaction occur if some iron lings are placed in a solution of zinc
nitrate?
ron is lower than zinc in the electrochemical series. No reaction will occur.
Displacement of hydrogen
Metals above hydrogen in t he electrochemical series will displace t he H
ions in an acid, forming hydrogen gas (H ). Metals below hydrogen will not
2
displace t he H ions. Metals above hydrogen are stronger reducing agents and
will readily give electrons to t he H ions of t he acid. Metals below hydrogen
are weaker reducing agents, so will not reduce t he H ions.
Examples
1 Will a reaction occur if zinc is placed in hydrochloric acid?
Zinc is higher t han hydrogen in t he electrochemical series, t herefore,
zinc can displace t he H ions from t he hydrochloric acid. Zinc is a
stronger reducing agent, t herefore, it gives electrons to t he H ions. The
2 
zinc ionises forming Zn ions and t he H ions are d ischarged forming
hydrogen gas (H ):
2
Zn(s)  2HCl(aq) ZnCl (aq)  H (g)

2 2
 2
Zn(s)  2H (aq) Zn (aq)  H (g)

2
2
Zn(s) Zn (aq)  2e
2H (aq)  2e H (g)
2
2 Will a reaction occur if some copper turnings are placed in sulfuric acid?
Copper is lower t han hydrogen in t he electrochemical series. No reaction
will occur.
174
Electrochemistry The electrochemical series
The electrochemical series of non-metals
When non-metal atoms bond ionically, t he non-metal atom always gains
electrons to form a negative non-metal anion. Some non-metals gain
electrons much more easily t han ot hers. When non-metals are placed in
order of ease wit h which t hey gain electrons, i.e. ease wit h which t hey ionise,
a series known as t he electrochemical series of non-metals is created.
A section of t he electrochemical series of some non-metals is given in  Table 10.1.2 The electrochemical
series of some non-metals

Table 10.1.2. n t his table, t he ease of ionisation increases going upwards.
Non-metal Anion
The easier a non-metal atom ionises, t he more stable are t he ions t hat it
fluorine F
forms. Non-metals at t he top of t he series form ver y stable ions, which are
hard to conver t back to atoms. Non-metals at t he bottom of t he series form chlorine Cl
unstable ions, which are easy to conver t back to atoms.

bromine Br
iodine I
Since non-metals gain electrons when t hey ionise, t hey act as oxid ising
agents when t hey react wit h ot her substances, i.e. t hey remove electrons
from t he ot her reactant. The more easily t hey remove electrons, t he stronger
t heir oxidising power. The strengt h as an oxidising agent, t herefore, increases
going up t he series.
Fluorine is highest in t he series, which means t hat it ionises t he most easily,
forms t he most stable ions and is t he strongest oxidising agent. odine is t he
lowest in t he series, which means t hat it ionises t he least easily, forms t he
least stable ions and is t he weakest oxidising agent.
We can make use of t he electrochemical series of non-metals to predict
cer tain chemical reactions.
Displacement of non-metals
A non-metal will displace a non-metal which is below it in the electrochemical
series from a compound containing the lower non-metal. This is because the
higher non-metal is a stronger oxidising agent, therefore, readily removes
electrons from the ions of the lower non-metal. As a result, the higher non-metal
ionises, and the ions of the lower non-metal are discharged forming atoms.
Examples
1 Will a reaction occur if chlorine gas is bubbled into sodium iodide
solution?
Chlorine is higher than iodine in the electrochemical series of non-metals,
therefore, chlorine can displace the  ions from the sodium iodide.
Chlorine is a stronger oxidising agent, therefore, it removes electrons from
the  ions. The chlorine ionises forming Cl ions and the  ions are
discharged forming iodine ( ):

2
Cl (g)  2Na(aq) 2NaCl(aq)   (aq)

2 2
Cl (g)  2 (aq) 2Cl (aq)   (aq)

2 2
Cl (g)  2e 2Cl (aq)

2
2 (aq)  (aq)  2e
2
175
Electrical conduction Electrochemistry
2 Will a reaction occur if bromine solution is added to a solution of
potassium chloride?
Bromine is lower t han chlorine in t he electrochemical series. No reaction
will occur.
Summary questions
1 If zinc is placed in a solution of copper( II) nitrate, a reaction occurs.
a Explain why a reaction occurs.
b Give a balanced chemical equation and a balanced ionic equation for
the reaction.
c What happens to the colour of the copper( II) nitrate solution? Explain
why this occurs.
2 For each of the following, predict whether or not a displacement reaction
will occur:
a aluminium  lead(II) nitrate solution
b silver  calcium nitrate solution
c iodine  sodium chloride solution
d bromine  potassium iodide solution.
3 Which of the metals in the electrochemical series will release hydrogen
gas when added to hydrochloric acid?
4 A metal X was found to displace zinc from zinc nitrate solution but
no displacement occurred when it was added to magnesium nitrate
solution. Arrange the three metals, X, zinc and magnesium in decreasing
order of ease of ionisation.
Objectives A10.2 Electrical conduction
n Unit 5 you learnt t hat in order for a substance to conduct an electric
be able to:
current, it must contain charged par ticles which are able to move t hrough t he
● distinguish between a
substance. These charged par ticles can be eit her electrons or ions. Materials
conductor and a non-

can be classied into two groups based on t heir ability to conduct an electric
conductor
current.
● distinguish between metallic
● Conductors are substances which allow electricity to pass t hrough.
and electrolytic conduction
They can be solids, liquids or solutions. Examples of conductors
● distinguish between a strong

include metals, graphite, molten ionic compounds, solutions of ionic
electrolyte, a weak electrolyte

compounds and aqueous acids and alkalis.
and a non-electrolyte
● Non-conductors are substances which do not allow an electric current
● give examples of strong
to pass t hrough. Non-conductors can be solids, liquids, solutions
electrolytes, weak electrolytes
and gases. Examples of non-conductors include non-metals (except
and non-electrolytes.
graphite), plastics, covalent substances and solid ionic compounds.
176
Electrochemistry Electrical conduction
To investigate the electrical conductivity of various
substances
Circuit 1
switch
A
You will be supplied with circuit components, samples of various
substances, e.g. copper wire, magnesium ribbon, aluminium foil, an iodine
crystal, a graphite rod, a plastic ruler, a sodium chloride crystal, a copper( II) solid to be tested
sulfate crystal, sodium chloride solution, copper( II) sulfate solution, dilute
hydrochloric acid, ethanol and kerosene.
Circuit 2
Method switch
1 Draw up a table with three columns headed ‘Test substance’,
‘Prediction’ and ‘Results’. In the rst column write down the name of
A
each test substance that you have been supplied with. In the second
column ll in your prediction of whether the substance is a conductor or
a non-conductor.
beaker
2 Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 10.2.1. If the test substance is a

carbon
electrodes
solid use Circuit 1 and if it is a solution or a liquid use Circuit 2.
solution
to be tested
3 Record the results of your experiment in the third column of your table.
 Figure 10.2.1 Two circuits to test the

4 Compare your predictions with the results.
conductivity of a solid and a liquid
Metallic and electrolytic conduction
When ionic compounds melt or dissolve in water, t he liquid or solution
created contains ions and is known as an electrolyte. Electrolytes are
conductors.
There are cer tain differences between conduction in a metal, known

Key fact
!
as metallic conduction , and conduction in an electrolyte, known as
An electrolyte is a compound
electrolytic conduction
that forms ions when molten or in
aqueous solution.
Metallic conduction
n a metal, t he valence electrons of t he atoms are delocalised. These
delocalised electrons, known as mobile electrons, are able to move
t hroughout t he metal. Metals are able to conduct an electr ic cur rent because
t hese mobile electrons can move t hroughout t he metal. Alt hough graphite
is a non-metal, it also conducts an electr ic cur rent because of t he presence
of delocalised, mobile electrons (see Unit 5.5).
During metallic conduction, t he metal remains chemically unchanged
Electrolytic conduction
When an ionic compound melts, t he ions are no longer held toget her by
ionic bonds and t hey become free to move t hroughout t he liquid:
heat
NaCl(s) Na (l)  Cl (l)
177
Electrical conduction Electrochemistry
Similarly, when an ionic compound dissolves in water, t he ionic bonds break
and t he ions are free to move t hroughout t he solution:
water
NaCl(s) Na (aq)  Cl (aq)
These electrolytes conduct an electric current because of t he presence
of mobile ions which are able to move t hroughout t he liquid or aqueous
solution.
During electrolytic conduction, t he electrolyte is decomposed, i.e. it is
chemically changed.
 Table 10.2.1 Metallic and electrolytic conduction compared
Metallic conduction Electrolytic conduction
Mobile electrons carry the electric current Mobile ions carry the electric current through
through the metal. the electrolyte
The metal remains chemically unchanged The electrolyte decomposes
Strength of an electrolyte
We can distinguish between strong and weak electrolytes based on t he
concentration of ions in t he electrolyte.
Strong electrolytes
Strong electrolytes are fully ionised when dissolved in water, e.g. strong
acids, strong alkalis and soluble ionic compounds. These have a high
concentration of ions in solution. For example:
Molten ionic compounds are also classied as strong electrolytes.
Weak electrolytes
Weak electrolytes are only parti ally ionised when dissolved in water,
e.g. weak acids and weak alkalis. These have a low concentration of ions in
solution. For example:

3 3
 Table 10.2.2 Examples of electrolytes
Strong electrolytes Weak electrolytes
Acids
Hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq)) Carbonic acid (H CO (aq))
2 3
Nitric acid (HNO (aq)) Ethanoic acid (CH COOH(aq))

3 3
Sulfuric acid (H SO (aq))

2 4
Alkalis Aqueous ammonia (NH (aq))

Potassium hydroxide solution (KOH(aq)) 3
Sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH(aq))
Salts
Molten sodium chloride (NaCl(l))
Sodium chloride solution (NaCl(aq))
Molten potassium bromide (KBr(l))
Potassium bromide solution (KBr(aq))
178
Electrochemistry Electrolysis
Strong electrolytes are much better electrical conductors t han weak
Summary questions
electrolytes. The strengt h of an electrolyte can be tested wit h a simple circuit
which has a light bulb (or light emitting diode (LED)) connected to a batter y
1 Distinguish between:
and two electrodes which are dipped in t he electrolyte. The greater t he
a a conductor and a non-
strengt h of t he electrolyte, t he more brightly t he bulb will glow.
conductor
A non-electrolyte is a substance which remains as molecules when in the

b metallic and electrolytic
liquid state or dissolved in water. The liquid or solution does not contain
conduction
any ions. Non-electrolytes are non-conductors. Examples of non-electrolytes

c a strong and a weak
include liquids such as kerosene and gasoline, molten covalent substances such
electrolyte.
as wax and solutions of covalent substances such as ethanol and glucose.
2 Classify each of the following
as a strong electrolyte, a
Pure water
weak electrolyte or a non-
electrolyte:
Pure water is an extremely weak electrolyte. Water undergoes spontaneous

a potassium chloride solution
ionisation into H ions and OH ions. At any one time, approximately one
in ever y 5.56  10 water molecules is ionised: b a solution of sucrose in water
c aqueous ethanoic acid


H O(l) H (aq)  OH (aq)

2
d kerosene
 7 3
The concentration of H ions and OH ions in pure water is 1  10 mol dm .

e aqueous nitric acid.
As you will learn in t he next unit, t his is of par ticular signicance when an
3 Why is pure water an
electric current is passed t hrough an aqueous electrolyte.
extremely weak electrolyte?
Objectives
A10.3 Electrolysis
When an electric current is passed t hrough an electrolyte, t he electrolyte is be able to:
decomposed into simpler substances, i.e. it undergoes a chemical change
● dene the terms electrolysis,
known as electrolysis
anode, cathode, anion and cation
Electrolysis takes place in a piece of apparatus known as an electrolytic cell. ● identify ions present in
An electrolytic cell has three main components. electrolytes
● predict the electrode to which an

● A batter y or ot her d.c. power supply t hat provides t he electric current.
ion will drift during electrolysis
● Two electrodes connected, via wires, to t he batter y or power supply,
● discuss the electrolysis of molten
which take t he electric current into and out of t he electrolyte. They must
electrolytes
be able to conduct an electric current and are usually made of an iner t
● explain the preferential discharge
material such as graphite (carbon) or platinum. The anode is connected
of ions
to t he positive terminal of t he batter y and t he cathode is connected to
● discuss the electrolysis of certain
t he negative terminal.
aqueous electrolytes.
● The electrolyte, which is a molten ionic
compound or a solution containing
mobile ions.
battery
Key fact
Electrolysis is the chemical change
which occurs when an electric current
is passed through an electrolyte.
electrolyte
Key fact
The anode is the positive electrode.
anode cathode
The cathode is the negative electrode.
 Figure 10.3.1 An electrolytic cell electrodes
179
Electrolysis Electrochemistry
electrons flow
Mechanism of electrolysis
around the circuit
from anode to e e
  During electrolysis bot h anions and cations are d ischarged, i.e.
Light bulb:
cathode
t hey lose or gain electrons to form neutral atoms. This occurs as

 glows brightly
e
battery if the electrolyte
follows.
is strong
 glows dimly if
● The anions (negative ions) are attracted to t he anode
the electrolyte is
e e
(positive electrode). The anions lose electrons to t he anode
weak
e e
and form atoms, i.e. t hey are discharged:
anode () cathode ( )
n
n
C n
C n
A
A A  ne
n
n
n
A
C
A
Oxid ation occurs at t he anode (OL). The anode
electrolyte,
n
C n
C
n
n A CA(l or aq) acts as t he oxid ising agent

A → A  ne
n
C
n
A
n
C  ne → C
A
n
● The electrons, lost by t he anions at t he anode, travel
C
n
C
n
n
A
n
C n
n
t hrough t he circuit to t he positive terminal of t he batter y.
C
C A
They t hen re-enter t he circuit from t he negative terminal of
 Figure 10.3.2 Mechanism of electrolysis
t he batter y and travel to t he cat hode.
● The cations (positive ions) are attracted to t he cat hode (negative
Exam tip
✔
electrode). The cations gain t he electrons from t he cat hode forming
atoms, i.e. t hey are discharged:
It can be confusing to try to learn
n
C  ne C
which electrode is positive and
which is negative. It is better to
Reduction occurs at t he cat hode (RG). The cat hode acts as t he reducing
work it out, remembering that the
agent
electrodes are named after the ions
which are attracted to them.
• You know that anions have a
negative charge. Anions must
Electrolysis of molten electrolytes

be attracted to the positive
electrode. The positive electrode

Molten electrolytes contain only two different ions, one cation and one
must be called the anode

anion. Bot h are discharged during electrolysis.
• You know that cations have a
positive charge. Cations must
Example
be attracted to the negative
electrode. The negative

Electrolysis of molten (fused) le ad(II) bromide using inert g raphite
electrode must be called the

electrodes
cathode
2
The ions present in t he molten lead(II) bromide are Pb (l) and Br (l).
At the anode:
The Br ions move towards t he anode where t hey are discharged, i.e. t hey
lose electrons to t he anode forming bromine atoms. Pairs of bromine atoms
immediately bond covalently forming bromine molecules:
2Br (l) Br (g)  2e

2
Brown fumes of bromine are evolved at t he anode.
At the cathode:
2
The Pb ions move towards t he cat hode where t hey are discharged, i.e. t hey
gain electrons to form lead atoms:
2
Pb (l)  2e Pb(l)
Molten lead forms around t he cat hode and drips off.
180
To electrolyse molten lead( II) bromide using graphite electrodes
(Teacher demonstration)
+ −

anode () ( ) cathode
Your teacher will perform the following experiment.

bromine
gas
The experiment must be performed in a fume cupboard.
molten
lead
Method
1 Place some lead( II) bromide into a crucible.
2 Heat the lead( II) bromide until it melts.
bromide
3 Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 10.3.3.
heat
4 Observe the product formed at each electrode.
 Figure 10.3.3 Electrolysis of molten
5 Write an ionic half equation for the reaction occurring at each electrode.
lead( II) bromide
Electrolysis of aqueous solutions
During the electrolysis of an aqueous solution, the ions present are not only
those of the solute. Because water undergoes spontaneous ionisation, an
aqueous solution always contains H ions and OH ions from the ionisation of
water molecules as well as the ions from the solute. As a result, aqueous solutions
always contain at least two different cations and two different anions.
n t he electrolysis of an aqueous solution, one type of ion of each charge
will be discharged in preference to t he ot her. This is known as preferenti al
d ischarge.
Preferential discharge of anions
There are three main factors which inuence t he preferential discharge of t he
anions t hat you will be studying:
The position of the ion in the electrochemical series
Considering t he electrochemical series of anions given in Table 10.3.1, ions  Table 10.3.1 The electrochemical
series of anions
at t he top of t he series are t he most stable and t he hardest to discharge. ons
at t he bottom of t he series are t he least stable and t he easiest to discharge, i.e. Anion
t he ease of discharge increases downwards.

F
SO
The lower t he ion in t he electrochemical series, t he more likely it is to be 4
discharged. NO
3
Cl
This is seen, for example, when we look at the electrolysis of dilute sulfuric
Br
acid, dilute sodium chloride solution and copper(II) sulfate solution using
I
inert electrodes; the OH ion is preferentially discharged from each solution.
OH
The concentration of the electrolyte
The concentration of t he electrolyte has an impact on which ions are
preferentially discharged. There is a tendency for t he more concentrated ion
to be preferentially discharged. However, t his r ule really only applies to
solutions containing halide ions, i.e. Cl ions, Br ions and  ions.
181
This is seen when we compare t he electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride
solution wit h t he electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution, bot h
using iner t electrodes. n t he dilute solution, t he OH ion is preferentially
discharged but in t he concentrated solution, t he Cl ion is preferentially
discharged.
The type of electrode
The type of anode chosen for t he electrolysis can affect t he reaction occurring
at t he anode. f t he anode is inert, for example graphite or platinum, it does
not affect t he reaction occurring. However, if t he anode is active, for example
copper, it can take par t in t he electrolysis process and t his affects what
happens at t he anode.
This is seen when we compare t he electrolysis of copper(II) sulfate solution
using an iner t anode wit h its electrolysis using an active copper anode.
When an iner t anode is used, t he OH ion is preferentially discharged. Wit h
an active copper anode, t he anode ionises.
Preferential discharge of cations
There is one main factor which inuences t he preferential discharge of t he
cations t hat you will be studying:

 Table 10.3.2 The electrochemical
series of cations
Cation The position of the ion in the electrochemical series
Considering t he electrochemical series of cations given in Table 10.3.2, ions
2
Ca
at t he top of t he series are t he most stable and t he hardest to discharge. ons at
Na t he bottom of t he series are t he least stable and t he easiest to discharge, i.e.
2
t he ease of discharge increases downwards.
Mg
3
Al
The lower t he ion in t he electrochemical series, t he more likely it is to be
2
Zn
discharged.
2
Fe
This is seen, for example, when we look at t he electrolysis of dilute and

2
Pb

concentrated sodium chloride solution; t he H ion is preferentially
discharged in bot h. Also when we look at t he electrolysis of copper(II) sulfate
2
Cu 2
solution; t he Cu ion is preferentially discharged. We will now look at t he
Ag
examples referred to above in greater detail.
Examples
1 Electrolysis of d ilute sulfuric acid using inert electrodes
Ions present:
 2
From t he H SO : H (aq) and SO (aq).

2 4 4
From t he H O: H (aq) and OH (aq).

2
At the anode:
The SO ions and t he OH ions move towards t he anode. The

4
OH ions are preferentially discharged because t hey are lower in t he
electrochemical series of anions:
4OH (aq) 2H O(l)  O (g)  4e

2 2
Effer vescence occurs as oxygen gas is evolved at t he anode.
182
At the cathode:
The H ions move towards t he cat hode where t hey are discharged:
2H (aq)  2e H (g)
2
Effer vescence occurs as hydrogen gas is evolved at t he cat hode.
Relative volumes of gases produced:
Comparing t he two equations, for ever y 4 mol of electrons transferred
from t he anode to t he cat hode, 1 mol of oxygen and 2 mol of hydrogen
are produced:
4OH (aq) 2H O(l)  O (g)  4e

2 2
4H (aq)  4e 2H (g)
2
1 volume of oxygen is produced for ever y 2 volumes of hydrogen.
Changes in the electrolyte:
The sulfuric acid becomes more concentrated because H ions and
OH ions are discharged from it, i.e. water is being removed from t he
electrolyte. Because of t he discharge of t he H ions and OH ions, t he
electrolysis of sulfuric acid is referred to as t he electrolysis of water .
To electrolyse dilute sulfuric acid using inert electrodes
oxygen hydrogen
Method platinum
foils
1 Set up the Hoffmann’s voltameter as shown in Figure 10.3.4, using dilute
anode (+) cathode (–)

sulfuric acid as the electrolyte.
2 Observe the relative volume of gases given off at each electrode.
 Figure 10.3.4 Hoffmann’s voltameter

3 Test the gas given off at the anode to see if it is oxygen by using a
showing the electrolysis of dilute
glowing splint. The splint should glow brighter or re-light if the gas is
sulfuric acid
oxygen.
4 Test the gas given off at the cathode to see if it is hydrogen by using
Did you know?
a burning splint. The splint should make a squeaky pop and be ?
extinguished if the gas is hydrogen.
Oxygen gas causes the
glowing splint to glow brighter or

5 Explain:
relight because it supports the
a why oxygen was produced at the anode (include an equation)
combustion, i.e. burning, of the
b why hydrogen was produced at the cathode (include an equation)

splint.
c why the volume of hydrogen was greater than the volume of oxygen.
6 What would you expect to happen to the electrolyte as the reaction
proceeds?
183
2 Electrolysis of d ilute sod ium chloride solution using inert electrodes
Ions present:
From t he NaCl: Na (aq) and Cl (aq).

2
At the anode:
The Cl ions and t he OH ions move towards t he anode. The OH ions
are preferentially discharged because t hey are in a dilute solution and are
lower in t he electrochemical series of anions:
4OH (aq) 2H O(l)  O (g)  4e

2 2
At the cathode:
  
The Na ions and t he H ions move towards t he cat hode. The H ions are
preferentially discharged because t hey are lower in t he electrochemical
series of cations:
2H (aq)  2e H (g)
2
from t he anode to t he cat hode, 1 mol of oxygen and 2 mol of hydrogen
are produced, i.e. 1 volume of oxygen is produced for ever y 2 volumes of
hydrogen.
The sodium chloride solution becomes more concentrated because H
ions and OH ions are discharged from it.
3 Electrolysis of concentrated sod ium chloride solution (brine) using
inert electrodes
Ions present:
From t he NaCl: Na (aq) and Cl (aq).

2
At the anode:
The Cl ions and t he OH ions move towards t he anode. The Cl
ions are preferentially discharged because t hey are halide ions in a
concentrated solution:
2Cl (aq) Cl (g)  2e

2
Effer vescence occurs as yellow-green chlorine gas is evolved at t he anode.
At the cathode:
  
The Na ions and t he H ions move towards t he cat hode. The H ions are
preferentially discharged because t hey are lower in t he electrochemical
series of cations:
2H (aq)  2e H (g)
2
184
from t he anode to t he cat hode, 1 mol of chlorine and 1 mol of hydrogen
are produced, i.e. equal volumes of chlorine and hydrogen are produced.
The electrolyte becomes alkaline because H ions and Cl ions are
discharged from it leaving an excess of Na ions and OH ions, which
form sodium hydroxide.
test tubes
To investigate the effect of the concentration of the
electrolyte
electrolyte on the preferential discharge of ions
anode cathode
Method
1 Set up an electrolytic cell as shown in Figure 10.3.5, using inert graphite
electrodes and dilute sodium chloride solution as the electrolyte.
2 Place an inverted test tube lled with dilute sodium chloride solution
 Figure 10.3.5 Electrolysing
over each electrode to collect the gas evolved at each.
concentrated sodium chloride solution
3 Test the gas in the tube over the anode for oxygen using a glowing splint. (brine) in the laboratory
4 Test the gas in the tube over the cathode for hydrogen using a burning
splint.
5 Repeat the experiment using concentrated sodium chloride solution.
6 Test the gas in the tube over the anode for chlorine using a piece of
Did you know?
?
moist blue litmus paper. If the gas is chlorine the paper should turn red
Chlorine gas turns moist blue

and then white.
litmus paper red and then white
7 Test the gas in the tube over the cathode for hydrogen using a burning
because it reacts with the water to
splint.
form hydrochloric acid (HCl) and
chloric( ) acid (HClO):

8 Dip a piece of red litmus paper into the electrolyte.
Cl (g)  H O(l) HCl(aq)

2 2
9 How were your observations in the two experiments:
 HClO(aq)
a similar
The acids turn litmus red and
b different?
the chloric( ) acid oxidises it to
colourless.
10 Which ions were preferentially discharged at the anode:
a in the dilute sodium chloride solution
b in the concentrated sodium chloride solution?
In each case, explain why and include the relevant equation.
11 Which ions were preferentially discharged at the cathode in both
experiments? Give a reason and a relevant equation.
12 Explain why the litmus paper changed colour when dipped into the
electrolyte in step 8
185
4 Electrolysis of copper( II) sulfate solution using inert electrodes
Ions present:
2 2
From t he CuSO : Cu (aq) and SO (aq).

4 4

2
At the anode:
The SO ions and t he OH ions move towards t he anode. The

4
OH ions are preferentially discharged because t hey are lower in t he
electrochemical series of anions:
4OH (aq) 2H O(l)  O (g)  4e

2 2
At the cathode:
2  2
The Cu ions and t he H ions move towards t he cat hode. The Cu
ions are preferentially discharged because t hey are lower in t he
electrochemical series of cations:
2
A pink deposit of copper builds up around t he cat hode and t he cat hode
increases in size.
2
The electrolyte becomes paler blue because t he blue Cu ions are
2
discharged from it. t also becomes acidic because Cu ions and OH
 2
ions are discharged leaving an excess of H ions and SO ions, which

4
form sulfuric acid.
5 Electrolysis of copper( II) sulfate solution using active copper
electrodes
Ions present:
2 2
From t he CuSO : Cu (aq) and SO (aq).

4 4

2
At the anode:
The SO ions and t he OH ions move towards t he anode. However,

4
t he anode, being made of copper, is active and t he copper atoms ionise,
2
forming Cu ions, t his requires less energy t han discharging t he OH
ions.
2
Cu(s) Cu (aq)  2e
2
The Cu ions go into t he electrolyte and t he anode gradually decreases
in size.
At the cathode:
2  2
Exam tip
✔ The Cu ions and t he H ions move towards t he cat hode. The Cu
ions are preferentially discharged because t hey are lower in t he
When you are writing equations
electrochemical series of cations:
for the reactions occurring at the
2
anode and cathode, remember to Cu (aq) 2e Cu(s)
always include the correct state
A pink deposit of copper builds up around t he cat hode and t he cat hode
symbols
increases in size.
186
The electrolyte remains unchanged. For ever y 2 mol of electrons transferred
2
from anode to cathode, 1 mol of Cu ions enter the electrolyte at the
2
anode and 1 mol of Cu ions is discharged at the cathode.
To investigate the effect of using inert and active electrodes
on the electrolysis of copper( II) sulfate solution
anode () ( ) cathode
● analysis and interpretation. oxygen pink copper
gas is builds up
Your teacher will perform the following experiment. around the

evolved
at the cathode
Method
anode
1 Set up an electrolytic cell as shown in Figure 10.3.6, using graphite
graphite electrodes
electrodes and copper( II) sulfate solution as the electrolyte.
2 Observe the anode and the cathode, taking note of what occurs at each
electrode. Also observe the colour of the electrolyte and dip a piece of
blue litmus paper into the electrolyte.
3 Repeat the experiment using copper electrodes. anode () ( ) cathode
4 Observe the anode and the cathode and the colour of the electrolyte.
5 Classify the electrodes as inert or active.
the anode
6 How were your observations in the two experiments:

pink copper
becomes
builds up
a similar b different? thinner
around the
7 Why was the reaction occurring at the anode different in the two cathode
experiments? Include the relevant equations.
8 Why did the litmus paper change colour in step 2? copper electrodes
 Figure 10.3.6 Electrolysis of copper( II)

9 Why was there a change in colour of the electrolyte in the rst
sulfate solution using graphite and
experiment but not in the second?
copper electrodes
Summary questions
Exam tip
✔
1 Dene the term electrolysis.
2 Give the formula and state symbol of the ions present in each of the following:
line diagrams to show electrolytic
a molten sodium chloride c copper( II) sulfate solution cells
b dilute sulfuric acid d potassium bromide solution
3 Draw a labelled diagram of the apparatus used in the laboratory for the
electrolysis of copper( II) sulfate solution using inert graphite electrodes.
4 Describe the differences in the electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride
solution and the electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution
using inert graphite electrodes.
5 By means of an equation in each case, show the reaction occurring at
the anode when copper( II) sulfate solution is electrolysed using:
a a graphite anode b a copper anode.
187
Quantitative electrolysis Electrochemistry
Objectives A10.4 Quantitative electrolysis

The volumes of gases and masses of substances produced during electrolysis
be able to:
can be calculated using t he mole concept t hat you studied in Unit 7. Michael
Faraday (1791–1867) was t he rst person to propose t hat t he mass of a

● dene the Faraday constant
substance produced at an electrode during electrolysis is directly propor tional

● calculate the volumes of gases
to t he quantity of electricity passing t hrough t he electrolytic cell.

and masses of substances
produced during electrolysis.
The quantity of electricity, or quantity of electrical charge, is given t he
symbol Q and is measured in units called coulombs, C. During electrolysis,
electrons ow from t he anode to t he cat hode t hrough electrical wires.
Each electron owing t hrough t hese wires has an electrical charge which is
Did you know?
? extremely small. n fact, t he electrical charge on one electron is so small t hat
18
when 1 C of electrical charge ows t hrough a circuit, 6.25  10 electrons
The electrical charge on one
have owed.
19
electron is 1.6  10 C. This
means that 1 C of electrical charge

The quantity of electricity or electrical charge owing t hrough an electrolytic
1
___________
is equivalent to cell during electrolysis depends on two factors.
19
1.6  10
electrons.
● The rate of ow of the electrical charge, i.e. the current, which is given
the symbol I and is measured in units called amperes (also known as
18
amps), A. A current of 1 amp is equivalent to 1 C, or 6.25  10 electrons,
owing for 1 s.
● The lengt h of time, t, t hat t he current ows for, measured in seconds, s
The quantity of electricity or electrical charge can t hen be calculated using
t he following formula:
quantity of electrical charge (C)  current (A)  time (s)
i.e. Q  I  t
Example
Calculate t he quantity of electrical charge t hat ows when a current of 2.0 A
ows in a circuit for 20 min.
Current  2.0 A
Time in seconds  20  60  1200 s
∴ quantity of electrical charge owing  2  1200 C  2400 C
We can relate t his to moles if we consider t he electrical charge which 1 mol
of electrons has. You will recall t hat 1 mol of electrons is equivalent to

Key fact
!
23 19
6.0  10 electrons. The charge on one electron is 1.6  10 C, t herefore,
The Faraday constant is the size

if we have 1 mol of electrons, t hese electrons would have a total charge of
of the electrical charge on one mole

96 500 C. This value is known as t he Farad ay constant
of electrons, i.e. 96 500 C mol .
Dur ing electrolysis, a cation wit h a single positive charge, i.e. M , is
discharged at t he cat hode according to t he following equation:
M  e M
This shows t hat 1 mol of electrons is required to discharge 1 mol of M ions
and form 1 mol of M or, applying t he Faraday constant, 96 500 C is required
to discharge 1 mol of M ions and form 1 mol of M. This also applies when
discharging 1 mole of anions wit h a single negative charge at t he anode, i.e.
96 500 C is required.
188
Electrochemistry Quantitative electrolysis
The following examples will show how we can use t he Faraday constant
to calculate t he volumes of gases and masses of substances formed during
electrolysis. You will recall t he following quantities t hat relate moles to mass
and volumes of gases.
Molar mass, M  mass of 1 mol of a substance.
Molar volume, V  volume of 1 mol of a gas.

m
3 3
At stp, V  22.4 dm , at r tp, V  24.0 dm

m m
Examples
1 Calculate t he mass of lead produced at t he cat hode when a current
of 5.0 A ows t hrough molten lead(II) bromide for 16 minutes and
5 seconds.
Determine t he quantity of electricity t hat ows:
Current  5.0 A
Time in seconds  (16  60)  5  965 s
∴ quantity of electricity  (5.0  965) C  4825 C
Write t he equation for t he reaction at t he cat hode:
2
Pb (l)  2e Pb(l)
From t he equation:
2 mol of electrons are required to form 1 mol Pb.
∴ 2  96 500 C form 1 mol Pb
i.e. 193 000 C form 1 mol Pb
1
________
∴ 1 C forms mol Pb
193 000
1
________
∴ 4825 C forms  4825 mol Pb
193 000
 0.025 mol Pb
M(Pb)  207 g mol
i.e. mass of 1 mol Pb  207 g
∴ mass of 0.025 mol Pb  0.025  207 g  5.175 g
2 f an electric current of 2.5 A is passed t hrough dilute sulfuric acid for
2 hours 34 minutes and 24 seconds, calculate t he volume of oxygen
produced at t he anode at r tp.
Current  2.5 A
Time in seconds  (2  60  60)  (34  60)  24  9264 s
∴ quantity of electricity  (2.5  9264) C  23 160 C
Equation for t he reaction at t he anode:
4OH (aq) 2H O(aq)  O (g)  4e

2 2
189
Quantitative electrolysis Electrochemistry
From t he equation:
4 mol electrons are lost in forming 1 mol O

2
∴ 4  96 500 C form 1 mol O

2
i.e. 386 000 C form 1 mol O

2
1
________
∴ 1 C forms mol O
2
386 000
1
________
∴ 23 160 C forms  23 160 mol O

2
386 000
 0.06 mol O
2
Volume of 1 mol O at r tp  24.0 dm

2
3 3
∴ volume of 0.06 mol O  0.06  24.0 dm  1.44 dm

2
3 A solution of copper(II) sulfate is electrolysed using copper electrodes.
Determine t he decrease in mass of t he anode if a current of 4.0 A passes
t hrough t he solution for 32 minutes and 10 seconds.
Current  4.0 A
Time in seconds  (32  60)  10  1930 s
∴ quantity of electricity  4.0  1930 C  7720 C
Equation for t he reaction at t he anode:
2
From t he equation:
2
2 mol electrons are lost in forming 1 mol Cu ions.
2
∴ 2  96 500 C form 1 mol Cu ions
2
i.e. 193 000 C form 1 mol Cu ions
1
________ 2
∴ 1 C forms mol Cu ions
193 000
1
________ 2
∴ 7720 C forms  7720 mol Cu ions
193 000
21
 0.04 mol Cu ions
2 1
M(Cu )  64 g mol
2
i.e. mass of 1 mol Cu ions  64 g
2
∴ mass of 0.04 mol Cu ions  0.04  64 g  2.56 g
Therefore, decrease in mass of t he anode  2.56 g
4 A steel spoon needs to be electroplated wit h 13 g of chromium.
Calculate the length of time that a current of 15 A would have to ow to
electroplate the spoon when placed as the cathode of the electrolytic cell.
Calculate t he number of moles of chromium which need to be
produced:
M(Cr)  52 g mol
i.e. mass of 1 mol Cr  52 g
13
___
∴ number of moles in 13.0 g  mol  0.25 mol
52
190
Electrochemistry Industrial applications of electrolysis
Equation for t he reaction at t he cat hode:
3
Cr (aq)  3e Cr(s)
From t he equation:
3 mol electrons form 1 mol Cr.
∴ 3  96 500 C form 1 mol Cr
i.e. 289 500 C form 1 mol Cr.
∴ 0.25  289 500 C form 0.25 mol Cr  72 375 C
Therefore, t he quantity of electricity required  72 375 C
Calculate t he time taken for 72 375 C to ow using a current of 15 A:
quantity of electricity (C)  current (A)  time (s)
72 375 C  15 A  time (s)
72 375
______
∴ time  s
15
 4825 s
 1 hour 20 minutes 25 seconds
t would take 1 hour 20 minutes 25 seconds to electroplate the spoon.
Summary questions
1 Dene the Faraday constant.
2 Calculate the mass of magnesium that would be deposited on the
cathode when a current of 5.0 A ows through molten magnesium
chloride for 2 hours 40 minutes and 50 seconds.
3 Determine the volume of chlorine that would be produced at the anode
at rtp when a current of 2.5 A ows through concentrated sodium
chloride solution for 51 minutes and 28 seconds.
4 How long must a current of 10.0 A ow through a solution of copper( II)
sulfate to produce 25.6 g of copper at the cathode?
A10.5 Industrial applications of electrolysis Objectives

Electrolysis is used in many ways in industr y including:
be able to:
● extracting metals from t heir ores
● describe how electrolysis can

● purifying metals, i.e. electrorening
be used to extract metals from
● plating one metal wit h anot her, i.e. electroplating
their ores
● coating a metal wit h its oxide, i.e. anodising.

● describe how electrolysis can
be used to purify metals

We will now look at each of t hese in more detail.
● describe the process of
electroplating
Extraction of metals
● describe the process of
Ver y few metals are found in t heir free state in t he Ear t h’s cr ust. Most are
anodising.
found bonded to ot her elements in ionic compounds known as minerals.
Minerals from which metals can be extracted are known as ores. The process
191
Industrial applications of electrolysis Electrochemistry
of extracting metals from t heir ores involves conver ting t he metal ions to
atoms, i.e. it is a reduction process:
n
M  ne M
Metals high in t he electrochemical series ionise easily and form ver y stable
ions. This means t hat t heir ions are ver y difcult to reduce to atoms. For t his
reason t hese metals need a powerful met hod of reduction to extract t hem
from t heir ores. Electrolysis of the molten ore is a powerful met hod of
reduction and is used to extract aluminium and metals above aluminium in
t he electrochemical series from t heir ores.
During electrolysis of t he molten ore, t he metal ions move towards t he
cat hode where t hey are discharged.
An example is t he extraction of aluminium from its molten ore, aluminium
oxide (Al O ), using iner t graphite electrodes.

2 3
The aluminium ions move towards t he cat hode where t hey are discharged to
form molten aluminium:
3
Al (l)  3e Al(l)
The molten aluminium which forms is denser t han t he molten electrolyte
and it sinks to t he bottom of t he electrolytic cell and is tapped off. This will
be discussed in more detail in Unit 18.2.
Purification of metals
Electrolysis is ver y useful in t he production of pure metals from impure
samples of t he metal. This process is known as electrorening. The principles
of electrorening are as follows.
● The impure metal is made t he anode, i.e. it is connected to t he positive
terminal of t he batter y.
● The cat hode is a ver y t hin sample of t he pure metal.
● The electrolyte is an aqueous solution which contains ions of t he metal
being puried.
● The anode, being active, ionises, and ions of t he metal enter t he
electrolyte where t hey join t he ot her metal ions.
● The metal ions are discharged at t he cat hode where t hey form t he pure
metal which builds up around t he cat hode.
● The electrolyte remains unchanged since t he metal ions entering it at
negative t he anode are removed as t hey are discharged at t he cat hode.
positive electrode, power
electrode,
the anode, a bar supply

● Any insoluble impurities present in t he anode fall to t he bottom of t he
the cathode,
of impure copper
a thin sheet
(1) (2)
cell forming a sludge which can be removed.
of pure
copper
An example of electrorening is t he purication of copper . This is illustrated
in Figure 10.5.1. The impure copper is t he anode (1) and t he cat hode is a t hin
2
sheet of pure copper (2). The electrolyte contains Cu ions, i.e. copper(II)
sulfate solution.
sludge
copper(II)
The copper anode ionises:
containing
sulfate
impurities 2
solution
2
flow of copper ions,
The Cu ions enter t he electrolyte and are discharged at t he cat hode,
2+
Cu (aq)
forming pure copper:
 Figure 10.5.1 The electrorening of
2
copper
192
Electrore ning is only suitable for pur ifying metals whose ions are below
hydrogen in t he electroc hemical ser ies. Any metal ions above hydrogen
in t he ser ies would not be disc harged at t he cat hode since t he hydrogen
ions, being lower in t he ser ies, would be preferentially disc harged, for ming
hydrogen gas.
Electroplating
Electroplating involves depositing a t hin layer of one metal on top of
anot her metal. Electroplating is carried out to eit her protect t he original
metal from corrosion, to improve its appearance or to make a cheap metal
object appear more valuable. The object t hat is being electroplated can
be made of any metal, but it is usually made of brass, copper or steel. The
principles of electroplating are ver y similar to t hose of electrorening.
● The object to be electroplated is made t he cat hode, i.e. it is connected to
t he negative terminal of t he batter y.
● The anode is a pure sample of t he metal which is being used for plating.
● The electrolyte is an aqueous solution which contains ions of t he metal
being used for plating.
● The anode, being active, ionises, and ions of t he metal enter t he
electrolyte where t hey join t he ot her metal ions.
● The metal ions are discharged at t he cat hode where t hey form t he pure
metal which builds up as a coating around t he object.
● The electrolyte remains unchanged since t he metal ions entering it at
t he anode are removed as t hey are discharged at t he cat hode.
As wit h electrorening, only metals whose ions are below hydrogen in t he
electrochemical series can be used for plating.
Examples of electroplating are chromium plating, silver plating, gold plating
and nickel plating.
Chromium plating , or chrome plating, gives steel objects a shiny, silver
look as well as protecting t hem from corrosion. The steel object is placed
as t he cat hode, t he anode is pure chromium and t he electrolyte is usually a
solution of chromium(III) sulfate [Cr (SO ) ].

2 4 3
The chromium anode ionises:
3
Cr(s) Cr (aq)  3e
3
The Cr ions enter t he electrolyte and are discharged at t he cat hode forming
 Figure 10.5.2 Chrome plated taps
a layer of chromium on t he object:
3
Cr (aq)  3e Cr(s)
The electrolytes used in nickel plating and silver plating are usually
solutions of nickel(II) sulfate (NiSO ) and silver nitrate (AgNO ). During t he

4 3
+
silver
process of silver plating illustrated in Figure 10.5.3, t he silver anode ionises:

nitrate
the object
electrolyte
Ag(s) Ag (aq)  e being
plated

(cathode)
The Ag ions enter t he electrolyte and are discharged at t he cat hode forming
silver
a layer of silver on t he object:
anode
Ag (aq)  e Ag(s)
 Figure 10.5.3 Electroplating with silver
193
Anodising
On exposure to air, aluminium immediately reacts wit h t he oxygen to form
a layer of aluminium oxide (Al O ) on its surface. This layer is relatively

2 3
unreactive and it adheres rmly to t he metal below and does not ake off. As
a result it protects t he metal from attack by oxygen and moisture in t he air.
The t hickness of t he aluminium oxide layer on t he surface of aluminium
objects can be ar ticially increased by a process known as anod ising. This
makes t he objects, such as window frames and saucepans, even more resistant
to corrosion. The anodising process involves t he following steps.
● The aluminium ar ticle to be anodised is pre-treated using sodium
hydroxide solution to clean and etch t he surface.
● The cleaned aluminium ar ticle is made t he anode, i.e. it is connected to
t he positive terminal of t he batter y.
● The electrolyte is usually a dilute solution of sulfuric acid.
● As soon as t he electrolytic cell is connected up, t he aluminium anode
3 2
begins to ionise, forming Al ions, and at t he same time t he SO ions

4
and t he OH ions in t he electrolyte move towards t he anode. The OH
3
ions react wit h t he Al ions forming a layer of aluminium oxide on t he
surface of t he aluminium:
3
Al(s) Al (aq)  3e
3 
2Al (aq)  3OH (aq) Al O (s)  3H (aq)

2 3
The silver-grey aluminium oxide coating readily absorbs dyes so it can be
attractively coloured.
cathode ( )
anode () – aluminium
article to be coated,
e.g. a window frame
electrolyte – dilute
sulfuric acid
 Figure 10.5.4 The anodising of aluminium
Summary questions
1 Explain why electrolysis is used to extract metals high in the
electrochemical series from their ores.
2 Describe how you would purify a sample of silver. Include the equations
for the reactions occurring at the anode and the cathode.
3 Give the equations for the reactions that occur at the anode and cathode
during:
a chromium plating b nickel plating.
4 What is anodising?
194
Key concepts
● The electrochemical series of metals is a list of metals in order of how
easily t heir atoms lose electrons.
● The higher t he metal is in t he electrochemical series, t he more easily it
ionises and t he stronger are its reducing powers.
● A metal can displace a metal below it in t he electrochemical series from a
compound containing t he lower metal.
● Metals above hydrogen in t he electrochemical series displace t he
hydrogen ions from an acid, forming hydrogen gas; metals below
hydrogen will not displace t he hydrogen ions from an acid.
● The electrochemical series of non-metals is a list of non-metals in
order of how easily t heir atoms gain electrons.
● The higher t he non-metal is in t he electrochemical series, t he more
easily it ionises and t he stronger are its oxidising powers.
● A non-metal can displace a non-metal below it in t he electrochemical
series from a compound containing t he lower non-metal.
● Conductors allow electricity to pass t hrough. Non-conductors do not
allow electricity to pass t hrough.
● Electrolytes are compounds t hat form ions when molten or in aqueous
solution.
● Electrolytes conduct electricity because t hey contain mobile ions
● When electricity passes t hrough an electrolyte, t he electrolyte
decomposes.
● Metals conduct electricity because t hey contain mobile electrons
● When electricity passes t hrough a metal, t he metal remains unchanged.
● Strong electrolytes are fully ionised; t hey contain a high concentration
of ions. Weak electrolytes are par tially ionised; t hey contain a low
concentration of ions.
● Pure water is a ver y weak electrolyte due to t he ver y low concentration of
H and OH ions.
● Electrolysis is t he chemical change which occurs when an electric
current is passed t hrough an electrolyte.
● Electrodes are used during electrolysis to conduct electricity in to and
out of t he electrolyte.
● The anode is t he positive electrode. Anions move towards t he anode and
lose electrons. Oxidation occurs at t he anode.
● The cathode is t he negative electrode. Cations move towards t he
cat hode and gain electrons. Reduction occurs at t he cat hode.
● Molten electrolytes contain one type of cation and one type of anion.
Bot h are discharged during electrolysis.
● Aqueous electrolytes contain solute ions as well as H ions and OH
ions from t he water. One type of ion of each charge will be discharged in
preference to t he ot her.
● Factors which inuence t he preferenti al d ischarge of anions are t he
position of t he anion in t he electrochemical series, t he concentration of
t he aqueous solution and whet her t he anode is active or iner t.
● The position of t he cation in t he electrochemical series determines t he
preferential discharge of cations.
195
● When dilute sulfuric acid is electrolysed using iner t electrodes, oxygen is
produced at t he anode and hydrogen at t he cat hode.
● When sodium chloride solution is electrolysed using iner t electrodes,
if t he solution is dilute, oxygen is produced at t he anode, if it is
concentrated, chlorine is produced at t he anode. Hydrogen is produced
at t he cat hode in bot h cases.
● When copper (II) sulfate solution is electrolysed, if t he anode is iner t,
oxygen is produced at it, if t he anode is made of copper, it ionises.
Copper is produced at t he cat hode in bot h cases.
● The volume of gas or mass of a substance produced at an electrode
during electrolysis is directly propor tional to t he quantity of electricity
passing t hrough t he electrolytic cell.
● The quantity of electricity , Q, is measured in coulombs, C.
● The quantity of electricity is dependent on t he rate of ow of electrical
charge, i.e. t he current, I, and t he time t he current ows for, t, i.e.
Q  I  t
● The Farad ay constant is t he size of t he electrical charge on one mole of
electrons, i.e. 96 500 C mol .
● ndustrial uses of electrolysis include t he extraction of metals from t heir
ores, t he purication of metals, electroplating and anodising.
196
Electrochemistry Practice exam-style questions
1 Metal X was found to displace metal Y from a solution
containing t he sulfate of Y. However, X did not displace

anode cathode
metal Z from a solution containing Z sulfate. Which of
t he following is correct?
A X is higher in t he electrochemical series t han Z.

copper(II) sulfate
solution
B Z is a stronger reducing agent t han X.
C Y is higher in t he electrochemical series t han X.
D Y is a stronger reducing agent t han Z.

Electrolytic cell
i) State, giving a reason, what you would obser ve at
2 Which of t he following lists consists of conductors?
t he anode. nclude a relevant equation. (3 marks)
A sodium chloride, magnesium, graphite
ii) State, giving a reason, what you would obser ve in
B hydrochloric acid, et hanol, aluminium
t he electrolyte. (2 marks)
C aqueous sodium hydroxide, copper, et hanoic acid
iii) f a current of 5.0 A ows for 2 hours 8 minutes
D kerosene, molten potassium chloride, tap water

and 40 seconds t hrough t he electrolytic cell,
determine t he increase in mass of t he cat hode.
3 During electrolysis, t he reaction which takes place at t he
(4 marks)
anode is:
iv) Give T WO differences t hat you would obser ve in
A displacement
t he electrolytic cell if t he copper electrode was
B reduction
made t he anode and t he graphite electrode was
C oxidation
made t he cat hode. (2 marks)
D decomposition
c i) Give T WO differences between electroplating
4 f a current of 5.0 A ows for 16 minutes and 5 seconds and anodising. (2 marks)
t hrough a silver nitrate solution, what mass of silver ii) Give ONE use of anodising. (1 mark)
would be deposited at t he anode?

Total 15 marks
A 2.7 g
B 5.4 g
C 10.8 g 8 a Electrolysis is a chemical process. Use t he electrolysis
of molten potassium bromide to show how

D 27.0 g
electrolysis is a chemical process. Suppor t your
5 What quantity of electricity is needed to produce

answer wit h relevant ionic equations. (4 marks)
0.75 mol of chlorine during t he electrolysis of molten

b Using t he electrolysis of dilute and concentrated
sodium chloride?
sodium chloride solutions wit h iner t electrodes,
A 72 375 C discuss t he effect of EACH of t he following on t he
B 96 500 C products of electrolysis.
i) The position of ions in t he electrochemical

C 144 750 C
series. (2 marks)
D 193 000 C
ii) The concentration of t he electrolyte. (2 marks)
6 Which of t he following statements is incorrect? c The process of electroplating can be used to coat
A ron can be puried by electrolysis. metal items wit h a layer of anot her metal to make
t hem more resistant to corrosion, improve t heir

B Anodising is used to protect aluminium items from
appearance and make t hem appear more valuable.

corrosion.
Cutler y made of steel is of ten electroplated wit h a

C Electroplating can be used to coat steel items wit h a
layer of nickel followed by a layer of silver.

t hin layer of silver.
i) Draw a labelled diagram to show t he apparatus
D Magnesium can be extracted from its ore by
you could use to electroplate a steel spoon wit h
electrolysis.
nickel using nickel sulfate solution (NiSO (aq)) as

4
t he electrolyte. Clearly indicate what you would
Structured question
use as t he anode and t he cat hode. (3 marks)
7 a Dene t he term ‘electrolysis’. (1 mark) ii) How long must a steady current of 4.0 A ow
t hrough t he electrolyte to coat t he spoon wit h

b An electrolytic cell was set up, as shown in t he gure,
9.44 g of nickel? (4 marks)

wit h copper(II) sulfate solution as t he electrolyte, a
graphite anode and a copper cat hode.

Total 15 marks
197
A11 Rates of reaction
Chemical reactions proceed at different speeds. Some

Objectives
reactions can take years, such as the rusting of cars,

be able to:
while others happen in less than a second, such as an
● dene what is meant by rate of

explosion. Other reactions take place at varying speeds
reaction
between these two extremes. Knowing the speed at

● explain how the rate of a
reaction can be measured which reactions occur is extremely important in industry
● explain the collision theory for
to maximise productivity while minimising costs and the
reactions
risk of accidents.
● interpret rate curves for
reactions.
A11.1 Measuring rates of reaction
The study of t he speed at which a chemical reaction occurs, known as
t he rate of reaction , is called chemical kinetics. During a reaction, t he
concentration of t he reactants decreases as t he concentration of products
increases. f we can measure t he decrease in concentration of a reactant or
t he increase in concentration of a product, and know how long it took for
t he decrease or increase to occur, we can determine t he rate of a reaction.
The rate of a reaction can, t herefore, be determined by:
decrease in concentration of a reactant

____________________________________
rate of reaction 
time taken for t he decrease
increase in concentration of a product
____________________________________
or rate of reaction  .
time taken for t he increase
Key fact Changes in concentration are not always easy to measure. However, t here
!
are ot her property changes, which depend on t he nature of t he reactants and
The rate of reaction is a measured

products, t hat can be measured to determine t he rate of a reaction. Some of
change in the concentration of a

t he changes t hat can be measured are:
reactant or product with time at a
● if one of t he products is a gas, t he volume of gas produced over time
stated temperature.
can be measured using a gas syr inge, e.g. a reaction between a reactive
metal and an acid
● if one of t he products is a gas, if t he gas is allowed to escape, t he
decrease in mass of t he reaction can be measured over time, e.g. a
reaction between a carbonate and an acid
● if a precipitate for ms, t he appearance of t he precipit ate can be
measured, e.g. t he reaction between sodium t hiosulfate and
hydroc hlor ic acid
● if t here is a c hange in colour intensity, t his can be measured, e.g. t he
reaction between pot assium iodide and acidi ed hydrogen peroxide
● if t here is a distinct c hange in pressure, temperature or pH as t he
reaction proceeds, any of t hese can be measured over time.
198
Rates of reaction Measuring rates of reaction
Collision theory for reactions
Chemical reactions involve t he breaking of original bonds in t he reactants
and t he formation of new bonds in t he products. n order for a reaction to
take place, all of t he following must occur:
● the reactant particles must collide with each other in order to break the
original bonds in the reactants so that new bonds can form in the products
● the reactant par ticles must collide with enough energy, known as
activation energ y (see Unit 12.1), to break the original bonds in the
reactants and enable the par ticles to have enough energy to form
products (see Unit 12.1)
● t he reactant par ticles must collide wit h t he correct or ientation so t hat t he
energy produced by t he collision can be passed on to t he original bonds
in order to break t hem.
Not all collisions occur wit h t he required activation energy or wit h t he correct
orientation of par ticles. Therefore, not all collisions result in a reaction
occurring. Collisions which result in a reaction are called effective collisions .
The rate of a reaction depends on t he number of effective collisions.
For example, in t he reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to form water:
2H (g)  O (g) 2H O(g)

2 2 2
The hydrogen (H ) and oxygen (O ) molecules must collide wit h each ot her
2 2
to break t he covalent bonds between t he atoms wit hin t he molecules. This
will t hen allow new covalent bonds to form between t he hydrogen and
oxygen atoms, forming water molecules.
original covalent new covalent
bonds must break bonds must form
H H H H  O O H O H O
H H
2H O 2H O
2 2 2
 Figure 11.1.1 The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen
To be an effective collision, each collision must generate enough activation
energy to break t he covalent bonds wit hin t he hydrogen and oxygen
molecules and t he molecules must be correctly orientated to each ot her.
Rate curves
f a measured proper ty is plotted on a graph against time as t he reaction
proceeds and t he proper ty changes, a rate curve is obtained.
gas syringe measures the
volume of hydrogen
Examples
1 The reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid:
dilute
Mg(s)  2HCl(aq) MgCl (aq)  H (g)

2 2
hydrochloric acid
f magnesium ribbon is added to hydrochloric acid, t he volume of

magnesium
hydrogen gas given off can be measured in a gas syringe at regular
 Figure 11.1.2 Investigating the rate
inter vals using t he apparatus shown in Figure 11.1.2. f t he volume of gas
of reaction between magnesium and
is t hen plotted against time, t he cur ve in Figure 11.1.3 may be obtained.

hydrochloric acid.
199
Measuring rates of reaction Rates of reaction
 Figure 11.1.3 Graph of volume of

50
hydrogen gas released against time
)
3
45
mc(
40
sag
35
negordyh
30
25
fo
20
emuloV
15
10
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480
Time (s)
We can use t he values on t he graph to determine t he average rate of
reaction at different stages in t he reaction by using t he general formula:
increase in volume of hydrogen
______________________________
rate of reaction 
time taken for t he increase
● To determine t he average rate of t he reaction in t he rst minute (60 s):
volume of gas produced in t he rst minute  28 cm
28 cm
_______ 3 1
∴ average rate of reaction in t he rst minute   0.47 cm s
60 s
● To determine t he average rate of t he reaction in t he second minute:
3 3
olume of gas produced in the second minute  (38  28) cm  10 cm
10 cm
_______
∴ average rate of reaction in t he second minute 
60 s
3 1
 0.17 cm s
This clearly shows t hat as t he reaction proceeds, t he rate of t he reaction
decreases. This can also be seen by looking at t he gradient or slope of t he
graph. The gradient is steep at t he beginning of t he graph indicating
t he reaction is rapid. However, as t he reaction progresses, t he gradient
becomes shallower indicating t he reaction is slowing down. We will
discuss t his in more detail in t he next section.
2 The reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid:
cotton wool to stop
CaCO (s)  2HCl(aq) CaCl (aq)  CO (g)  H O(l)

3 2 2 2
f some hydrochloric acid is poured into a conical ask, which is on a
balance, and calcium carbonate is added, t he mass of t he reaction can
be measured at regular inter vals. f t he mass is t hen plotted against time,
t he cur ve in Figure 11.1.5 may be obtained.

)g(
hydrochloric calcium
noitcaer
acid carbonate
(marble chips)
fo
ssaM
direct-reading
balance
on Time (s)
 Figure 11.1.5 Graph of mass of reaction against time
 Figure 11.1.4 Investigating the rate of
reaction between calcium carbonate

Looking at t he gradient of t he graph we can also clearly see t hat as t he
and hydrochloric acid
reaction proceeds, t he rate of t he reaction decreases.
200
Rates of reaction Measuring rates of reaction
Explanation of the shape of rate curves
We can see that both rate cur ves have a ver y similar shape. The gradient is
steep at the beginning of the reaction and gradually becomes shallower until
the cur ve eventually becomes horizontal. This shows that the rate of a reaction
changes as the reaction proceeds. We will now look at the reasons for this.
● The gradient is steepest at the beginning of the reaction indicating that
the rate of the reaction is at its highest. This is because the concentration
of the reactant particles is at its highest at the beginning of the reaction.
The frequency of collision between the particles is at its highest at the
beginning.
● As the reaction proceeds, the gradient becomes shallower indicating that
the rate of the reaction is decreasing. This is because the concentration of
the reactant particles is decreasing as the reaction proceeds. The frequency
of collision between the particles is decreasing as the reaction proceeds.
● After a period of time the cur ve becomes horizontal, i.e. the gradient
becomes zero, indicating that the reaction has reached completion and
has stopped. One of the reactants has been used up and there are no more
of its particles left to collide. The reactant which is used up in a reaction
is known as the limiting reactant. The quantity of the limiting reactant
determines the quantity of the products produced.
To investigate the change in rate of a reaction as the
reaction proceeds
You will be supplied with 4.0 g of calcium carbonate crystals, 0.3 mol dm
hydrochloric acid, a conical ask, a cork with a delivery tube running
through it to a gas syringe, a measuring cylinder and a stopwatch.
Method
1 Place the calcium carbonate crystals in the conical ask.
2 Measure 30 cm of hydrochloric acid in the measuring cylinder.
3 As quickly as possible pour the acid into the conical ask and cork the
conical ask with the cork which has a delivery tube running to the gas
syringe, as in Figure 11.1.2. At the same time, start the stopwatch.
4 Record the volume of gas in the gas syringe every 15 seconds until the
Exam tip
✔
volume remains constant for three consecutive readings.
When drawing graphs using data

5 Record your results in a table and use them to plot a graph of volume of
obtained from experiments, it is
gas against time. Draw a curve of best t between the points.
important that you draw a curve
6 Using your graph, calculate the average rate of the reaction for:
or straight line of best fit. You do
a the rst minute b the second minute. not necessarily join all the points.
A curve or line of best fit must be
7 Explain why the average rate of the reaction is higher in the rst minute
smooth or straight and must pass
than in the second minute.
between the points so that it is as
8 Explain why the curve of your graph eventually becomes horizontal. close as possible to all the points.
201
Factors affecting rates of reaction Rates of reaction
Summary questions
1 Dene what is meant by rate of reaction.
2 Give two ways of calculating the rate of a reaction.
3 Give two methods that a student could use to determine how the rate
of reaction between magnesium ribbon and dilute hydrochloric acid
changes with time.
4 What does the collision theory for a reaction state?
5 Explain how the rate of a reaction changes as the reaction proceeds.
Objectives A11.2 Factors affecting rates of reaction
The rate of a reaction is dependent on several factor s. There are four main
be able to:
facto r s t hat we will be st udyin g whi c h can a f fec t t he r ate of a r eacti on .
● identify the factors which affect
These are:
the rates of reaction
● concentration
● explain how different factors
● temperature
affect the rates of reaction
● describe experiments to ● sur face area (par tic le size)
determine the effect of

● presence or absen c e of a ca t aly st .
changing a factor on the rate of
Light and pressure also affect t he rate o f c e r t ain re act ion s. For e xa mple , t h e
a reaction
reaction between met h a n e a n d c h lor ine (se e Unit 14.1) a n d p h otosynt h esis
● interpret graphical
are bot h initiated by ligh t , an d as t he lig h t in ten sity in c rease s, t he r ate of

representations of data
t he reaction incre a s e s. Ch emic al re ac tio n s wh ic h are in it ia ted or sp eed ed

obtained in studying rates of
up by light are kn own as photochemic al re actions .

reaction.
Pressure affects re a c t io n s bet we en r eac t an ts in t he gase ou s st ate. f t he
pressure on t he gaseous react ants is in c rease d , t h eir volume dec reas es ,
meaning t hat t h e re are mo re rea c t a n t p ar ticle s p er un it vo lume. As a
Did you know?

result, t h e par ticl e s c o llide mo re fre quen tly an d t h is inc rease s t h e c h an c es
?
of effective collis io n s , t h ereby increasing t he rate of t he re a c t io n . This is
Photosynthesis is possibly one
seen in t he reactio n b etwee n n itrog en and hyd rogen to for m a mmon i a:
of the most important reactions
in the world. It is the process by N (g)  3H (g) 2NH (g)

2 2 3
which green plants make food by
We will now look in det ail at h ow eac h of t he ot h er four factor s affects t he
combining carbon dioxide and
rate of a reaction. When co nsider ing a p ar ticu la r f ac tor, it is assu med t h at
water. The plants use the energy
all ot her factor s a re ke pt co nst a nt .

from sunlight to bring about the
reaction. W ithout photosynthesis,
animals would have no food to eat Concentration
and both plants and animals would
The gene ral r ule is t h at t he higher t he concentration of a rea ct a nt , t he
have no oxygen for respiration.
higher t he rate of t he reaction.
This applies par t ic ula rly to so lution s. f t he con c en tratio n of a r eac t an t
is in creased, t his me an s t ha t t h ere a re mo re r eac t an t par ticle s per unit
volume. As a result , t he pa r t icles c o llide mo re frequen tly w h ic h inc r eas es
t he c hances of e ffe c t i ve co llisio n s, t h erefore, t he r ate of t he r eac tion
increases.
f we measure t he rate of a rea ctio n a t differen t con c en tratio n s o f on e o f t h e
react ants, and plot t h e rat e a gain st c on c en tratio n , we g et a g raph similar to
t he one in Figure 11. 2.1. The g raph cle arly sh ows t h at a s t h e con c en trati on
202
Rates of reaction Factors affecting rates of reaction
increases t he rate increases. t also shows t h at, for t h is reac tio n , t he r ate of
)
1
s(
t he reaction is directly propor tional to t he concentrat io n .
noitcaer
fo
etaR
3
Concentration (mol dm )
 Figure 11.2.1 Rate of reaction against concentration
To investigate the effect of concentration on the rate of a reaction
3 3
You will be supplied with 0.005 mol dm potassium iodide solution, 0.01 mol dm sodium thiosulfate solution, a
solution of acidied hydrogen peroxide and starch with a hydrogen peroxide concentration of 0.085 mol dm , two
3 3
25 cm measuring cylinders, one 10 cm measuring cylinder, a burette, a small beaker and a stopwatch.
Method
1 Place the sodium thiosulfate solution into the burette.
3 3
2 Measure 25 cm of potassium iodide solution in a measuring cylinder and pour it into the beaker. Add 1 cm of
sodium thiosulfate solution from the burette and swirl to mix the solutions.
3 Measure 25 cm of acidied hydrogen peroxide and starch mixture in another measuring cylinder.
4 Add the mixture to the beaker and at the same time start the stopwatch. Swirl the beaker and place it on a
piece of white paper.
5 Observe the solution in the beaker from above and as soon as a blue-black colour begins to appear stop the
stopwatch.
6 Record the time taken for the blue-black colour to start to appear.
7 Repeat the experiment four more times using the volumes of potassium iodide solution and water given in the
table below.
8 Calculate the concentration of potassium iodide solution for each experiment using the following formula:
volume of Kl(aq)
_______________ 3
concentration of KI(aq)   0.005 mol dm
25
9 Calculate the rate of reaction for each experiment using the following formula:
1
______________________________________ 1
rate of reaction  s
time taken for blue-black colour to appear
10 Record your results in a table similar to the one outlined below and plot a graph to show the rate of the reaction
against the concentration of the potassium iodide solution. Draw a straight line of best t between the points.
Volume of Volume of Concentration of Volume of sodium Volume of acidified Time taken for Rate of
potassium iodide distilled potassium iodide thiosulfate hydrogen peroxide and blue/black colour reaction/
3 3 3 3 3 1
solution/cm water/cm solution/mol dm solution/cm starch mixture/cm to appear/s s
25 0 1 25
20 5 1 25
15 10 1 25
10 15 1 25
5 20 1 25
203
11 What can you deduce about the effect of concentration on the rate of the reaction?
12 Explain the effect that increasing the concentration has on the rate of the reaction.
13 Use your graph to determine the rate of the reaction at potassium iodide concentrations of 0.0022 mol dm
and 0.0044 mol dm . In theory, if the concentration of a reactant doubles, the rate of a reaction should also
double. Did the rate of your reaction double? If it didn’t double, can you suggest reasons why? Use the
information given below to help you.
During t he experiment, t he hydrogen peroxide oxidises t he  ions in t he
potassium iodide to iodine molecules ( ):

2
2 (aq)  (aq)  2e
2
As soon as an iodine molecule is formed t he sodium t hiosulfate reduces it
back to  ions:
 (aq)  2e 2 (aq)
2
When all t he sodium t hiosulfate has reacted, iodine molecules remain in t he
solution and react wit h t he starch to produce a blue-black colour. Since t he
concentration and volume of sodium t hiosulfate solution used each time is
t he same, t he blue-black colour star ts to appear when t he same quantity of
iodine has been made each time. n your experiment you determined t he
time taken for t he same quantity of iodine to be produced using different
concentrations of potassium iodide solution.
Temperature
The general r ule is t hat t he higher t he temperature at which a reaction occurs,
t he higher t he rate of t he reaction.
f t he temperature at which a reaction occurs is increased, t he reactant
par ticles gain kinetic energ y which has t he following effects:
● t he par ticles move faster, t herefore t hey collide more frequently
● t he par ticles collide wit h more energy, t herefore more collisions occur
wit h sufcient activation energy for t he par ticles to react.
Combining t hese two effects, as t he temperature increases, t he chances of
effective collisions increase, t herefore the rate of t he reaction increases. For
some chemical reactions which occur at room temperature, if t he temperature
increases by 10 °C, t he rate of t he reaction approximately doubles
f we measure the rate of a reaction at different temperatures and plot the rate
against temperature we get a graph similar to the one shown in Figure 11.2.2.
The graph clearly shows that as the temperature increases, the rate of the
reaction increases, but it shows that the rate is not directly proportional to
temperature.
)
1
s(
noitcaer
fo
etaR
Temperature (°C)
 Figure 11.2.2 Rate of reaction against temperature
204
To investigate the effect of temperature on the rate of a reaction
● analysis and interpretation
3 3
You will be supplied with 1.0 mol dm hydrochloric acid, 0.05 mol dm sodium thiosulfate solution (Na S O (aq)),
2 2 3
a small conical ask, a 50 cm measuring cylinder, a burette, a thermometer and a stopwatch.
Method
1 Using a black pen, draw a cross on a piece of white paper. Do not make the cross too dark.
2 Measure 50 cm of sodium thiosulfate solution using the measuring cylinder and pour it into the conical ask.
3 Pour the hydrochloric acid into the burette.
4 Add 1 cm of hydrochloric acid to the conical ask and at the same time start the stopwatch. Swirl the ask to
mix the solutions and place the ask on top of the cross.
5 When the two reactants are mixed, a precipitate of sulfur slowly forms which gradually obscures the cross.
Look down into the conical ask and stop the stopwatch as soon as the cross is no longer visible.
6 Immediately measure and record the temperature of the mixture in the conical ask and record the time taken
for the cross to disappear.
7 Repeat the experiment, but this time heat the sodium thiosulfate solution in the conical ask to about 40 °C
before adding the hydrochloric acid.
8 Repeat the experiment three more times, heating the sodium thiosulfate solution to about 50 °C, 60 °C and then
70 °C.
9 Record your results in a table and calculate the rate of the reaction at each temperature using the following formula:
1
______________________________ 1
rate of reaction  s
time taken for cross to disappear
10 Plot a graph to show the rate of the reaction against the nal temperature of the mixture. Draw a curve of best
t between the points.
11 What can you deduce about the effect of temperature on the rate of the reaction?
12 Explain the effect that increasing the temperature has on the rate of the reaction.
13 Use your graph to determine the rate of the reaction at 40 °C and 50 °C. In theory, the rate of a reaction should
approximately double if the temperature is increased by 10 °C. Did the rate of your reaction double? If it didn’t
double, can you suggest reasons why? Use the information given below to help you.
14 Given that the products of the reaction are sodium chloride, sulfur, water and sulfur dioxide, write a balanced
chemical equation for the reaction.
During t he experiment, t he sodium t hiosulfate reacted wit h t he hydrochloric
acid to form insoluble sulfur, which slowly built up and obscured t he cross:
Na S O (aq)  2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq)  S(s)  H O(l)  SO (g)

2 2 3 2 2
Since t he volume and concentration of t he two solutions used was t he same
each time, t he cross disappeared when t he same quantity of sulfur had been
made each time. n your experiment you were determining t he time taken
sulfur
for t he same quantity of sulfur to be produced at different temperatures. precipitate
cross drawn
on paper
 Figure 11.2.3 Following the reaction between sodium
thiosulfate solution and hydrochloric acid
205
Surface area (particle size)
The general r ule is t hat t he smaller t he par ticles of a reactant, t he higher t he
rate of a reaction.
This only applies to reactants in t he solid state. When solids react, t he
reaction occurs on t he surface of t he solid. Small solid par ticles have a larger
total surface area t han t he same mass of large solid par ticles. f t he par ticle
size is decreased, t he smaller par ticles have a greater surface area exposed
to par ticles of t he ot her reactant. As a result, t he par ticles collide more
frequently which increases t he chances of effective collisions, t herefore, t he
rate of t he reaction increases.
n our mills and coal mines, t he nely divided our and coal are highly
ammable. Any spark, e.g. from a cigarette, can initiate a reaction wit h t he
oxygen in t he air which could be explosive because of t he large surface area
of t he ne par ticles of our and coal.
To investigate the effect of surface area on the rate of a
reaction
You will be supplied with 5.0 g of small calcium carbonate crystals, 5.0 g of
large calcium carbonate crystals, 0.3 mol dm hydrochloric acid, a conical
ask, a cork with a delivery tube running through it to a gas syringe, a
measuring cylinder and a stopwatch.
Method
1 Place the small calcium carbonate crystals in the conical ask.
2 Measure 30 cm of hydrochloric acid in the measuring cylinder.
3 As quickly as possible pour the acid into the conical ask and cork the
conical ask with the cork which has a delivery tube running to the gas
syringe, as in Figure 11.1.2. At the same time, start the stopwatch.
4 Record the volume of gas in the gas syringe every 30 seconds until the
volume remains constant for three consecutive readings.
5 Repeat the experiment using the large crystals.
6 Record your results in a table and use them to plot a graph of volume
of gas against time for each set of crystals. You can plot both curves on
the same set of axes.
7 Using your graph, calculate the average rate of the reaction for:
a the small crystals
b the large crystals.
8 Explain why the average rate of the reaction is higher for the small
crystals.
9 Explain why both sets of crystals produced almost the same volume
of gas.
206
Presence or absence of a catalyst
Key fact
Cer tain chemical substances can be added to reactions to alter t he rate of

!
t he reaction. These substances are known as catalysts and t hey are used
A catalyst is a substance which
extensively in industr y to increase t he rate of reactions. Catalysts are

alters the rate of a chemical
chemically unchanged at t he end of t he reaction.

reaction without itself undergoing
any permanent chemical change.
Most catalysts are added to speed up t he rate of a reaction. They work by
providing an alternative pat hway for t he reaction which requires less
activation energy t han t he normal pat hway (see Unit 12.1). As a result, more
of t he collisions occur wit h sufcient energy for t he par ticles to react, which
increases t he number of effective collisions in a given lengt h of time.
For example, hydrogen peroxide (H O ) decomposes ver y slowly at room

2 2
temperature into water and oxygen:
2H O (aq) 2H O(l)  O (g)

2 2 2 2
The reaction can be speeded up considerably by adding manganese(IV) oxide
(MnO ). The manganese(IV) oxide acts as a catalyst and it is chemically

2
unchanged at t he end of t he reaction. When t he reaction has nished, t he
mass of manganese(IV) oxide is exactly t he same as it was at t he beginning
of t he reaction.
Enz ymes are biological catalysts made of protein molecules. They are present
in t he cells of all living organisms where t hey speed up chemical reactions
t hat would ot her wise occur too slowly for life to exist.
Did you know?
?
catalytic conver ter
CO
2
Tetraethyl lead(IV) was first mixed

N
2
H with gasoline in the 1920s as an

2
inexpensive way to increase engine
gases
performance and fuel economy by

from
preventing uncontrolled combustion

engine
ceramic
known as ‘engine knocking’. Hence

suppor t
cavities in matrix
‘honeycomb’ it became known as ‘antiknock’.
through which
Because of the toxic nature of lead
gases pass
Pt and Pd catalyst compounds, the use of leaded
covers large inter nal

fuel has been phased out almost
surface area
worldwide. This phasing out started
 Figure 11.2.4 A catalytic converter in a car exhaust allows harmful pollutant gases to in the USA in the mid-1970s.
react together forming harmless products
A few catalysts are added to slow down the rate of a reaction. These are known as
negative catalysts or inhibitors. They work by providing an alternative pathway

Exam tip
✔
for the reaction which requires more activation energy than the normal pathway.
This decreases the number of effective collisions in a given length of time. If you are asked to explain how a
particular factor affects the rate of
An example of a negative catalyst is tetraethyl lead(IV) ((C H ) Pb), which

2 5 4
a chemical reaction, your answer
used to be added to gasoline (petrol) for use in internal combustion engines.
must be based on the collision
t prevented uncontrolled combustion of the gasoline so that the engine ran

theory for reactions.
more smoothly.
Effect of changing factors on rate curves
The effect of changing any factor which alters t he rate of a reaction can
be shown on t he rate curve for t he reaction. n each of t he graphs in
Figures 11.2.5 and 11.2.6, t he number of moles of t he limiting reactant
remains unchanged. Remember t hat t he limiting reactant is t he one which
is used up in a reaction and determines t he quantity of products produced.
207
A Original rate curve
B B Rate curve showing an
tcudorp
increased rate caused by:
A  increasing the concentration
of one reactant, or
fo
ytitnauQ
 increasing the temperature
of the reaction, or
 decreasing the particle size
of a solid reactant, or
 adding a catalyst.
Time
 Figure 11.2.5 A rate curve showing the effect of any factor which increases the rate of
a reaction
n Figure 11.2.5, cur ve A is t he original cur ve and cur ve B shows t he effect
of changing any one single factor as indicated. Looking carefully at what t he
graph shows:
● cur ve B has a steeper gradient – t his is because t he reaction is occurring at
a higher rate
● cur ve B becomes hor izontal sooner – t his is because t he reaction takes less
time to reach completion
● bot h cur ves become horizontal when the same quantity of product has
been made – t his is because t he original number of moles of t he limiting
reactant was not changed.
A Original rate curve
C Rate curve showing a

tcudorp
decreased rate caused by:
 decreasing the concentration
of one reactant, or
fo
ytitnauQ
 decreasing the temperature
of the reaction, or
 increasing the particle size
of a solid reactant, or
 adding a negative catalyst.
Time
 Figure 11.2.6 A rate curve showing the effect of any factor which decreases the rate of
a reaction
n Figure 11.2.6, cur ve A is t he original cur ve and cur ve C shows t he effect
of changing any one single factor as indicated. Looking carefully at what t he
graph shows:
● cur ve C has a shallower gradient – t his is because t he reaction is
occurring at a slower rate
Exam tip
✔ ● cur ve C becomes hor izontal later – t his is because t he reaction takes
more time to reach completion
It is extremely important that you
● bot h cur ves become horizontal when the same quantity of product has
can interpret graphs which show
been made – t his is because t he original number of moles of t he limiting
rates of reaction.
reactant was not changed.
208
Summary questions
1 Explain how each of the following increases the rate of a reaction:
a increasing the temperature
b decreasing the particle size of a reactant
c increasing the concentration of a reactant.
2 a What is a catalyst?
b Explain how a catalyst alters the rate of a reaction.
3 Describe an experiment you could perform to determine the effect of
particle size on the rate of a reaction.
Key concepts
● The rate of reaction is a measured change in t he concentration of a
reactant or product wit h time at a stated temperature.
● The collision t heor y states t hat to react, par ticles of t he reactants must
collide, t he collisions must occur wit h t he required activation energ y
and t he par ticles must be correctly orientated.
● An effective collision is one t hat results in t he formation of t he product.
● A rate curve shows a measured proper ty plotted against time.
● All rate cur ves have t he same basic shape.
● The rate of a reaction changes as t he reaction proceeds. t is fastest at t he
beginning and t he rate decreases wit h time until t he reaction reaches
completion when t he limiting reactant is used up.
● Four main factors affect t he rate of a chemical reaction: concentration,
temperature, surface area (par ticle size) and t he presence or absence of a
catalyst.
● The higher t he concentration of a reactant, t he higher t he rate of a
reaction.
● The higher t he temperature, t he higher t he rate of a reaction.
● The smaller t he par ticle size, t he higher t he rate of a reaction.
● A catalyst is a substance which alters t he rate of a chemical reaction
wit hout itself undergoing any permanent chemical change.
● Most catalysts, if present, speed up t he rate of a reaction.
● A negative catalyst, if present, slows down t he rate of a reaction.
209
Practice exam-style questions Rates of reaction
6 A mass of 5.0 g of powdered zinc will react t he slowest

wit h:
3 3
A 30 cm of 0.1 mol dm sulfuric acid
3 3
B 20 cm of 0.2 mol dm sulfuric acid
3 3
C 20 cm of 0.3 mol dm sulfuric acid

1 Which of t he following would not result in an increase
3 3
3 3
D 10 cm of 0.4 mol dm sulfuric acid
in t he rate of reaction between 25 cm of 0.1 mol dm
sulfuric acid and excess magnesium carbonate cr ystals at
28 °C?
Structured question
A ncreasing t he temperature of t he acid to 38 °C.
B ncreasing t he volume of t he acid to 40 cm

7 a An experiment was set up to investigate what effect
C Using t he same mass of magnesium carbonate

changing various factors has on t he rate of reaction
powder.
between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid.
D ncreasing t he concentration of t he acid to

The reaction was carried out at 30 °C in a conical
0.2 mol dm
ask t hat was placed on a balance. A mass of 10.0 g of
calcium carbonate was placed in t he ask and excess

2 An aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide was
hydrochloric acid of concentration 1.0 mol dm was

decomposed and t he oxygen produced was collected in
added. The ask and its contents were weighed at

a gas syringe. Which of t he following graphs represents
regular inter vals and t heir mass plotted against time,

t he total volume of oxygen as measured at various time
as shown in t he gure.
inter vals?
306
emuloV
emuloV
)g(
305
noitcaer
304
303
fo
Time Time
ssaM 302
A B
301
300
emuloV
emuloV
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
Time (s)
Mass of reaction against time
Time Time
i) The rate of a reaction decreases as t he reaction
C D
proceeds. Using t he data from t he graph,
determine t he average rate of t he reaction

3 A catalyst is best described as a substance which:
in g s :
A speeds up t he rate of a chemical reaction
– in t he rst minute
B slows down t he rate of a chemical reaction
– in t he second minute. (4 marks)

C takes no par t in a chemical reaction
ii) Why is t he rate faster in t he rst minute t han t he

D alters t he rate of a chemical reaction
second minute? (2 marks)
4 The rate of a chemical reaction is:
iii) What effect would repeating t he reaction at 40 °C
A independent of t he size of t he par ticles of a solid
have on t he rate of t he reaction? (1 mark)
reactant
iv) By referring to t he collision t heor y for reactions,
B independent of t he concentration of t he reactants
explain your answer to par t iii) above.
C dependent on t he temperature
(3 marks)
D unaffected by a catalyst
v) What effect, if any, would using excess
3
5 f t he temperature at which hydrochloric acid reacts
hydrochloric acid of concentration 0.5 mol dm
wit h sodium t hiosulfate is raised by 10 °C, which of t he

have on t he rate of t he reaction? Give a reason for
following occurs?
your answer. (2 marks)
A The rate of t he reaction is increased by a factor of 10.
b i) What is a catalyst? (1 mark)
B The rate of t he reaction is decreased by a factor of 10.
ii) Explain how a catalyst works. (2 marks)
C The rate of t he reaction is doubled.
D The rate of t he reaction is halved. Total 15 marks
210
Rates of reaction Practice exam-style questions
8 The graph below shows t he results of an experiment
which was carried out to determine how t he rate of a
reaction between magnesium ribbon and hydrochloric
acid varies over time. n t he experiment, excess
magnesium ribbon was added to 25 cm of hydrochloric
acid at 35 C and t he volume of gas was measured at
regular inter vals.

)
3
mc(
sag
fo
emuloV
Time (min)
a i) Write a balanced equation for t he reaction.
(2 marks)
ii) Account for t he shape of t he cur ve. (4 marks)
b Draw a labelled diagram to show how t he apparatus
could be set up to carr y out t he experiment.
(3 marks)
c i) Copy t he graph onto your answer paper and
on your graph draw a second cur ve to show t he
expected results if t he experiment was repeated
at 25 °C. Make sure t hat you distinguish between
your cur ves. (2 marks)
ii) f t he experiment was repeated again wit h
magnesium powder instead of ribbon at 35 C,
what effect, if any, would t his have on:
– t he maximum volume of gas evolved
– t he rate of evolution of t he gas?
Explain your answer in each case. (4 marks)
Total 15 marks
211
A12 Energetics
Chemical energetics is the branch of chemistry that

Objectives
deals with energy changes during physical processes

be able to:
and chemical reactions. Energy changes usually
● distinguish between an
accompany all chemical reactions. In fact, in some
exothermic reaction and an
chemical reactions the energy produced is more

endothermic reaction
● give examples of exothermic important than the products of the chemical reaction,
and endothermic reactions
e.g. the burning of fuels. Energy changes can take many
● explain exothermic and
forms, e.g. changes in heat, light and electricity.

endothermic reactions based
on bond breaking and bond
forming
A12.1 Energy changes during reactions

● explain what is meant by
enthalpy change, H
Exothermic and endothermic reactions
● explain exothermic and
Whenever t here is a chemical reaction, t here tends to be a change in energy
endothermic reactions based
of t he system. The energy changes in chemical reactions are usually in t he
on enthalpy change
form of heat energy, however, t hey may also be in t he form of light, electrical
● draw energy prole
or nuclear energy. We can distinguish between two types of reaction based
diagrams for exothermic and
on t he energy changes which occur.
endothermic reactions
● If t he reaction produces heat, causing t he reaction mixture and its

● show the effect of adding a
surroundings to get hotter, t he reaction is said to be an exothermic

catalyst using energy prole
reaction. Exot hermic reactions transfer energy to t heir surroundings.

diagrams.
● If the reaction absorbs heat, causing the causing the reaction mixture and
its surroundings to get colder, the reaction is said to be an endothermic
reaction. Endothermic reactions absorb energy from their surroundings.
Key fact
An exothermic reaction releases
energy to its surroundings, causing
To investigate exothermic and endothermic reactions
the surroundings to get hotter.

Key fact
!
3 3
You will be supplied with 2.0 mol dm hydrochloric acid, 2.0 mol dm
An endothermic reaction absorbs
sodium hydroxide solution, zinc metal, potassium nitrate, sodium hydroxide
energy from its surroundings,
pellets, ammonium chloride, distilled water, a polystyrene cup supported in
causing the surroundings to get
a beaker, two measuring cylinders and a thermometer.
colder.
Method
1 Measure 25 cm of hydrochloric acid using a measuring cylinder and
pour it into the polystyrene cup. Record the temperature of the acid.
2 Measure 25 cm of sodium hydroxide solution in the other measuring
cylinder and add it to the acid. Stir the solutions with the thermometer
and record the maximum or minimum temperature.
3 Measure another 25 cm of hydrochloric acid and pour it into the cleaned
polystyrene cup. Record the temperature of the acid and add a small
amount of zinc. Stir and record the maximum or minimum temperature.
212
Energetics Energy changes during reactions
4 Measure 25 cm of distilled water in a cleaned measuring cylinder and
pour it into the cleaned polystyrene cup. Record the temperature of the
water and add a small amount of potassium nitrate. Stir and record the
maximum or minimum temperature.
5 Repeat step 4 using sodium hydroxide pellets and again using
ammonium chloride in place of the potassium nitrate in each case.
Make sure you wash the polystyrene cup between each experiment.
7 Classify each reaction as exothermic or endothermic.
zinc is added
sodium
polystyrene
hydroxide
cup
solution
hydrochloric acid hydrochloric acid
 Figure 12.1.1 Sodium hydroxide  Figure 12.1.2 Zinc is added to
solution is added to hydrochloric hydrochloric acid
acid
Examples of exot hermic reactions include:
● burning of fuels
● neutralisation reactions between acids and bases, e.g. t he reaction
between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
● reactions between reactive metals and acids
● respiration, which releases energy from food in t he cells of all living
organisms
● dissolving cer tain substances in water, e.g. sodium hydroxide and
sulfuric acid.
Examples of endot hermic reactions include:
● t he decomposition of compounds when heated, known as thermal
decomposition, e.g. calcium carbonate must absorb heat in order to
decompose into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide
● photosynt hesis in plants, which absorbs sunlight energy
● dissolving cer tain salts in water, e.g. ammonium chloride and potassium
nitrate.
Bond breaking and bond forming
In Unit 11.1 you learnt t hat a chemical reaction involves breaking t he original
bonds in t he reactants and making new bonds in t he products.
● When t he original bonds are broken in t he reactants, energy is absorbed
● When new bonds are formed in t he products, energy is released
reactants products
bonds are broken bonds are formed
energy is absorbed energy is released
213
Energy changes during reactions Energetics
● In an exothermic reaction , t he energy absorbed to break t he existing
bonds in t he reactants is less t han t he energy released in forming

Did you know?
?
t he new bonds in t he products. The extra energy is released to t he
Average bond energies can be

surroundings and t he temperature of t he surroundings increases.
found in chemical data books.
● In an endothermic reaction , t he energy absorbed to break t he existing
The amount of energy released
bonds in t he reactants is greater t han t he energy released in forming
or absorbed during a chemical
t he new bonds in t he products. The extra energy is absorbed from t he
reaction can be calculated by
surroundings and t he temperature of t he surroundings decreases.

adding up the bond energies for all
the bonds in the reactants and for

Ever y chemical bond has a specic amount of energy, no matter what
all the bonds in the products and

compound it is in, known as its bond energ y. The amount of energy which
applying the following formula:
has to be absorbed to break t hat bond is t he same as t he amount of energy
energy change  sum of all bond

released when t hat bond is formed.
energies in the reactant sum of
all bond energies in the products
Enthalpy change
The energy content of a substance is called its enthalpy and is given t he
symbol H. The energy content of a substance cannot be measured directly,
but it is possible to measure t he change in ent halpy t hat occurs during a
reaction. This is known as enthalpy change and is given t he symbol H and
is usually expressed in kilojoules, kJ, or kilojoules per mol, kJ mol .
The ent halpy change of a reaction is summarised by t he following formula:
ent halpy change of a reaction  (total ent halpy of products) 
(total ent halpy of reactants)
i.e. H  H  H
reaction products reactants
Exothermic reactions
In an exothermic reaction t he ent halpy of t he products is less t han t he
ent halpy of t he reactants:
i.e H  H
products reactants
Therefore, H has a value which is less t han zero, i.e. H is negative. The
extra energy is released to t he surroundings and t he temperature of t he
surroundings increases. Anot her way to t hink of t his is t hat since t he reaction
loses energy, H is negative, i.e. H ve.
energy content
of reactants
ygrenE
H ve
energy content
of products
Progress of reaction
 Figure 12.1.3 An exothermic reaction
An example of an exot hermic reaction is t he combustion of met hane (t he
value of H is given af ter t he equation):
CH (g)  2O (g) CO (g)  2H O(g) H  891 kJ mol

4 2 2 2
The value for H tells us t hat 891 kJ of energy is lost when 1 mol of met hane
is completely burned in oxygen.
214
Energetics Energy changes during reactions
Endothermic reactions
In an endothermic reaction t he ent halpy of t he products is greater t han
t he ent halpy of t he reactants:
i.e. H  H
products reactants
Therefore, H has a value which is greater t han zero, i.e. H is positive. Energy
is absorbed from t he surroundings and t he temperature of t he surroundings
decreases. Anot her way to t hink of t his is t hat since t he reaction gains energy,
H is positive, i.e. H ve.
energy content
of products
ygrenE
H ve
energy content
of reactants
Progress of reaction
 Figure 12.1.4 An endothermic reaction
An example of an endot hermic reaction is t he reaction between hydrogen
and iodine:
H (g)  I (s) 2HI(g) H  26.5 kJ mol Exam tip

2 2
✔
The value for H tells us t hat 26.5 kJ of energy is gained when 1 mol of
It may be very confusing to think of
hydrogen iodide is made during t he reaction. The overall energy absorbed
a reaction which causes an increase
by t he reaction represented in t he equation would be double t his value, i.e.

in temperature of its surroundings
53 kJ, since it shows 2 mol of hydrogen iodide being made.

as having a negative value for H
and vice versa. Try to remember
Reversible reactions
that an exothermic reaction is
losing energy to its surroundings

In a reversible reaction , if t he for ward reaction is exot hermic, t hen t he
and if you lose anything you are

reverse reaction is endot hermic and vice versa. The H value given for a
minus it, i.e. H is –ve. Similarly, the

reversible reaction is for t he for ward reaction, i.e. t he reaction which proceeds
endothermic reaction is gaining
from lef t to right. For example, t he reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen
energy from its surroundings and
to form ammonia is:
if you gain anything you are plus it,
N (g)  3H (s) 2NH (g) H  –46.1 kJ mol i.e. H is ve.

2 2 3
This shows t hat t he for ward reaction which produces ammonia is exot hermic.
Therefore, t he reverse reaction is endot hermic. It also shows us t hat when
1 mol of ammonia is made during t he reaction, 46.1 kJ of energy is released.
Key fact
Energy profile diagrams

Activation energy is the minimum
amount of energy that reactants

The energy change in a chemical reaction can be illustrated wit h an energ y
must be given, in excess of what

prole d i agram. The diagram shows t he energy content or ent halpy of t he
they normally possess, in order

reactants and products, H and t he activation energy. Most reactions need
for bonds to start breaking in the
some energy to get t hem star ted. This minimum amount of energy is called
reactants and products to start
t he activation energ y . This activation energy can be t hought of as t he
forming.
energy barrier of a reaction.
The amount of activation energy does not affect t he overall energy change
for t he reaction and is not included in t he calculation of t he value of H.
The general energy prole diagrams of an exot hermic and an endot hermic
reaction are shown in Figure 12.1.5.
215
Energy changes during reactions Energetics
(a) (b)
activation
energy
tnetnoc
tnetnoc
A + BC
AB + C
reactants products
activation
ygrenE
ygrenE
energy
H –ve H +ve
A + BC AB + C
products reactants
Course of reaction Course of reaction
 Figure 12.1.5 Energy prole diagrams.
(a) An exothermic reaction, (b) an endothermic reaction.
Drawing energy profile diagrams
When you are drawing an energy prole diagram for a specic reaction it is
impor tant t hat you include t he following information on your diagram:
● t he formulae of t he reactants
● t he formulae of t he products
● arrows indicating t he activation energy and H
● t he value of H.
An example of how t his can be done for t he reaction between nitrogen and
hydrogen is shown in Figure 12.1.6.
activation energy
N (g) + 3H (g)
tnetnoc
2 2
ygrenE
–1
H = – 46.2 kJ mol
2 NH (g)
3
Course of reaction
 Figure 12.1.6 Energy prole diagram for the formation of ammonia
Catalysts and energy profile diagrams
In Unit 11.2 you learnt t hat a catalyst is a substance t hat can increase t he
rate of a reaction. In terms of energy, a reaction in which a catalyst is used
has a lower activation energy t han t he same reaction wit hout a catalyst. This
is because a catalyst provides an alternative pat hway for t he reaction which
requires less activation energy t han t he normal pat hway. As a result, more
reactant par ticles have t he required energy to react when t hey collide, and
t he reaction speeds up because t here are more effective collisions (collisions
t hat result in t he formation of t he products) in t he same lengt h of time.
The effect of using a catalyst can be shown on energy prole diagrams. It is
impor tant to note that although the reaction has a lower activation energy, as
shown in the diagrams in Figure 12.1.7, the energy values for the reactants and
products remain unchanged, therefore, the value for H remains the same.
216
Energetics Calculating energy changes
activation energy activation energy
activation energy
without a catalyst without a catalyst
activation energy
with a catalyst
with a catalyst
reactants
tnetnoc
tnetnoc
ygrenE
ygrenE
H ve
H ve
products
reactants
Course of reaction Course of reaction
 Figure 12.1.7 Energy prole diagrams with and without a catalyst.
(a) an exothermic reaction, (b) an endothermic reaction.
Summary questions
1 Explain what is meant by an exothermic reaction and an endothermic
reaction.
2 Explain exothermic and endothermic reactions by reference to:
a bond breaking and bond forming
b enthalpy change.
3 Give the formula used to calculate enthalpy change.
4 Draw a fully labelled energy prole diagram for the following reaction.
Indicate on your diagram what effect adding a catalyst would have.
2H (g)  O (g) 2H O(g) H  241.8 kJ mol

2 2 2
Objectives
be able to:
A12.2 Calculating energy changes
● dene the terms specic heat
In t he laborator y, t he energy c hange, or ent halpy c hange, in a reaction

capacity, heat of neutralisation
can be deter mined by measur ing t he heat c hange t hat occurs dur ing t he
and heat of solution
reaction, known as t he he at of re action . We cannot measure t he energy

● give the formula to calculate
content, or ent halpy, of t he react ants and products directly. However, we

the heat change of a reaction
can calculate t he heat of reaction by measur ing t he c hange in temperature

● calculate heat changes from
whic h occurs dur ing a reaction.

experimental data
● explain why the heat of

In t his unit you will learn how to determine heats of reaction such as t he
neutralisation for the reaction

heat of neutralisation and t he heat of solution experimentally. In t hese
between a strong acid and

experiments you will measure t he change in temperature which accompanies
strong alkali is always the same

t he neutralisation reaction between a strong acid and a strong alkali and t he
● describe experiments
dissolving of a solid in water. You can t hen use what is known as t he specic
to determine the heat of

heat capacity to determine t he change in ent halpy for t he reaction.
neutralisation and heat of
The speci c heat capacity of a substance, c, is t he quantity of heat required

solution
to raise t he temperature of a unit mass of t he substance by 1 °C or 1 K. We

● give the assumptions made
usually take t he unit mass of t he substance as 1 g and measure temperature

when calculating the heat
in deg rees Celsius. This being t he case, speci c heat capacity is given t he
of neutralisation and heat of
1 1
units joules per g ram per deg ree Celsius or J g °C . Using water as an
solution from experimental
1 o 1
example, t he speci c heat capacity of water is 4.2 J g C . This means

data.
t hat it takes 4.2 J of heat energy to raise t he temperature of 1 g of water by
1 °C.
217
Calculating energy changes Energetics
If we know t he mass of t he substances reacting, m, we can determine t he
heat of reaction, q, from t he specic heat capacity of t he substances, c, and

Key fact
!
t he temperature change, T, using t he following formula:
The specific heat capacity of
q  m  c  T
a substance is the quantity of
heat energy required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of the
substance by 1 °C or 1 K.
Measuring heats of reaction
To measure t he heat of neutralisation and heat of solution a piece of
apparatus known as a c alor imeter is used. A calor imeter is an insulated
container whic h prevents heat released by a reaction escaping into t he
sur roundings if t he reaction is exot her mic, or heat from t he sur roundings
being absorbed by t he reaction if t he reaction is endot her mic. A simple
calor imeter can be made out of a polystyrene cup because polystyrene is a
good insulator.
The general met hod for determining heats of reaction involves measuring
a xed volume of solution or water to be used in a measuring cylinder,
pouring it into t he calorimeter and measuring its initial temperature using
a t hermometer. The reactants are t hen mixed in t he calorimeter and t he
maximum or minimum temperature reached in t he reaction is measured.
The temperature change can t hen be calculated and used in t he formula
given above to calculate t he heat of t he reaction.
Assumptions
In t he experiments you will be carr ying out to determine t he heat of
neutralisation and heat of solution, you will make t hree assumptions in your
calculations.
● The density of a dilute aqueous solution is t he same as water, i.e.
3 3
1 g cm . This means t hat t he mass of 1 cm of solution is 1 g.
● The specic heat capacity of a dilute aqueous solution is t he same as
1 1
water, i.e. 4.2 J g °C
● Negligible heat is lost to t he surroundings or absorbed from t he
surroundings during t he reaction.
Heat of neutralisation
Key fact
! The neutralisation reaction between a strong acid and a strong alkali is an
exot hermic reaction. The amount of heat produced per mole of water formed
The heat of neutralisation is the
in t he reaction is known as t he heat of neutralisation

heat change which occurs when
1 mol of water is produced in a
In calculating t he heat of neutralisation, t he initial temperature of
reaction between an acid and an
bot h solutions must be measured and averaged to determine t he initial
alkali.
temperature, and t he number of moles of water produced in t he reaction
must be calculated.
Example
A volume of 50 cm of sodium hydroxide solution of concentration
3 3
1.0 mol dm and temperature 26.0 °C is added to 50 cm of hydrochloric
acid of concentration 1.0 mol dm and temperature 27.0 °C. Af ter mixing,
t he maximum temperature of t he solution is 33.2 °C. Determine t he heat of
neutralisation and draw an energy prole diagram for t he reaction.
218
NaOH(aq)  HCl(aq) NaCl(aq)  H O(l)

2
Determine t he number of moles of water made in t he reaction:
1000 cm of NaOH(aq) contain 1.0 mol NaOH
1.0
3 _____
∴ 50 cm of NaOH(aq) contain  50 mol NaOH  0.05 mol NaOH
1000
And 1000 cm of HCl contains 1.0 mol HCl
1.0
3 _____
∴ 50 cm of HCl(aq) contain  50 mol HCl  0.05 mol HCl
1000
From t he equation:
1 mol NaOH reacts wit h 1 mol HCl forming 1 mol H O

2
∴ 0.05 mol NaOH reacts wit h 0.05 mol HCl forming 0.05 mol H O
2
i.e. 0.05 mol H O is produced in t he reaction.

2
Determine t he heat of neutralisation:
Total volume of solution  50  50  100 cm
∴ mass of solution, m  100 g
26.0  27.0
___________
Average initial temperature, T  °C  26.5 °C

1
Final temperature, T  33.2 °C

2
∴ temperature increase, T  T – T  (33.2 – 26.5) °C  6.7 °C

2 1
1 1
Specic heat capacity of t he solution, c  4.2 J g °C
Using q  m  c  T,
heat evolved in forming 0.05 mol H O  (100  4.2  6.7) J

2
 2814 J
 2.814 kJ
2.814
______
∴ heat evolved in forming 1 mol H O  kJ

2
0.05
 56.28 kJ
i.e. heat of neutralisation, H  56.28 kJ mol
The heat of neutralisation is negative because t he temperature increased,
t herefore, t he reaction was exothermic
The energy prole diagram is shown below:
activation energy
NaOH(aq)  HCl(aq)
tnetnoc
ygrenE
H  56.28 kJ mol
NaCl(aq)  H O(l)
2
Course of reaction
219
To determine the heat of neutralisation
3 3
You will be supplied with 1.0 mol dm sulfuric acid, 2.0 mol dm potassium
hydroxide solution, a calorimeter (polystyrene cup), a measuring cylinder
and a thermometer.
Method
1 Measure 50 cm of sulfuric acid in the measuring cylinder and pour it into
the dry calorimeter.
2 Measure and record the temperature of the acid using the thermometer.
3 Measure 50 cm of potassium hydroxide solution in the cleaned
measuring cylinder. Measure and record its temperature.
4 Pour the potassium hydroxide solution into the calorimeter and stir the
solution with the thermometer while watching the temperature change.
5 Record the maximum temperature reached.
6 Calculate the average initial temperature of the two solutions and use
this to calculate the temperature increase.
7 Assuming that the density and specic heat capacity of the solution
are both the same as water, calculate the heat of neutralisation for
the reaction between sulfuric acid and potassium hydroxide. Use the
calculation on the previous page to help you.
8 Draw an energy prole diagram for the reaction.
9 The heat of neutralisation for the reaction should be approximately
56.3 kJ mol . If your value is lower than this, can you suggest reasons
why?
The heat of neutralisation for t he reaction between any strong acid and any
strong alkali is always about 56.3 kJ mol . This is because strong acids and
strong alkalis are fully ionised in aqueous solution and t he common reaction
t hat releases heat in all cases is:
 1
OH (aq)  H (aq) H O(l) H  56.3 kJ mol

2
The equation for t he neutralisation reaction between sodium hydroxide and
sulfuric acid is:
2NaOH(aq)  H SO (aq) Na SO (aq)  2H O(l)

2 4 2 4 2
In this reaction, 2 mol of water are produced. The heat of neutralisation is still
about 56.3 kJ mol , however, the overall heat change for the reaction shown
in the equation is about 112.6 kJ, i.e. double t he heat of neutralisation.
The heat of neutralisation can also be determined from t he results of a
thermometric titration explained in Unit 8.5. In t his met hod, t he initial
temperatures of t he acid and alkali must be measured and t he point of
intersection of t he two lines of best t on t he graph represents t he maximum
temperature recorded during t he reaction.
220
Heat of solution
Key fact
When a solid, liquid or gas dissolves in a solvent, t here is usually a change in

!
ent halpy. This ent halpy change which occurs when 1 mol of solute dissolves
The heat of solution is the heat
in a solvent is known as heat of solution

change which occurs when 1 mol
of solute dissolves in such a volume
In calculating t he heat of solution, t he initial temperature of t he water must
of solvent that further dilution by the
be measured and t he exact quantity of solute dissolving must be known so
solvent produces no further heat
t hat t he number of moles of solute can be calculated.

change.
Example
A student dissolves 5.35 g of ammonium chloride in 100 cm of distilled
water. The initial temperature of t he water is 22.5 °C. Af ter mixing, a
minimum temperature of 16.4 °C is recorded by t he student. Determine t he
heat of solution of ammonium chloride and draw an energy prole diagram
for t he solution process.
Determine t he number of moles of NH Cl dissolved:

4
M(NH Cl)  53.5 g mol

4
i.e. mass of 1 mol NH Cl  53.5 g

4
5.35
_____
∴ number of moles in 5.35 g  mol  0.1 mol
53.5
Determine t he heat of solution:
Mass of water, m  100 g
Initial temperature, T  22.5 °C

1
Final temperature, T  16.4 °C

2
∴ temperature decrease ( T)  T – T  22.5 – 16.4 °C  6.1 °C

1 2
1 1
Specic heat capacity of t he solution, c  4.2 J g °C
Using q  m  c  T,
heat absorbed in dissolving 0.1 mol NH Cl  100  4.2  6.1 J

4
 2562 J  2.562 kJ
2.562
______
∴ heat absorbed in dissolving 1 mol NH Cl  kJ  25.62 kJ

4
0.1
Exam tip
1 ✔
i.e. heat of solution, H  25.62 kJ mol
It is essential that you give

The heat of solution is positive because t he temperature decreased, t herefore,
the correct unit for the heat of

t he reaction was endothermic
neutralisation or solution. Since you
The energy prole diagram is shown below: are calculating the heat change
for producing 1 mol of water or
dissolving 1 mol of solute, the unit

1 1
NH (aq)  Cl (aq)
4 will always be J mol or kJ mol .
It is also essential that you indicate

tnetnoc
activation
whether the reaction is exothermic

energy
1
or endothermic by putting a
H  25.62 kJ mol
ygrenE
negative or positive sign before
your value.
NH Cl(s)  water
4
Course of reaction
221
To determine the heat of solution
You will be supplied with potassium nitrate, distilled water, a balance, a
calorimeter (polystyrene cup), a measuring cylinder and a thermometer.
Method
1 Measure 100 cm of distilled water in the measuring cylinder and pour it
into the dry calorimeter.
2 Measure and record the temperature of the water.
3 Using the balance, weigh 12.1 g of potassium nitrate and add it to the
water in the calorimeter.
4 Stir the solution with the thermometer while watching the temperature
change.
5 Record the minimum temperature reached.
6 Calculate the temperature decrease.
7 Assuming that the specic heat capacity of the solution is the same
Summary questions
as water, calculate the heat of solution of potassium nitrate. Use the
1 Dene the following:

calculation on the previous page to help you.
a heat of neutralisation
8 Is dissolving potassium nitrate an exothermic or endothermic reaction?
b heat of solution
Give a reason for your answer.
c specic heat capacity.
9 Draw an energy prole diagram for the solution process.
2 What are the assumptions
10 By reference to bonds breaking and bonds forming, explain the reason
made in an experiment
for the enthalpy change which occurred when potassium nitrate
to determine the heat of
dissolved in water.
neutralisation?
3 Why is the heat of
When a solute dissolves in a solvent t he following events occur.

between sodium hydroxide ● Bonds break between the par ticles of the solute; this absorbs energy from
the surroundings. In the case of ionic compounds, it is the ionic bonds

and hydrochloric acid
which break, e.g. when sodium chloride dissolves in water it is the ionic
the same as the heat of
bonds between the Na ions and the Cl ions which break. In the case of
covalent substances, it is the intermolecular forces between the molecules
between potassium hydroxide
that break, e.g. when ethanol dissolves in water it is the intermolecular
and sulfuric acid?
forces between the ethanol molecules that break.
4 It was found that when
● The intermolecular forces between t he solvent molecules also break; t his
4.0 g of ammonium nitrate
also absorbs energy from t he surroundings.
dissolved in 50 cm of distilled
● Attractions are formed between t he ions or molecules of t he solute and
water, the temperature
t he molecules of t he solvent. This process is called solvation and it
decreased from 27.4 °C to
releases energy to t he surroundings.
21.6 °C. Determine the heat of
The reaction is exot hermic if more energy is released during solvation t han
solution for ammonium nitrate
is absorbed to break t he bonds in t he solute and solvent. The reaction is

and draw an energy prole
endot hermic if more energy is absorbed to break bonds in t he solute and
diagram for the process.
solvent t han is released during solvation.
222
Key concepts
● Exothermic reactions produce heat energy causing t he reaction
mixture and its surroundings to get hotter, i.e. t hey transfer energy to
t heir surroundings.
● Endothermic reactions absorb heat energy causing t he reaction
mixture and its surroundings to get colder, i.e. t hey absorb energy from
t heir surroundings.
● When bonds are broken in reactants energy is absorbed. When new
bonds are formed in products energy is released.
● In an exot hermic reaction, t he energy absorbed to break bonds is less
t han t he energy released in forming new bonds.
● In an endot hermic reaction, t he energy absorbed to break bonds is
greater t han t he energy released in forming new bonds.
● The energy content of a substance is called enthalpy and is given t he
symbol H
● The ent halpy change in a reaction can be measured and is given t he
symbol H.
● H  H  H
reaction products reactants
● In an exot hermic reaction H < H , t herefore, H is less t han

products reactants
zero, i.e. H is negative.
● In an endot hermic reaction, H > H , t herefore, H is greater

products reactants
t han zero, i.e. H is positive.
● The ent halpy change in a chemical reaction can be illustrated by an
energ y prole d i agram
● The activation energ y is t he minimum amount of energy required for a
reaction to occur.
● A catalyst reduces t he amount of activation energy required for a
reaction to occur by providing an alternative route for t he reaction to
proceed which requires less energy.
● The specic heat capacity of a substance enables us to determine
ent halpy change from a change in temperature.
● The specic heat capacity is t he quantity of heat energy required to
raise t he temperature of a unit mass of t he substance by 1 °C or 1 K.
● The heat of reaction , q, can be calculated from t he masses of t he
substances reacting, m, t he specic heat capacity of t he substances, c,
and t he change in temperature, T, using t he formula:
q  m  c  T
● The heat of neutralisation is t he heat change which occurs when 1 mol
of water is produced in a reaction between an acid and an alkali.
● The heat of solution is t he heat change which occurs when 1 mol of
solute dissolves in such a volume of solvent t hat fur t her dilution by t he
solvent produces no fur t her heat change.
● To determine t he heat of neutralisation or heat of solution we assume
t hat 1 cm of a dilute aqueous solution has a mass of 1 g and a specic
1 1
heat capacity which is t he same as water, i.e. 4.2 J g °C , and t hat
negligible heat is lost to, or absorbed from, t he surroundings.
● The heat of neutralisation for t he reaction between a strong acid and a
strong alkali is always t he same, about 56.3 kJ mol
223
Practice exam-style questions Energetics
6 When 0.2 mol sodium nitrate dissolved in 100 cm of

water, t he temperature decreased by 7.2 °C. Assuming
t hat t he specic heat capacity of t he solution is
1 1
4.2 J g °C , t he heat of solution of sodium nitrate is:
1 Which of t he following statements best describes an A 604.8 J mol
1
endot hermic reaction? B 3024 J mol
1
A The ent halpy of t he reactants is greater t han t he C 15.12 kJ mol
1
ent halpy of t he products.
D 151.2 kJ mol
B Energy is released to t he surroundings.
C The ent halpy change is negative. Structured question
D The temperature of t he surroundings decreases.
7 a The gure below shows an energy prole diagram for
a reaction and t he effect of a catalyst on t he reaction
2 When sodium hydroxide is added to water at 28 °C, t he
pat hway.
temperature of t he solution increases to 40 °C because:
A t he ent halpy change is positive
B energy is released to t he surroundings
tnetnoc
C t he reaction is endot hermic
D more energy is absorbed to break t he ionic bonds
B

between t he Na ion and OH ions t han is released C
ygrenE
during solvation
3 Which of t he following processes releases energy?
I breaking of a bond
II solvation of an ion
Course of reaction
III formation of a bond
Energy prole diagram
A I only
i) State, wit h a reason, if t he reaction is exot hermic

B I and II only
or endot hermic. (2 marks)
C II and III only
ii) Identify t he par ts labelled A, B, and C on t he
D III only
diagram. (3 marks)
iii) How does a catalyst work to speed up t he rate of a
4 The diagram below shows t he energy prole diagram of
reaction? (2 marks)
a reaction. Which letter in t he diagram represents t he
b The dissolving of ammonium nitrate in water may be
energy necessar y for t he reaction to take place?
represented by t he following equation:
NH NO (s)  water NH (aq) 

4 3 4
A
D
NO (aq) H ve
3
tnetnoc
In order to determine t he value of H, a student
dissolved 16.0 g of ammonium nitrate in 75 cm of
distilled water at room temperature (30.0 °C). He

ygrenE
stirred t he mixture and recorded its temperature
at regular inter vals until all t he solid had dissolved
and t he temperature of t he mixture had returned
to room temperature. The largest difference he
obser ved between t he initial temperature and t he
Course of reaction
solution temperature was 15 °C.
i) On t he axes below, sketch a graph to show t he
5 Consider t he following equation for t he reaction

variation in solution temperature wit h time.
between sodium hydroxide and phosphoric acid

)C°(
3NaOH(aq)  H PO (aq) Na PO (aq) 

50
3 4 3 4
3H O(l) H  168.9 kJ
2
erutarepme
40
Which of t he following statements is incorrect? 30
A The reaction is exot hermic.

20
B The heat of neutralisation is 168.9 kJ mol

T
10
C The reactants have more energy t han t he products.
D The temperature of t he surroundings would increase. Time (min)

(2 marks)
224
Energetics Practice exam-style questions
ii) Calculate t he energy change for t he reaction,
assuming t hat t he specic heat capacity of t he
1 1
solution is 4.2 J g °C . (2 marks)
iii) Determine t he number of moles of ammonium
nitrate t hat dissolved. (2 marks)
iv) Determine t he heat of solution of ammonium
nitrate. (2 marks)
Total 15 marks
8 a i) Dene ‘heat of neutralisation’. (2 marks)
ii) Account for t he fact t hat t he heat of
neutralisation for t he reaction between any
strong acid and any strong alkali is t he same.
Give a relevant ionic equation to suppor t your
answer. (2 marks)
b A student was required to carr y out an experiment to
determine t he heat of neutralisation in t he reaction
between potassium hydroxide and sulfuric acid.
She was provided wit h t he following materials and
equipment:
50 cm of potassium hydroxide solution
50 cm of sulfuric acid of concentration
0.6 mol dm
a t hermometer
a polystyrene cup.
She recorded t he initial temperature of t he two
solutions, mixed t hem in t he polystyrene cup and
recorded t he maximum temperature reached. Her
temperature recordings are given below:
Initial temperature of potassium hydroxide
solution  29.5 °C
Initial temperature of sulfuric acid  29.5 °C
Maximum temperature af ter mixing  37.1 °C
i) Determine t he heat change for t he reaction,
assuming t hat t he specic heat capacity of t he
1 1
solution is 4.2 J g °C . (3 marks)
ii) State T WO ot her assumptions t hat you have
made in your calculation in i) above. (2 marks)
iii) From your answer to i) above, calculate t he heat
of neutralisation given t hat t he sulfuric acid is
t he limiting reactant. (4 marks)
iv) Draw a fully labelled energy prole diagram for
t he reaction. (2 marks)
Total 15 marks
225
Section B
Introduction to organic
chemistry
B13
Objectives Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry in which

compounds containing carbon atoms, known as organic
be able to:
compounds, are studied. Studying organic compounds
● give examples of organic
is very important since they are all around us and form

compounds
● give the main compounds an integral part of our daily lives, for example plastics,
containing carbon
oil, gasoline, diesel and alcohols. Organic compounds
● give the electron structure of a
also form a major part of the bodies of living organisms

carbon atom
● understand and illustrate that

and of the food we eat. Proteins, carbohydrates and
carbon can form single bonds,
fats are all organic compounds.
double bonds, unbranched
chains, branched chains and
ringed structures
B13.1 Organic compounds

● explain the term functional
group
All organic compounds contain carbon. Most also contain hydrogen and
● identify certain functional

many contain oxygen. Ot her elements may also be present such as nitrogen,
groups
sulfur and phosphor us. Organic compounds which contain only carbon and
● represent organic compounds

hydrogen are known as hydrocarbons
using molecular, fully displayed
A vast number of organic compounds exist and t hey are used in all aspects of
and condensed structural
our lives. Some examples of organic compounds t hat we use in our ever yday
formulae.
lives are given below.
● Met hane, CH , is t he main component of natural gas which is used as

4
a fuel to generate electricity, as a fuel for domestic heating and cooking
pur poses and as a fuel for vehicles in some countries.
● Et hanoic acid, CH COOH, is t he main component in vinegar which is

3
used to preser ve and avour food.
● Et hanol, C H OH, forms t he basis of wines and spirits.

2 5
● Glucose, C H O , is used by bot h plants and animals as one of t heir

6 12 6
main sources of energy.
● Protein is an example of a natural polymer (see Unit 16) which is used by
plants and animals to enable t hem to grow.
● Polyet hene is an example of a man-made polymer which is widely used
as a plastic, for example, in sandwich bags and cling wrap.
Formation of carbon compounds
The great abundance of organic compounds in t he world is because of t he
chemistr y of t he carbon atom. Carbon is found in:
● carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
● metal carbonates and hydrogencarbonates
● fossil fuels, such as cr ude oil, natural gas and coal
● carbohydrates, proteins and lipids (fats and oils)
● organic acids, such as ascorbic acid and citric acid
● diamond and graphite which are pure carbon.
226
Introduction to organic chemistry Organic compounds
The atomic number of carbon is 6. A carbon atom t herefore has six electrons
and has an electronic conguration of C (2,4). The shell diagram of a carbon

××
atom is shown in Figure 13.1.1.
6p
× ×
6n
Looking at t he electron str ucture, a carbon atom has four valence electrons.
This means t hat carbon can share four electrons wit h ot her atoms, i.e. it
can form four covalent bonds wit h ot her atoms. These ot her atoms include ×
12
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and t he halogens. carbon, C
 Figure 13.1.1 Electron structure of

It is impor tant to note t hat not all carbon-containing compounds are organic
carbon
compounds. Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, metal carbonates and metal
hydrogencarbonates are classied as inorganic compounds
Did you know?
Carbon is the sixteenth most

Bonding in organic compounds
abundant element in the Earth’s
As a result of carbon having four valence electrons, carbon atoms can bond
crust and the sixth most abundant
wit h ot her carbon atoms in an almost unlimited way. Because of t his, a

element by mass in the Universe
vast number of different organic compounds exist compared to inorganic after hydrogen, helium, oxygen,
compounds. The simplest of t hese is met hane (CH ). If we look at t he met hane neon and nitrogen. It is present in
4
all forms of life and is the second

molecule in t he ball and stick model in Figure 13.1.2, we can see t hat carbon
most abundant element by mass in

is bonded to four hydrogen atoms arranged in a tetrahedron around it. The
the human body after oxygen.

bond angle between covalent bonds is 109.5°.
Organic molecules, t herefore, have ver y distinctive t hree-dimensional
str uctures.
When carbon atoms bond wit h each ot her a variety of str uctures can form.
Single bonds
 Figure 13.1.2 Ball and stick model of
methane
Single bonds can form between adjacent carbon atoms. In a single bond,
a carbon atom shares one pair of electrons wit h anot her carbon atom. This
leaves t hree ot her electrons per carbon atom available for bonding wit h
ot her atoms. For example, et hane (C H ) has a single bond between t he two
2 6
carbon atoms, represented by t he single line:
H H

or H  C  C  H

H H
et hane (C H )
2 6
Organic compounds containing only single bonds between adjacent carbon
atoms are known as saturated compounds
Double bonds
Double bonds can form between adjacent carbon atoms. In a double bond,
a carbon atom shares two pairs of electrons wit h anot her carbon atom. This
leaves two ot her electrons per carbon atom available for bonding wit h ot her
atoms. For example, et hene (C H ) has a double bond between two carbon
2 4
atoms, represented by two lines:
227
Organic compounds Introduction to organic chemistry
H H

or C  C


H H
et hene (C H )
2 4
Organic compounds containing one or more double bonds between adjacent
carbon atoms are known as unsaturated compounds
Unbranched chains
Unbranched chains of carbon atoms of different lengt hs can form. For
example, butane (C H ) is an unbranched chain of four carbon atoms wit h

4 10
single bonds between adjacent atoms:
H H H H



H  C  C  C  C  H



H H H H
butane (C H )
4 10
Branched chains
Branched chains of carbon atoms of different lengt hs can form. For example,
met hylpropane (C H ) is a chain of t hree carbon atoms wit h t he four t h

4 10
carbon atom branching off from t he middle atom of t he chain:
H H H



H  C  C  C  H


H H
H  C  H

met hylpropane (C H )
4 10
Rings
Rings of carbon atoms can form. For example, cyclohexane (C H ) is a ring

6 12
of six carbon atoms:
H H

H H


C
 
C C
H
H


H 
H
 C C



C


H H
H H
cyclohexane (C H )
6 12
The ability of carbon atoms to form covalent bonds wit h ot her carbon atoms
forming long chains and rings of carbon atoms is known as catenation.
It is impor tant to note t hat, wit h t he exception of t he ball and stick models,
t he drawings above show each molecule in two-dimensions only.
Functional groups
Organic compounds contain one or more functional groups . A functional
group is a par ticular atom, a par ticular group of atoms, or a par ticular bond
between two carbon atoms wit hin t he molecule. The functional group
determines t he chemical proper ties of t he compound containing it. Organic
228
Introduction to organic chemistry Organic compounds
compounds are classied into groups known as homologous series based  Table 13.1.1 Functional groups
on t he functional group t hat t hey contain (see Unit 13.2). Some of t he

Name of Structure of
functional groups we will be studying are given in Table 13.1.1. functional group functional group
carbon–carbon
The simplest organic compounds t hat you will be studying can be t hought of
single bond
C C
as being composed of two par ts:
● t he hydrocarbon part which is composed of carbon and hydrogen

carbon–carbon
atoms only. double bond
● t he functional group
hydroxyl group
O H
or OH
Formulae of organic compounds
carboxyl group
O
The formulae of organic compounds can be written in a variety of different
ways. Using butanoic acid as an example, t he most common met hods are:
O H
● The molecular formula . This shows t he actual number of atoms of
each element in one molecule of t he compound. The molecular formula or COOH
for butanoic acid is C H O . Molecular formulae have a limited use in

4 8 2
ester group
O
organic chemistr y since t hey don’t give any information about how t he
atoms are joined wit hin t he molecule. C O
or COO
● The fully d isplayed structural formula . This shows in two-dimensional
diagrammatic form how t he atoms are arranged in one molecule of t he
compound (Figure 13.1.3). H H H
The fully displayed formula has t he limitation t hat it is a two-dimensional
C C C
drawing of a t hree-dimensional molecule, i.e. t he molecule is straightened
out and attened. The ball and stick model in Figure 13.1.4 represents H H H
t he actual molecule in t hree-dimensions. However, you would not be

 Figure 13.1.3 Fully displayed structural
required to draw t his.

formula of butanoic acid
● The condensed structural formula . This shows t he sequence and
arrangement of atoms in one molecule of t he compound in such a way
t hat t he nature and position of attachment of t he functional group is
shown wit hout actually drawing t he molecule. Each carbon atom is
written separately and in sequence, followed by t he ot her atoms t hat are
bonded to it. The condensed str uctural formula for butanoic acid is:
CH CH CH COOH  Figure 13.1.4 Ball and stick model of

3 2 2
butanoic acid
This may be shor tened fur t her by showing t he total number of carbon
atoms and total number of hydrogen atoms in t he hydrocarbon par t of
t he molecule, i.e.
C H COOH
3 7
Summary questions
1 How many bonds can a carbon atom form with other atoms?
2 What is a hydrocarbon?
3 What is the difference between a saturated and an unsaturated organic
compound?
4 What is a functional group?
5 Give the condensed structural formula H H H H H
and molecular formula of this
C C C C H
compound:
H H H H H
229
Homologous series Introduction to organic chemistry
Objectives
B13.2 Homologous series
We can classif y compounds into groups based on t he functional group which

be able to:
t hey contain. These groups are known as homologous series
● dene the term homologous
series
Characteristics of a homologous series

● list the general characteristics
of a homologous series The characteristics of a homologous series are given below.
● write the general formula of a

● All members of t he series have t he same functional group.
given homologous series
● All members of the series can be represented by the same general formula.
● write the formulae for members
● Each member of t he series differs from t he member before or af ter it by a

of a given homologous series
CH group and by relative molecular mass of 14.

2
● name straight chain members
of the common homologous ● All members of a series possess similar chemical proper ties. Reactivity
series decreases as molar mass increases, i.e. as t he number of carbon atoms per
● determine the homologous molecule increases.
series to which a compound

● All members of a series show a gradual change in t heir physical
belongs from its name or

proper ties as t heir molar mass increases. In general, as molar mass
formula
increases, melting point, boiling point and density increase.
● dene structural isomer and
● All members of a homologous series can be prepared by t he same general
structural isomerism
met hod.
● explain how structural isomers
can be formed
Naming straight chain members of a homologous series

● name branched chain isomers.
Because of t he great variety of organic compounds, a set of r ules for naming
t hese compounds has been developed by t he International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistr y (IUPAC). The process of naming chemical compounds
Key fact is known as chemical nomenclature . The main function of chemical
!
nomenclature is to ensure t hat when a person reads a chemical name t here
A homologous series is a group

is no ambiguity as to which chemical compound it refers.
of organic compounds that all
The names of straight chain members of a homologous series consist of

possess the same functional group.
two par ts:
● The rst par t, or prex, is related to t he total number of carbon atoms
present in one molecule. Table 13.2.1 gives t he prexes for organic
compounds up to ten carbon atoms.
● The second part which is based on the homologous series to which the
compound belongs and relates to the functional group present. For example,
if the compound belongs to the alkane series, its name ends in ‘-ane’.
Total number of carbon atoms Prefix
1 meth-
2 eth-
3 prop-
4 but-
5 pent-
6 hex-
7 hept-
8 oct-
9 non-
 Table 13.2.1 Prexes for naming
10 dec-
organic compounds
Table 13.2.2 gives t he main homologous series you will be studying, toget her
wit h an example of a member of each series containing two carbon atoms.
230
Introduction to organic chemistry Homologous series
 Table 13.2.2 The main homologous series
Name of Example
General Functional group Condensed
homologous Naming containing two Structural formula
formula present formula
series carbon atoms
Alkane C H carbon–carbon single bond prefix  ane ethane

H H
n 2n2 CH CH
3 3
or
C H
C C
C H
2 6
H H
Alkene C H carbon–carbon double bond prefix  ene ethene

H H
n 2n CH CH
2 2
or
C H H H
2 4
Alcohol or C H OH hydroxyl group prefix  anol ethanol

H H
n 2n1 CH CH OH
3 2
alkanol
O H
or
OH
C H OH
2 5
H H
Alkanoic acid or C H COOH carboxyl group prefix  anoic acid ethanoic acid CH COOH
3
H
n 2n1
O
carboxylic acid
O
O H
O H
H
COOH
Determining homologous series
The homologous series t hat a compound belongs to can be determined if
you are given t he name of t he compound or its formula. You can also work
out t he formula of a compound if you have been given its name or you can
deduce its name if you have been given its formula.
Examples
● To determine t he homologous ser ies t hat a compound belongs to from t he
name, look at t he second par t of t he name. For example, if t he second
par t of t he name is ‘-ene’ t hen t he compound belongs to t he alkene
series.
● To work out t he formula of t he compound from t he name, rst
determine t he homologous series to which it belongs and t hen look at
t he prex of t he name. For example, if t he name of t he compound is
butane t hen it belongs to t he alkane series. Its prex is ‘but-’ so it has four
carbon atoms. The general formula of an alkane is C H . The formula

n 2n2
of butane must be C H
4 10
● To determine t he homologous ser ies t hat a compound belongs to from t he
formula, look and see what functional group is present. For example, if Exam tip
✔
t he functional group present is t he O H group, t hen t he compound
It is very important that you

belongs to t he alcohol series.
can work out the formula of a
● To deter mine t he name of t he compound from t he for mula,  r st
compound if you have been given
deter mine t he homologous ser ies to whic h t he compound belongs
its name or that you can deduce
and t hen look at t he tot al number of carbon atoms in t he molecule.
the name of a compound if you
For example, if t he for mula of t he compound is C H COOH t hen it

2 5
have been given the formula. To do
belongs to t he alkanoic acid ser ies so t he second par t of t he name
either of these, you must be able to
must be ‘-anoic acid’. It has a tot al of t hree carbon atoms in t he
identify the homologous series to
molecule so t he pre x must be ‘prop-’. The name of t he compound is

which the compound belongs.
propanoic acid.
231
Structural isomers
Key fact
! Many organic compounds have t he same molecular formula but different
str uctural formulae, i.e. t heir molecules contain t he same number of atoms
Structural isomers are
of each element, but t hese atoms are bonded toget her differently. These
compounds which have the same
compounds are called structural isomers and t his phenomenon is called
molecular formula but different
structural isomerism
structural formulae.
Str uctural isomers can belong to t he same homologous series or to different
homologous series.
● If t hey contain t he same functional group t hey must belong to t he same

Key fact
!
homologous series. Because t hey have t he same functional group, t hey
Structural isomerism is the

have ver y similar chemical proper ties, however, because t heir atoms are
occurrence of two or more organic

bonded differently t hey have different physical proper ties.
compounds with the same
● If t hey contain different functional groups t hey belong to different
molecular formula but different
homologous series. Because of t his t hey have different chemical and

structural formulae.
Each different str uctural isomer has a different name.
Str uctural isomers of straight chain molecules can be formed in two ways,
by t he chain of carbon atoms becoming branched or by t he position of t he
functional group changing.
Forming isomers by branching
Carbon chains can have side branches of one or more carbon atoms. For
example, pentane (C H ) has t hree isomers, one of which is t he straight

5 12
chain isomer and two of which are formed by branching of t he carbon chain
as shown in Figure 13.2.1. The condensed str uctural formula of each isomer
is given below t he isomer.
H
H
H C H H C H
H H H H H
C C C H C C H
H H H H H
H H H H H H
C C C C H C
H H H H H H
CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH(CH )CH CH C(CH ) CH

3 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 3
 Figure 13.2.1 Isomers of pentane Straight chain isomer

Branched chain isomers
It is impor tant to note t hat when drawing t he str uctural for mula of an
organic compound, t he longest continuous c hain of carbon atoms is
always drawn hor izontally . Care must also be t aken not to draw bent or
twisted versions of t he straight c hain isomer. For example, t he following
is a bent version of t he straight c hain isomer of pentane and, t herefore, is
incor rect:
CH CH CH CH
3 2 2 2
CH
3
Forming isomers by changing the position of the functional group
The functional group is usually situated at t he right-hand end of t he molecule.
However, t he position of t he functional group can change.
232
Examples
Butene (C H ) has two isomers because t he position of t he carbon–carbon

4 8
double bond can change as shown in Figure 13.2.2.
H H H H H H H
C C C C C C H
H H H H  Figure 13.2.2 Isomers of butene
When drawing t he str uctural formulae of alkenes, t he carbon–carbon double

H H H H
bond is always drawn hor izontally. You will learn more about t he isomers of
C C C
alkenes in Unit 14.2.
Butanol (C H OH) has two isomers because t he position of t he hydroxyl H H H H

4 9
group ( OH) can change as shown in Figure 13.2.3.

H H H H
C C C H
Naming branched chain isomers
H H O H
The side chains which branch off from t he longest chain of carbon atoms in a
molecule are known as alkyl groups. These groups have t he general formula
C H . Alkyl groups are named by adding t he sufx ‘ -yl’ to t he prex.  Figure 13.2.3 Isomers of butanol
n 2n1
The name of a branched chain molecule is made up of t hree par ts:
 Table 13.2.3 Naming alkyl groups
● t he rst par t indicates t he number of t he carbon atom to which t he side
Formula of the Name
chain is attached
alkyl group
● t he second par t is t he name of t he side chain, i.e. t he alkyl group

– CH methyl
3
● t he t hird par t is derived from t he homologous series to which t he – C H ethyl

2 5
compound belongs and t he longest continuous chain of carbon atoms. – C H propyl

3 7
To name branched chain molecules, t herefore, t he following four steps
should be used.
1) Find the number of the carbon atom to which the side chain is
attached.
2) Determine t he name of t he side chain.
3) Determine t he homologous series to which t he compound belongs
and t he total number of carbon atoms in t he longest continuous
carbon chain.
4) Put t he information from steps 1) to 3) toget her to name t he compound,
separating t he number from t he name by a hyphen.
Examples
1 Determine t he name of t he following branched chain isomer of C H

5 12
H H H H
C C C H
H H
233
1) Find t he longest continuous chain of carbon atoms in t he str ucture.
Number t he carbon atoms from t he end closest to t he side chain so
t hat t he side chain is at t he lowest number:
H H H H
C C C H
H H H
The side chain is attached to carbon atom number 2
2) The side chain is an alkyl group wit h one carbon atom. It is t he
methyl group.
3) The compound has only carbon–carbon single bonds. Therefore, it
belongs to t he alkane series.
The longest continuous carbon chain has four carbon atoms in it. Its
name is, t herefore, butane
4) The name of t he compound is 2-methylbutane

6 14
H H H H
C C C H
H H
1) Number t he carbon atoms in t he longest continuous carbon chain so
t hat t he side chains are at t he lowest numbers:
H H H H
C C C H
H H
There are two side chains. One is attached to carbon atom number 2
and one is attached to carbon atom number 3. When writing t he name
we write 2,3- because bot h side chains are t he same, i.e. CH

3
2) Bot h side chains are alkyl groups wit h one carbon atom. They are bot h
t he met hyl group and because t here are two of t hem we use t he prex
‘di-’, i.e. we write d imethyl
234
3) The compound has only carbon–carbon single bonds. Therefore, it
belongs to t he alkane series.
The longest continuous carbon chain has four carbon atoms in it. Its
name is, t herefore, butane
4) The name of t he compound is 2,3-d imethylbutane

4 8
1) Number t he carbon atoms in t he longest continuous carbon chain so
t hat t he side chain is at t he lowest number:
The side chain is attached to carbon atom number 2
2) The side chain is an alkyl group wit h one carbon atom. It is t he methyl
group.
3) The compound has a carbon–carbon double bond; t herefore, it belongs
to t he alkene series.
The longest continuous carbon chain has three carbon atoms in it. Its
name is, t herefore, propene
4) The name of t he compound is 2-methylpropene
Ot her examples are given below:
H H H H
C C C C H
H H H
CH CH CH CH
3 2 2 2 3
H C H
CH
2
H
CH
3
H 3-ethylhexane
2,2,3-trimethylpentane
235
Summary questions
1 Give four characteristics of a homologous series.
2 Give the name and condensed formula of each of the following straight chain isomers:
a an alcohol with one carbon atom b an alkene with four carbon atoms
c an alkanoic acid with three carbon atoms d an alkane with two carbon atoms.
3 Name the following compounds:
a C H b C H OH c CH d C H COOH
3 6 4 9 4 2 5
4 Dene structural isomerism.
5 Name the following isomers: a H H H H H b CH

3
C C C C H CH CH C CH
3 3 3
H H H H
CH
3
6 Draw the structural formula of 2,3-dimethylhexane.
Key concepts
● Organic chemistr y is t he study of organic compounds
● All organic compounds contain carbon. Most also contain hydrogen and
many contain oxygen.
● A carbon atom can form four covalent bonds wit h ot her atoms.
● Carbon atoms have t he ability to form single and double bonds wit h
ot her carbon atoms. They can also form straight chains, branched chains
and ringed str uctures.
● A functional group is a par ticular atom, a par ticular group of atoms or a
par ticular bond between two carbon atoms wit hin t he molecule.
● The functional group determines t he chemical proper ties of t he
compound containing it.
● An organic compound can be represented by a molecular formula, a fully
displayed str uctural formula or a condensed str uctural formula.
● Organic compounds are classied into groups known as homologous
series based on t he functional group t hat t hey contain.
● Members of a homologous series all possess t he same functional group,
can all be represented by t he same general formula and have cer tain
ot her common characteristics.
● The names of straight chain members of a homologous series consist of
two par ts, t he rst par t, or prex, which is related to t he total number
of carbon atoms in t he molecule and t he second par t which is related to
t he functional group.
● Structural isomerism is t he occurrence of two or more organic
compounds wit h t he same molecular formula but different str uctural
formulae. The compounds are known as structural isomers
● Str uctural isomers of straight chain molecules can be formed in two
ways, by t he chain of carbon atoms becoming branched or by t he
position of t he functional group changing.
● Each different str uctural isomer has a different name.
236
Introduction to organic chemistry Practice exam-style questions
6 A compound has t he formula C H COOH. The name of

3 7

t he compound is:
A et hanoic acid
B propanoic acid
C propanol
1 Members of a homologous series:
D butanoic acid
I have similar chemical proper ties
II have t he same molecular formula
7 Which of t he following is t he correct formula of
III differ from succeeding members by CH

2
pentanol?
A I and II only
A C H OH
5 10
B I and III only

B C H OH
5 11
C II and III only
C C H OH
5 12
D I, II and III
D C H OH
5 13
2 To which homologous series does C H belong?

4 8
8 What is t he name of t he following isomer?

A alkanes
B alkenes CH
3
C alcohols
CH CH
D alkanoic acid 3 3
3 Isomers always: CH CH
3 3
A have t he same functional group
A 2,2,3-trimet hylbutane
B have similar chemical proper ties
B 2,3,3-trimet hylbutane
C have similar physical proper ties
C 2,3,3-trimet hylheptane
D have different str uctural formulae
D 2,2,3-trimet hylheptane
4 Which of t he following formulae do not represent
isomers?
I
H
II
H
Structured question
H C H H C H 9 a The fully displayed str uctural formulae of ve organic
H H H
compounds are given below:
C C H H H H H H
H C C H
H H H H C C
H C H
H H H H
A B
H H
III IV
H H
O
C
H C H H C H
H H H
O H
H H
H C C C H H C H
C D
H H H C H
H H H H H H
H H
C C C C C H
A I and II
H H H H H H
B I and III
C II and III
D III and IV
i) Which compounds belong to t he same
homologous series? (1 mark)

5 The general formula of an alkane is:
A C H ii) Name t he homologous series to which t he

n 2n
B C H compounds you named in a i) belong and give a

n 2n1
C C H reason for placing t hem in t he same series.

n 2n2
D C H (2 marks)
n 2n3
237
Practice exam-style questions Introduction to organic chemistry
iii) Give t he names of compounds B and D
(2 marks)
iv) Give t he name and fully displayed str uctural
formula of t he compound which has FOUR
carbon atoms in its molecule and belongs to t he
same homologous series as compound D
(2 marks)
v) Draw t he fully displayed str uctures of any T WO
isomers of compound E. Give t he name of EACH
isomer you have drawn. (4 marks)
b Name t he homologous series to which EACH of t he
following organic compounds belongs and draw
t he fully displayed str uctural formula of EACH
compound:
i) propene
ii) 2,2-dimet hylpentane. (4 marks)
Total 15 marks
10 a Explain fully how t he electronic conguration of
12
t he carbon atom, C, can account for t he fact t hat

6
carbon can form such a wide variety of organic
compounds. (5 marks)
b Organic compounds can be classied into
homologous series.
i) List FOUR characteristics of a homologous series.
(4 marks)
ii) A compound has t he formula C H COOH

2 5
– To which homologous series does t he
compound belong?
– Give t he name of t he compound. (2 marks)
c i) What do you understand by t he term ‘str uctural
isomerism’? (2 marks)
ii) Explain why str uctural isomers of members of
t he same homologous series have ver y similar
chemical proper ties, but t hey have different
physical proper ties. (2 marks)
Total 15 marks
238
Hydrocarbons – alkanes
B14
and alkenes
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds which consist

Objectives
entirely of carbon and hydrogen. The majority of

be able to:
hydrocarbons are naturally formed by the decomposition
● identify natural gas and

of dead marine organisms under the effects of high
petroleum as natural sources of
pressures, heat and bacteria deep under the sea,

hydrocarbons
● describe the fractional converting them into oily liquids or gases. Hydrocarbons
distillation of petroleum
are one of the most important energy sources on Earth.
● list the main uses of the
fractions obtained from
the fractional distillation of

B14.1 Sources and extraction of hydrocarbons
petroleum
Sources of hydrocarbons
● describe the thermal and
catalytic cracking of alkanes.

Hydrocarbons are organic compounds containing carbon and hydrogen
atoms only. They include t he alkanes, t he alkenes and t he ringed
hydrocarbons. Naturally occurring hydrocarbons are extracted from deep
under t he Ear t h’s surface where t hey exist in bot h t he liquid form, known as
petroleum, or cr ude oil, and t he gaseous form, known as natural gas.
Natural gas
drilling rig
Natural gas is a mixture of four alkanes: met hane (CH ), et hane (C H ),

4 2 6
impervious rock
propane (C H ) and butane (C H ). Met hane makes up about 80%

3 8 4 10
natural gas
of natural gas and t he ot her t hree hydrocarbons make up 20%. The
petroleum
propane and butane are removed before natural gas is sold commercially.
water
Commercial natural gas, t herefore, is a mixture of met hane and

impervious rock
et hane. This natural gas can t hen be used to generate electricity, it
 Figure 14.1.1 Diagram showing the
can be piped to homes and used for cooking and heating, or it can be
occurrence of petroleum and natural gas
liqueed under pressure to produce liqueed natural gas, or LNG. LNG
under the surface of the Earth
is used in place of petrol in vehicles in some countries, e.g. Germany.
Af ter removal, t he propane and butane are also liqueed under pressure
and used to produce liqueed petroleum gas, or LPG. LPG is also known as
‘bottled gas’ and many of you use it for cooking.
Petroleum
Did you know?
? Petroleum is an oily liquid which is a complex mixture of many
hydrocarbons, mainly alkanes and ringed hydrocarbons. The smallest
Petroleum is a finite, non-
gaseous hydrocarbons and t he largest solid hydrocarbons are dissolved in
renewable resource and once all
t he oily liquid. The mixture can contain hydrocarbons wit h as many as 70
the existing supplies within the
or more carbon atoms in t heir molecules. To be useful, petroleum must be

Earth’s crust have been used they
separated into its different components, or fractions, as t hey are called. This
will not be replaced.
is done by fractional d istillation at an oil rener y.
Fractional distillation of petroleum
When it is rst removed from under t he ground, petroleum contains many
impurities. Before it can be separated into its components, t hese impurities
have to be removed. Once t he impurities have been removed, t he petroleum
is heated to about 400 °C and t he liquid and vapour produced are piped into
t he lower par t of a fractionating tower . The fraction which remains as a
239
Sources and extraction of hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons – alkanes and alkenes
viscous liquid at 400 °C sinks to t he bottom of t he tower and is tapped off

refinery gas
bubble caps
forming bitumen or asphalt.

bottled gas
25 °C
and chemicals
The vapours rise up t he tower and pass t hrough a series of bubble caps and
petrol (gasoline) trays. The temperature of t he tower decreases upwards. The vapours of t he
larger hydrocarbons wit h t he higher boiling points condense on t he bubble

petrol
tray
caps in t he lower par t of t he tower, and t hose of t he smaller hydrocarbons
kerosene oil (paraffin)

wit h t he lower boiling points rise fur t her and condense at higher levels. The
jet fuel
liquids produced are tapped off from t he trays at t he different levels in t he
tower. Gases t hat do not condense at t he temperatures wit hin t he tower are
diesel oil
removed as renery gas at t he top of t he tower.
diesel fuel
Each fraction is a mixture of hydrocarbons of similar molecular size and
heated boiling points wit hin a specic temperature range as shown in Table 14.1.1.
fuel oil, lubricating
crude
oil and waxes
Petrol is tapped off from t he top trays, kerosene and diesel oil are tapped
oil
off from t he middle trays and fuel oil, lubricating oil and waxes are tapped
400 °C
fuel for ships off from t he lower trays.
bitumen
Table 14.1.1 summarises t he fractions which are obtained by fractional
distillation of petroleum and some of t heir uses.
roads and roofing

 Figure 14.1.2 Fractional distillation of petroleum
 Table 14.1.1 Uses of the different fractions obtained from petroleum
Name of fraction Boiling Number of Uses
point/°C carbon atoms
Refinery gas below 25 1–4 Fuel for domestic use, e.g. cooking and heating. To manufacture a variety of petrochemicals.
Petrol (gasoline) 25–170 5–10 Fuel for internal combustion engines, e.g. cars and light aircraft. As solvents.
Kerosene oil (paraffin oil) 170–250 10–14 Fuel for cooking, heating, kerosene lamps and jet engines. Cracked into smaller hydrocarbons.
Diesel oil 250–350 14–20 Fuel for diesel engines, e.g. cars, lorries, buses, trains, trucks and generators.
Cracked into smaller hydrocarbons.
Fuel oil, lubricating oil 350–400 18–30 Fuel oils are used as fuel for factory boilers, ships and power stations.
and waxes Lubricating oils are used to lubricate mechanical parts in machinery and vehicles.
Waxes are used to make polishing waxes, wax paper, petroleum jelly and candles.
Bitumen above 400 more than 30 Road surfacing. Roofing.
Cracking hydrocarbons
Did you know?
? When petroleum is fractionally distilled into its different fractions, two
problems arise.
The Pitch Lake in Trinidad is the
● The fractions which contain the smaller hydrocarbon molecules,

largest natural deposit of asphalt in the
world. Located in south-west Trinidad, e.g. petrol, are in much greater demand in today’s world than the fractions
the lake covers about 40 hectares and containing the larger hydrocarbon molecules, e.g. diesel oil. However, the
is over 75 m deep. The lake serves as

distillation of petroleum produces an excess of the larger hydrocarbons
a tourist attraction and is also mined

and insufcient of the smaller ones to meet modern demands.
for its asphalt. Sir Walter Raleigh was
● Most of t he hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum have only carbon–
introduced to the lake by Amerindian
carbon single bonds in t heir molecules and, apar t from burning in air to
guides in 1595 and he immediately
release energy, t hey are fairly unreactive. To be used in t he petrochemical

recognised its potential and started
industr y to manufacture t he great variety of ot her organic compounds

caulking his ships with the tar.
t hat we use ever y day, t hey need to be conver ted into more reactive
compounds which have carbon–carbon double bonds.
Bot h t hese problems can be overcome by breaking down t he larger

Key fact
!
hydrocarbon molecules into smaller, more useful molecules by a process
Cracking is the process by which known as cracking
long-chain hydrocarbons are broken
Cracking can be carried out in one of two ways, thermal cracking and
down into shorter-chain hydrocarbons.
catalytic cracking
240
Hydrocarbons – alkanes and alkenes Sources and extraction of hydrocarbons
Thermal cracking
During thermal cracking temperatures of above 700 °C and pressures up to 70 atmospheres are used to break t he
larger alkanes into smaller ones. Under t hese conditions, t he long-chain alkane molecules vibrate strongly enough
to break. Thermal cracking of an alkane molecule always forms a shor ter-chain alkane and at least one alkene. The
molecules are broken up in a fairly random way so thermal cracking always gives a mixture of products containing
a fairly high propor tion of alkene molecules. For example, octane (C H ) can be cracked in a variety of different
8 18
ways, t hree of t hese are illustrated in Figure 14.1.3.
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C C C C C H  H C C C
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
octane pentane propene
C H C H C H
8 18 5 12 3 6
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C C C C H  H C C C C
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
octane butane butene
C H C H C H
8 18 4 10 4 8
H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H H H
C C C C C C C C C C H  H C C C 
H H H
H H H H H H H H H H H H
octane propane propene et hene
C H C H C H C H
8 18 3 8 3 6 2 4
 Figure 14.1.3 Thermal cracking of octane
Catalytic cracking
During catalytic cracking t he long-chain alkanes are heated to temperatures
of about 500 °C at fairly low pressures in t he presence of a catalyst. The
catalysts are normally synt hetic mixtures of aluminium oxide and silicon
dioxide known as zeolites. Catalytic cracking is t he most impor tant source
of petrol and raw materials for t he petrochemical industr y.
Natural gas and oil in the Caribbean
The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is t he leading Caribbean producer of
oil and natural gas, wit h t hese accounting for about 40% of gross domestic
product and a large percentage of expor ts.
 Figure 14.1.4 Pointe-à-Pierre oil
The oil rener y in Trinidad is found at Pointe-à-Pierre and accounts for

renery
most of t he prosperity of t he region. All t he natural gas produced is used
domestically. More t han two-t hirds of it is piped to met hanol, urea and
Did you know?

ammonia plants and to t he electricity sector. ?
The Pointe-à-Pierre oil refinery is the

Summary questions
only oil refinery in the world to co-exist
with a wildlife reserve. The Pointe-

1 Name two natural sources of hydrocarbons.
à-Pierre Wild Fowl Trust is a not-for-
2 List the main uses of three of the fractions obtained from the fractional
profit environmental organisation
distillation of petroleum.
dedicated to environmental education
3 Describe what is meant by ‘cracking’ and distinguish between thermal

and conservation of wetlands and
cracking and catalytic cracking of alkanes. waterfowl. It consists of two lakes
and about 25 hectares of land within

4 Give the formulae and names of two products which could be obtained
the oil refinery.
by cracking pentane (C H ).
5 12
241
Alkanes: C H Hydrocarbons – alkanes and alkenes
n 2n  2
Objectives B14.2 Alkanes: C H

n 2n  2
Alkanes form a homologous series wit h t he general formula C H

be able to: n 2n  2
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons . This means t hat t hey contain only
● give the names and structural
single bonds between carbon atoms. Alkanes are relatively unreactive because
formulae of unbranched and
of t he strong carbon–carbon single bonds and carbon–hydrogen bonds in

branched alkanes up to six
t he molecules.
carbon atoms
● relate the reactivity of alkanes

Alkanes are named by using t he prex which indicates t he total number of
to the presence of single bonds

carbon atoms in t he molecule and t he sufx ‘ -ane’. The rst t hree alkanes in
● describe the combustion

t he series do not show str uctural isomerism. Their names and formulae are
reaction of alkanes
given in Figure 14.2.1.
● describe substitution reactions
H H H H H H

of alkanes with halogens
H  C  H H  C  C  H H  C  C  C  H
● explain why alkanes undergo

substitution reactions
H H H H H H
● relate the uses of alkanes to

met hane (CH ) et hane (C H ) propane (C H )
4 2 6 3 8
their properties
 Figure 14.2.1 Structural formulae of the rst three alkanes
● describe the production of
Alkanes wit h four or more carbon atoms show str uctural isomerism resulting
biogas.
from t heir ability to form branched chains. Following steps 1) to 4) on
page 233 for naming branched chain isomers, Figures 14.2.2, 14.2.3 and
H H H H H
14.2.4 show t he names and str uctural formulae of t he isomers of butane
(C H ), pentane (C H ) and hexane (C H ).

4 10 5 12 6 14
C C C C

H H H H H
H  C  H

pentane
H H H H H H



H
H  C  C  C  C  H H  C  C  C  H



H C H H H H H H H H
H H H
butane 2-met hylpropane
C C C  Figure 14.2.2 The structural isomers of butane (C H )

4 10
H H H H
2-met hylbutane H C H
H H H H
H H H H H H
C C C C H
C C C C C H
H C H
H H
H H H H H
H H H H H H
C C H
hexane
2-met hylpentane
H H
H H
H C H
H C H H C H
H H H H H H
H
2,2-dimet hylpropane H C H
C C C H C C C H
H H H H
 Figure 14.2.3 The structural isomers of
H H H H H H
pentane (C H )
5 12
C C C C H
H C H H C H
H H H H H
 Figure 14.2.4 The structural isomers of
H H
hexane (C H )
6 14
3-met hylpentane 2,2-dimet hylbutane 2,3-dimet hylbutane
The melting and boiling points of t he alkanes increase wit h an increase in t he
size of t he molecules, i.e. wit h an increase in molar mass. The rst four alkanes,
met hane, et hane, propane and butane, are gases at room temperature.
242
Hydrocarbons – alkanes and alkenes Alkanes: C H
n 2n  2
Alkanes wit h 5 to 16 carbon atoms in t heir molecules are liquids, while t hose
Did you know?

wit h 17 or more carbon atoms are solids. Alkanes become less volatile as t heir
?
molecular size increases.
The prefix ‘normal’ or ‘n-’ is
Alkanes are relatively unreactive and only undergo a few types of reaction, sometimes used before the
namely combustion, substitution and cracking. The cracking of alkanes was name when naming the straight
chain isomers. The straight chain

described in Unit 14.1. We will now look at t he ot her two reactions.
isomer of butane is sometimes
called normal butane or n-butane.

Combustion reactions of alkanes
Similarly, the straight chain isomer
Alkanes burn ver y easily in air or oxygen. The reaction is exot hermic producing
of pentane can be called normal
large amounts of heat energy, which is why alkanes are used extensively as
pentane or n-pentane.
fuels. The products of t he combustion reaction var y depending on t he
oxygen supply. f t he oxygen supply is plentiful, t hey undergo complete
combustion, if it is limited, t hey undergo incomplete combustion.
Exam tip
✔
When alkanes burn t hey do so wit h a clear blue ame because t he ratio of
It is important that you can give the

carbon to hydrogen atoms in t he molecules is low. All t he carbon is t herefore
fully displayed structural formulae

conver ted to carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide and no unreacted carbon
and names of unbranched and

remains to give t he ame a yellow, smoky appearance. The ame, t herefore,
branched chain isomers of any
has a ver y low soot content. Alkanes are regarded as clean burning fuels.
alkane containing up to six carbon
atoms if you are given its molecular

Complete combustion of alkanes
formula.
When t he oxygen supply is plentiful, alkanes burn completely, i.e. t hey
undergo complete combustion . The products of t he complete combustion
of alkanes are always carbon dioxide and water as steam. The complete
Exam tip
✔
combustion of met hane and et hane is shown in t he following equations:
CH (g)  2O (g) CO (g)  2H O(g) H ve Balancing the combustion

4 2 2 2
reactions of alkanes can be difficult.
2C H (g)  7O (g) 4CO (g)  6H O(g) H ve

2 6 2 2 2
Begin by balancing the carbon
atoms followed by the hydrogen
Incomplete combustion of alkanes
atoms. Leave the oxygen atoms
When t he oxygen supply is limited, alkanes undergo incomplete until last. After balancing the carbon
combustion. The products of t he incomplete combustion of alkanes are and the hydrogen, if you find that
you have an odd number of oxygen

carbon monoxide and water as steam. The incomplete combustion of
atoms on the right, multiply each

met hane is shown in t he following equation:
coefficient (including the unwritten
2CH (g)  3O (g) 2CO(g)  4H O(g) H ve

4 2 2
1) by 2, before balancing the
oxygen.
Substitution reactions of alkanes
Under t he right conditions, alkanes can react wit h halogens. n alkane
molecules, t he carbon atoms are bonded to t he maximum number of
hydrogen atoms possible. When a reaction occurs between an alkane and a
halogen, t he hydrogen atoms are replaced by halogen atoms. These reactions
are known as substitution reactions because halogen atoms take t he place
of t he hydrogen atoms in t he alkane molecules, one hydrogen atom at a
time. They can also be called halogenation
Energy in t he form of light is required for t he reactions to occur. Ultraviolet
light works t he best, but of ten sunlight is sufcient. A substitution reaction
takes place in stages and t he speed of t he reaction depends on three factors.
● Light intensity – t he brighter t he light, t he faster t he reaction.
● The reactivity of t he halogen – t he more reactive t he halogen, t he faster
t he reaction. Fluorine, being t he most reactive halogen, has t he most
rapid reaction. odine does not react wit h alkanes to any extent.
● The reactivity of the alkane – the smaller the alkane molecule, the faster the
243
Alkanes: C H Hydrocarbons – alkanes and alkenes
n 2n  2
reaction. Methane, being the smallest molecule, has the most rapid reaction.
This is seen in t he reaction between met hane and chlorine.
No reaction occurs in t he dark. n bright light t he reaction is rapid. n dim
light a slow substitution reaction occurs in stages, one hydrogen atom being
replaced by one chlorine atom at a time. The rst stage of t he reaction
produces chloromet hane and hydrogen chloride gas:
H Cl
UV light
H C H  H H 
H H
met hane chlorine monochloromet hane hydrogen
chloride
or
U light
CH (g)  Cl (g) CH Cl(g)  HCl(g)

4 2 3
As t he reaction continues, t he hydrogen atoms are replaced one by one until
tetrachloromet hane (CCl ) is produced:

4
U light
CH Cl(g)  Cl (g) CH Cl (l)  HCl(g)

3 2 2 2
dichloromet hane
U light
CH Cl (l)  Cl (g) CHCl (l)  HCl(g)

2 2 2 3
trichloromet hane
Did you know?
? U light
CHCl (l)  Cl (g) CCl (l)  HCl(g)

3 2 4
Trichloromethane (or chloroform)

tetrachloromet hane
and tetrachloromethane (or
carbon tetrachloride) are both

The overall reaction can be summarised by t he following equation:
volatile, ‘sweet’ smelling liquids.
At one time, trichloromethane was

U light
CH (g)  4Cl (g) CCl (l)  4HCl(g)

used as a general anaesthetic 4 2 4
because the vapours depress
The products of t he halogenations of alkanes are called haloalkanes or alkyl

the nervous system, and
halides
tetrachloromethane was used
in fire extinguishers and as a
The reaction of bromine vapour or bromine solution wit h met hane is similar,
solvent in dry cleaning. Their uses
but since bromine is less reactive t han chlorine, t he reaction proceeds more
were discontinued when it was
slowly. Once again, energy in t he form of ultraviolet light is required for t he

discovered how toxic they both
reaction to proceed.
were.
During t he reaction between bromine and any alkane, t he colour of t he
bromine slowly fades from red-brown to colourless. The rst step in t he reaction
between et hane and bromine is shown in t he equation below:
H H H Br
UV light
H C C  H C C H 
H H H H
et hane bromine monobromoet hane hydrogen
bromide
244
Hydrocarbons – alkanes and alkenes Alkanes: C H
n 2n  2
Uses of alkanes
Because of t heir proper ties, alkanes have a variety of uses. The main uses of
alkanes, related to t heir proper ties, are given below.
● Alkanes are used as fuels for several reasons:
– t hey burn easily when ignited
– t hey release a large amount of energy when t hey undergo combustion,
i.e. t he combustion of an alkane is an exot hermic reaction
– t hey are clean burning fuels, i.e. t hey burn wit h a clear blue ame
which has a ver y low soot content
– t hey are stored easily as liquids in containers, which makes t hem easy
to transpor t.
● Alkanes are used as solvents. Alkanes are non-polar molecules t herefore
t hey dissolve a variety of ot her non-polar solutes. For example, hexane
and heptane are used as solvents in t he manufacture of fast-dr ying
lacquers, glues and ot her adhesives, petroleum jelly is oil dissolved in
parafn wax, a solid alkane.
Biogas production
Biogas refers to a gas produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the
absence of oxygen. t is a renewable energy source which can be produced
from any organic matter including manure and other farmyard animal waste,
crop residues, sewage, garden waste, food waste and organic waste from food
industries.
The organic waste is put into a sealed anaerobic digester where naturally
occurring anaerobic microorganisms, e.g. bacteria, digest it in the absence of
oxygen into biogas. Biogas is a mixture of approximately 60% methane, 40%
carbon dioxide and traces of other contaminant gases such as hydrogen sulde.
Summary questions
The exact composition depends on the nature of the original organic matter.
Biogas can be used directly as a fuel to provide heat and generate electricity
1 Give the names and fully
or it can be conver ted to almost pure met hane, of ten called biomethane,
displayed structural formulae
by removal of t he ot her gases. This biomet hane can t hen be piped to homes
of three isomers of hexane.
wit h natural gas or liqueed under pressure to produce liqueed natural gas
2 Write a balanced equation
(LNG) for use in vehicles designed to r un on LNG.
to show the complete
The lef tover indigestible material and dead microorganisms, known as

combustion of butane.
d igestate, can t hen be used as a fer tiliser. The production of biogas reduces
3 Propane reacts with chlorine
demands on non-renewable fossil fuels, recycles soil nutrients and reduces
gas.
t he amount of waste going to garbage dumps and landlls.
a What condition is
necessary for the reaction
to occur?
slurry and manure

b What is the name given to
power
gas grid
this type of reaction?
c Use structural formulae to

anaerobic
biogas biomethane
digester
show the rst step in the
reaction.
food and
amenity waste
d Name the products of the
rst step in the reaction.
transport fuel
digestate
crops and residues

4 Explain why the main use of
heat
alkanes is as fuels.
 Figure 14.2.5 Production of biogas
245
Alkenes: C H Hydrocarbons – alkanes and alkenes
n 2n
Objectives B14.3 Alkenes: C H

n 2n
Alkenes form a homologous series wit h t he general formula C H

be able to: n 2n
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons . They contain one double bond

● recognise alkenes by the
between two carbon atoms, i.e. t heir functional group is t he carbon–carbon

presence of a carbon–carbon
double bond:
double bond

C C
formulae of unbranched
alkenes up to six carbon atoms Alkenes are named by using t he prex which indicates t he total number of
● relate the reactivity of alkenes carbon atoms in t he molecule and t he sufx ‘ -ene’. The rst two alkenes in
to the presence of a carbon– t he series do not show str uctural isomerism. Their names and formulae are
carbon double bond given in Figure 14.3.1.
● describe the combustion

H H
H H


H

reaction of alkenes

C  C H  C  C  C


● explain why alkenes undergo
H
H H
H
addition reactions
● describe addition reactions

et hene (C H ) propene (C H )
2 4 3 6
of alkenes with hydrogen, the
 Figure 14.3.1 Structural formulae of the rst two alkenes
halogens, the hydrogen halides
and water Alkenes wit h four or more carbon atoms show str uctural isomerism. Str uctural
● describe reactions which can isomers of alkenes result from t he following:
be used to distinguish between

● t he change in position of t he functional group, i.e. t he change in
an alkane and an alkene

position of t he carbon–carbon double bond (it is impor tant to note,
● relate the uses of alkenes to

however, t hat t he bond must always be horizontal)
their properties.
● branching of t he molecule.
When naming isomers of alkenes:
● number t he carbon atoms in t he longest chain from t he end closest to

H H H


H

t he double bond so t hat t he double bond is closest to t he lowest number
H  C  C  C  C



and indicate t he position of t he double bond in t he name using t he

H
H H
lowest possible number
but-1-ene ● follow steps 1) to 4) on page 233 for naming branched chain isomers.
(or 1-butene)
Using t he r ules above, t he str uctures and names of t he unbranched and
H H H H


branched isomers of butene (C H ) and pentene (C H ) and t he unbranched

4 8 5 10
H  C  C  C  C  H isomers of hexene (C H ) are given in Figures 14.3.2, 14.3.3 and 14.3.4.

6 12


H H H
but-2-ene
(or 2-butene)
H H
H

C C C C H C C C C C H C C
H  C  H
H H

H H H H H H H H H H

pent-1-ene pent-2-ene
2-met hylbut-1-ene
H  C  C  C  H

(or 1-pentane) (or 2-pentene)

(or 2-met hyl-1-butene)
H H
2-met hylpropene
H H
H H H H
 Figure 14.3.2 The structural isomers of H H
butene (C H )
4 8
H C C C C H C C C C
H H
H H H H
 Figure 14.3.3 The structural isomers of 3-met hylbut-1-ene 2-met hylbut-2-ene
pentene (C H ) (or 3-met hyl-1-butene) (or 2-met hyl-2-butene)

5 10
246
Hydrocarbons – alkanes and alkenes Alkenes: C H
n 2n
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C C C H C C C C C H
hex-1-ene (or 1-hexene) hex-2-ene (or 2-hexene) hex-3-ene (or 3-hexene)
 Figure 14.3.4 The straight chain
The presence of t he double bond makes alkenes more reactive t han alkanes.
isomers of hexene (C H )
6 12
Alkenes undergo a variety of different reactions. The ones t hat we will be
looking at are combustion and addition reactions.
Exam tip
✔
Combustion reactions of alkenes
It is important that you can name
Alkenes burn ver y easily in air or oxygen. The complete combustion
the unbranched isomers of any
of an alkene produces carbon dioxide and water as steam. The reaction

alkene containing up to six carbon
is exot hermic, producing a large amount of heat energy. The complete

atoms. It is also important that
combustion of et hene is shown in t he equation below:

you can draw the fully displayed
structural formulae of unbranched
C H (g)  3O (g) 2CO (g)  2H O(g) H ve

2 4 2 2 2
and branched isomers of any
Alkenes require more oxygen for complete combustion t han t he

alkene containing up to six carbon
cor responding alkane wit h t he same number of carbon atoms because atoms if you are given its molecular
alkenes have a higher ratio of carbon atoms to hydrogen atoms in t heir formula. It is not essential that you
can name the branched isomers of

molecules. Because of t his higher ratio of carbon to hydrogen atoms, alkenes
alkenes.
do not bur n wit h clean  ames. When t hey bur n t hey release unreacted
carbon as soot and sometimes carbon monoxide as well as carbon dioxide
and steam. As a result of t he presence of t he soot in t he ame, alkenes bur n
wit h a smoky ame

Did you know?
Hexene (C H ) has thirteen

Addition reactions of alkenes 6 12
structural isomers, the three
Add ition reactions of alkenes involve adding extra atoms to t he

unbranched chain isomers shown
molecules, wit h one bond in t he double bond being broken in t he process.

in Figure 14.3.4 and ten branched
They are called addition reactions because two molecules react to form
chain isomers. For practice, you
one molecule. Unlike substitution reactions, t he alkene does not lose any could see how many of these you
hydrogen atoms. can draw.
The addition reaction which an alkene undergoes is summarised in
Figure 14.3.5, where A–B represents a molecule wit h a single covalent bond
C C  C C
between two atoms or small groups of atoms in a molecule. During t he
reaction, t he covalent bond between A and B breaks and one of t he bonds in
A B
t he carbon–carbon double bond also breaks. The double bond is conver ted
alkene small saturated
to a single bond forming a saturated compound and A becomes bonded
molecule product
to t he carbon atom at one side of t he original double bond and B becomes
 Figure 14.3.5 Summary of addition
bonded to t he carbon atom at t he ot her side.

reactions of alkenes
Addition reaction with hydrogen
Alkenes undergo a type of addition reaction wit h hydrogen gas known
as hydrogenation. During hydrogenation, t he single bond between t he
hydrogen atoms in t he hydrogen molecule breaks and one atom is bonded
to each carbon atom at eit her side of t he original double bond in t he alkene.
This always produces an alkane
The following conditions are required for t he reaction:
● a nickel catalyst
● a pressure of about 5 atmospheres
● a temperature of about 150 °C.
247
n 2n
For example, et hene reacts wit h hydrogen to form et hane:
Did you know?

H H
?
H H
Ni catalyst
Hydrogenation is used in industry  H H C H
5 atm, 150 °C
to ‘harden’ fats and oils, i.e. H H
H H
increase their melting points. For
et hene hydrogen et hane

example, margarine can be made
by hydrogenating the carbon–

or
carbon double bonds in vegetable
Ni catalyst
oils. This hardens the oils making

C H (g)  H H (g)
2 4 2 2 6
5 atm, 150 °C
the margarine more spreadable and
it also has possible health benefits.
If margarine is used in place of

Addition reaction with halogens
butter, it reduces the amount of
Alkenes undergo a type of addition reaction wit h halogens known as
saturated animal fats in the diet.
halogenation. During halogenation, t he single bond between t he halogen
atoms in t he molecule breaks and one atom is bonded to each carbon atom
at eit her side of t he original double bond in t he alkene. This always produces
a haloalkane
n contrast to t he halogenation reactions which alkanes undergo, t his
reaction does not need light energy; it can take place in t he dark at room
temperature. The reaction is also a rapid reaction in contrast to t he slow
reaction t hat occurs wit h alkanes.
For example, propene reacts wit h bromine vapour to form
1,2-dibromopropane:
H H H H H
C C  Br Br C C H
H H Br Br
propene bromine 1,2-dibromopropane
or
C H (g) + Br H Br (l)
3 6 2 3 6 2
n t his reaction, bromine can be in t he form of a vapour or a solution. n
bot h cases, t he red-brown bromine is rapidly decolour ised as t he alkene reacts
wit h it.
Addition reactions with hydrogen halides
Alkenes undergo addition reactions wit h hydrogen halides, for example,
hydrogen chloride (HCl) and hydrogen bromide (HBr), at room temperature
to produce haloalkanes
For example, ethene reacts with hydrogen chloride to form monochloroethane:
H Cl
H H
 H Cl C H
H H
H H
et hene hydrogen monochloroet hane
chloride
or
C H H Cl(l)
2 4 2 5
248
n 2n
Addition reactions with water
Alkenes undergo a type of addition reaction wit h water in t he form of
steam known as hydration. During hydration, one of t he bonds between
a hydrogen atom and t he oxygen atom in t he water molecule breaks and
t he hydrogen atom is bonded to t he carbon atom at one side of t he original
double bond in t he alkene and t he remaining OH group is bonded to t he
carbon atom at t he ot her side. This always produces an alcohol
The following conditions are required for t he reaction:
● a catalyst of phosphoric acid in sand (silica)
● a pressure of 60–70 atmospheres
● a temperature of about 300 °C.
For example, ethene reacts with water, in the form of steam, to form
ethanol:
H H H
H H 300 °C

H PO catalyst
3 4
ethene
 O H C
60–70 atmospheres
+ 
70 atm, 300 °C
H H steam
phosphoric(V) acid
H H 
catalyst
et hene water et hanol
cooling
unreacted
of
or
gases
gases
recycled
H PO catalyst
3 4
C H (g) + H H OH(l)
2 4 2 2 5
70 atm, 300 °C
ethanol turns
to liquid
Et hanol is produced industrially by t he addition reaction between et hene
and steam using t he conditions listed above. The yield of t he reaction is
ethanol
ver y low so t he unreacted et hene is recycled back into t he reaction vessel
to increase t he yield. The ow diagram in Figure 14.3.6 shows t he industrial

 Figure 14.3.6 The industrial
preparation of et hanol. preparation of ethanol
Addition reaction with acidified potassium manganate(VII)
Alkenes undergo an addition reaction wit h acidied potassium
manganate(VII) solution. The reaction is a redox reaction in which t he
alkene is oxidised by t he acidied potassium manganate(VII) to form a
d i alcohol, i.e. an alcohol wit h two –OH groups.
For example, et hene reacts wit h acidied potassium manganate(VII) to form
et hane-1,2-diol:
H H
H H
 H O  [O] H C
2
H H
H H
et hene from oxidising et hane-1,2-diol
agent
or
Exam tip
✔
C H (g) + H H (OH) (l)
2 4 2 2 4 2
It is very important that you can
write equations for the addition

Dur ing t he reaction, t he potassium manganate(VII) solution rapidly
reactions of alkenes and that you
changes colour from purple to colourless. The alkene acts as a reducing agent
can state the conditions required
and reduces t he pur ple manganate(VII) ion (MnO ) to t he colourless

4
for the reactions to occur.

2
manganese(II) ion (Mn ).
249
n 2n
Reactions to distinguish between an alkane and an
Did you know?
? alkene
Alkenes can also add to themselves You have already learnt t hat bot h alkanes and alkenes are hydrocarbons,
in addition polymerisation
but alkanes are saturated whereas alkenes are unsaturated. Alkanes undergo
reactions. These reactions make

slow substitution reactions because t hey contain only carbon–carbon single
very large molecules known as

bonds whereas alkenes undergo rapid addition reactions because of t he
polymers. We will be looking at this
presence of a carbon–carbon double bond.
in more detail in Unit 16.
The difference bet we e n t he re ac tion s of a lk an es a n d a lken es w it h bro min e
solution or acidifie d p ot a ssium man gan ate(VI I) solutio n is u se d in t he
laborato r y to dist in g uish b etwee n t he t wo. B ot h r eac tio n s a re t est in g to
see if t he compo un d c o nt ain s a c arbon – c arb o n dou ble bo n d , i. e. if it is
uns aturated
The tests used to distinguish between an alkane and an alkene are summarised
in Table 14.3.1.
 Table 14.3.1 Distinguishing between an alkane and an alkene
Observations and explanation
Test
Alkane Alkene
Add acidified potassium The solution remains purple. The solution changes colour rapidly from purple to
manganate(VII) solution colourless.
Alkanes do not react with acidified potassium Alkenes rapidly reduce the purple MnO ion to the
4
2
manganate(VII) solution. colourless Mn ion.
Add a solution of bromine in The solution remains red-brown. The solution changes colour rapidly from red-brown to
water (bromine water) or in colourless.
tetrachloromethane under
Alkanes do not react with bromine solution under standard Alkenes undergo a rapid addition reaction with bromine
standard laboratory conditions
laboratory conditions. solution under any conditions, including darkness.
t is impor tant to note t he following.
● n t he presence of ultraviolet light, alkanes cause a solution of bromine
in water or tetrac hloromet hane to slowly c hange colour from red-
brown to colourless due to t he slow substitution reaction occur r ing.
● Bot h alkanes and alkenes react wit h bromine vapour, c hanging it
from red-brown to colourless. Alkanes slowly decolour ise t he vapour
in ultraviolet light due to t he slow substitution reaction occur r ing.
Alkenes rapidly decolour ise t he vapour due to t he rapid addition
reaction and t his reaction does not need light, t herefore it will occur in
darkness.
These reactions are, however, not usually used as laborator y tests to
distinguish an alkane and an alkene.
To distinguish between an alkane and an alkene
You will be supplied with samples of two hydrocarbons cyclohexane and
cyclohexene, acidied potassium manganate( VII) solution, bromine solution
and test tubes.
250
n 2n
Method
1 Place 2 cm of cyclohexane into each of two test tubes. Label the tubes
A and B.
2 Place 2 cm of cyclohexene into each of two test tubes. Label the tubes
C and D.
3 Add a few drops of acidied potassium manganate( VII) solution to tubes
A and C.
4 Shake and observe any colour changes which occur.
5 Add a few drops of bromine solution to test tubes B and D.
6 Shake and observe any colour changes.
7 Which hydrocarbon is saturated and which is unsaturated?
Uses of alkenes
Alkenes are extremely impor tant starting mater ials for t he manufacture
of a wide range of chemicals because of t heir ability to undergo addition Did you know?
?
reactions due to t he presence of t he carbon–carbon double bond. For
The combustion of alkenes is an

example, t hey are used to manufacture et hanol and ot her alcohols because
exothermic reaction, therefore,

t hey undergo addition reactions wit h steam and to manufacture various
alkenes could be used as fuels.
haloalkanes because of t heir addition reactions wit h halogens and hydrogen
However, they are far too important
halides. They are also used to manufacture antifreezes, such as et hane-1,2-diol
as starting materials for making
and synt hetic r ubbers. Because t hey can undergo addition reactions wit h
other organic products to waste
t hemselves t hey are used to manufacture a wide variety of polymers, or
them by using them as fuels.
plastics. You will learn more about plastics in Unit 16.
Summary questions
1 Give the names and fully displayed structural formulae of the three
straight chain isomers of hexene.
2 a Describe what you would observe when bromine solution is added to
ethene.
b Give a balanced equation for the reaction using structural formulae.
3 Give the conditions under which the following reactions occur:
a hydrogenation of ethene to produce ethane
b hydration of ethane to produce ethanol.
4 Describe an experiment that you could perform in the laboratory to
distinguish between an alkane and an alkene.
Key concepts
● Hydrocarbons are organic compounds composed of carbon and
hydrogen atoms only.
● Natural gas and petroleum are natural sources of hydrocarbons.
● Natural gas is composed mainly of met hane wit h small amounts of
et hane, propane and butane.
● Petroleum is a complex mixture mainly of alkanes and ringed
hydrocarbons.
251
n 2n
● Separation of petroleum into its components is done by fractional
distillation at an oil rener y.
● The main uses of the fractions obtained from the fractional distillation
of petroleum are as fuels, in the manufacture of petrochemicals, as
lubricants and in surfacing roads.
● The larger molecules produced during fractional distillation of petroleum
can be broken down into smaller, more useful molecules by cracking
● Thermal cracking uses high temperature and pressures to break the
molecules down.
● Catalytic cracking uses fairly high temperatures, low pressures and a
catalyst to break the molecules down.
● Cracking of an alkane produces at least one alkene.
● Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula C H

n 2n2
● Alkanes with four or more carbon atoms display str uctural isomerism.
● Alkanes burn in air or oxygen with a clear blue ame.
● The complete combustion of alkanes is an exothermic reaction and
produces carbon dioxide and water as steam. The incomplete combustion
produces carbon monoxide and steam.
● Alkanes undergo substitution reactions with halogens in the presence
of light.
● Substitution reactions take place in stages, one hydrogen atom being
replaced by one halogen atom at a time.
● Alkanes are used mainly as fuels and organic solvents.
● Biogas is a renewable source of methane.
● Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with the general formula C H

n 2n
● Alkenes have the carbon–carbon double bond as their functional group.
● Alkenes with four or more carbon atoms display str uctural isomerism.
● Alkenes burn in air or oxygen with a smoky ame.
● The complete combustion of alkenes is an exothermic reaction and
produces carbon dioxide and water as steam.
● Alkenes undergo addition reactions in which other atoms are added to
the molecule. n the process one bond in the double bond breaks.
● The addition reaction with hydrogen is known as hydrogenation and
it forms an alkane. t requires a nickel catalyst, a pressure of 5 atm and a
temperature of 150 °C.
● The addition reaction with the halogens is known as halogenation and it
forms a haloalkane.
● The addition reaction with the hydrogen halides also forms a haloalkane.
● The addition reaction with water in the form of steam is known as
hydration and it forms an alcohol. t requires a phosphoric acid in sand
catalyst, a pressure of 60–70 atm and a temperature of 300 °C.
● Alkenes change the colour of bromine solution from red-brown to
colourless under standard laborator y conditions, whereas alkanes do not.
● Alkenes change the colour of acidied potassium manganate (VII)
solution from pur ple to colourless, whereas alkanes do not.
● Alkenes are used mainly as star ting materials for the manufacture of
a wide range of other chemicals because of their ability to undergo
addition reactions.
252
Hydrocarbons – alkanes and alkenes Practice exam-style questions
7 The process of conver ting et hene to et hane can be

described as:
 hydrogenation
 hydration
 addition
1 Natural sources of hydrocarbons include:
 petroleum
A  and  only
 natural gas
B  and  only
 coal
C  and  only
D ,  and 
A  and  only
B  and  only
8 Which of t he following could best be used to distinguish
C  only
propane from propene?
D ,  and 
A Burn bot h in air.
B React bot h wit h bromine vapour.

2 Which of t he following could not be obtained by
C React bot h wit h hydrogen gas.

cracking hexane?
D React bot h wit h acidied potassium manganate(VII)

A met hane and pentene
solution.
B propene and propane
C butane and et hane
Structured question
D met hane, propene and et hene
9 The fully displayed str uctural formulae of two

3 What are t he main uses of bitumen?
hydrocarbons, A and B are given below:

A As a fuel and for surfacing roads.
B To manufacture petrochemicals and as a fuel.

H H H H H H H H H H
C As a roong material and to surface roads.
D As a lubricant and as a roong material. H C C C C C H H C C C C C H
4 The different fractions which make up cr ude oil are

H H H H H H H H
separated based on:
A B
A t heir different melting points
B t heir different boiling points

a To which homologous series does EACH compound
C t heir different densities

belong? (2 marks)
D t heir different solubilities in water

b Draw THREE str uctures to represent isomers of
compound A. (3 marks)
5 When et hane reacts wit h bromine vapour which of t he
c A and B bot h react wit h chlorine but under different
following is/are tr ue?
conditions.
 a substitution reaction occurs
i) Give ONE condition necessar y for B to react wit h
 t he bromine is rapidly decolourised
chlorine. (1 mark)
 only one product is produced
ii) Draw t he fully displayed str ucture of t he
A  only
compound formed when A reacts wit h chlorine.
B  and  only
(1 mark)
C  and  only
iii) Draw t he fully displayed str ucture of t he organic
D  and  only
product produced during t he rst step of t he
reaction between B and chlorine. (1 marks)

6 The following are all str uctural isomers of pentene except:
d Describe a chemical test t hat could be used to
H H H H H H H H H
distinguish between A and B. (1 marks)
e Give t he reagent and t he reaction conditions
C C C C C C C C H
necessar y to conver t A to B. (2 marks)
f Bot h A and B burn in air or oxygen.

H H H H H H
i) Write t he balanced chemical equation for t he
A B
complete combustion of B. (2 marks)
ii) f equal volumes of A or B are burnt separately,
H H H H H H
which would you expect to produce t he more
H H
soot? Give a reason for your choice. (2 marks)
C C C C C C
Total 15 marks
H H
H H H
H C H H C H
H H
C D
253
Practice exam-style questions Hydrocarbons – alkanes and alkenes
10 a One of t he main sources of hydrocarbons used by i) dentify suitable reagents and reaction
man is petroleum. conditions which can be used to conver t:
i) What is a hydrocarbon? (1 mark) – compound A to compound B
ii) Name T WO fractions obtained from t he – compound A to compound D. (4 marks)
fractional distillation of petroleum and give t he ii) Describe what would be obser ved during t he
main uses of each. (4 marks) formation of compound C from compound A
iii) Fractional distillation of petroleum produces (1 mark)
too few of t he smaller hydrocarbons to meet iii) Under t he right conditions, compound D reacts
t he demands of today ’s world. To increase t he wit h chlorine.
supplies of t hese smaller hydrocarbons, larger – Name t he type of reaction taking place.
alkanes are cracked. Write an equation to – Write a chemical equation to represent t he
represent one possible way of cracking hexane. rst step in t he reaction. (3 marks)
(2 marks)
Total 15 marks
b Carefully study t he reaction scheme below and
answer t he questions which follow.
Br (g)
2
CH CH CH OH CH CH  CH CH CHBrCHBr
3 2 2 3 2 3
B A C
CH CH CH
3 2 3
254
Alcohols, alkanoic acids
B15
and esters
Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters are organic

Objectives
compounds that all contain oxygen. Although they all

be able to:
contain oxygen, their properties and reactions differ
● identify alcohols by the

because of the way the oxygen atoms are bonded in
presence of the hydroxyl
the molecules. Because of their varied properties and
group, –OH
reactions, members of these three homologous series

have widespread uses in industry and our daily lives.
alcohols with up to six carbon
atoms
B15.1 Alcohols: C H OH ● relate the volatility and
n 2n  1
solubility of alcohols to the
Alcohols are also known as alkanols. They are organic compounds which presence of the polar –OH
have t he hydroxyl group, –OH, as t heir functional group. group
● describe the reactions of
The general formula of alcohols which contain one hydroxyl group is
ethanol
C H OH. This can also be written R–OH, where R represents C H ,

n 2n  1 n 2n  1
● explain the principles of the
i.e. an alkyl group.
breathalyser test
Alcohols are named by using t he prex which indicates t he total number of

● describe the fermentation
carbon atoms in t he molecule plus t he ending ‘ -anol’. The rst two alcohols
process by which ethanol is
in t he series do not show str uctural isomerism. Their names and formulae
produced from carbohydrates
are given in Figure 15.1.1.

● describe the processes
H H H involved in wine making and


rum manufacture.
H  C  O  H H  C  C  O  H

H H H
met hanol (CH OH ) et hanol (C H OH )

3 2 5
 Figure 15.1.1 Structural formulae of the rst two alcohols

Exam tip
✔
Alcohols wit h three or more carbon atoms show str uctural isomerism.
You must not confuse the –OH
Str uctural isomers of alcohols result from t he following:
group in alcohols with the OH ion
● t he change in position of t he functional group, i.e. t he change in

that is present in hydroxides.
position of t he hydroxyl group, –OH
● branching of t he molecule.
H H H H H H


When naming isomers of alcohols:
H  C  C  C  O  H H  C  C  C  H

● number t he carbon atoms in t he longest chain from t he end closest
H H H H OH H
to t he –OH functional group so t hat t he group is at t he lowest
number and indicate t he position of t he hydroxyl group in t he name propan-1-ol propan-2-ol
(or 1-propanol) (or 2-propanol)
● follow steps 1) to 4) on page 233 for naming branched chain isomers.
 Figure 15.1.2 The structural isomers of
Using t he r ules above, t he str uctures and names of t he
propanol (C H OH)
3 7
isomers of propanol (C H OH) and butanol (C H OH)

3 7 4 9
are given in Figures 15.1.2 and 15.1.3. H H


H  C  H H  C  H




H  C  C  C  C  O  H H  C  C  C  C  H H  C  C  C  O  H H  C  C  C  H



H H H H H H OH H H H H H OH H
 Figure 15.1.3 The
butan-1-ol butan-2-ol 2-met hylpropan-1-ol 2-met hylpropan-2-ol structural isomers
(or 1-butanol) (or 2-butanol) (or 2-met hyl-1-propanol) (or 2-met hyl-2-propanol) of butanol (C H OH)
4 9
255
Alcohols: C H OH Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters
n 2n  1
H H H H H The straight chain isomers of pentanol (C H OH) and hexanol (C H OH)

5 11 6 13
are given in Figures 15.1.4 and 15.1.5.
C C C C
H H H H H
H C C C C C C C C C H
pentan-1-ol
(or 1-pentanol)
H H H H H H H H H H OH H
H H H H H
hexan-1-ol hexan-2-ol
(or 1-hexanol) (or 2-hexanol)
C C C C H
H H H H H H
H H H OH H
C C C C C H
pentan-2-ol
H H H OH H H
(or 2-pentanol)
hexan-3-ol
H H H H H
(or 3-hexanol)
C C C C H
 Figure 15.1.5 The straight chain isomers of hexanol (C H OH)

6 13
H H OH H H
pentan-3-ol
General properties of alcohols

(or 3-pentanol)
Alcohol molecules are polar due to t he presence of t he polar –OH group.

 Figure 15.1.4 The straight chain
isomers of pentanol (C H OH) Recall t hat a polar molecule is a covalent molecule in which one par t of
5 11
t he molecule has a slightly positive charge and anot her par t has a slightly
negative charge. The volatility of alcohols and t heir solubility in water are
Exam tip
✔ bot h related to t he polar nature of t heir molecules.
It is important that you can name

Volatility
the unbranched isomers of any
Alcohols are less volatile t han t heir corresponding alkanes wit h t he same
alcohol containing up to six carbon
atoms. It is also important that number of carbon atoms, i.e. t he boiling point of an alcohol is always much
you can draw the fully displayed higher t han t hat of t he corresponding alkane. For example, t he boiling
structural formulae of unbranched

point of et hanol (C H OH) is 78 °C and t he boiling point of et hane (C H ) is
2 5 2 6
isomers of any alcohol containing

89 °C. This is because t he polar –OH groups cause t he forces of attraction
up to six carbon atoms. It is not

between t he alcohol molecules to be stronger t han between t he non-polar
essential that you can name the
alkane molecules. As a result, all alcohols are eit her liquids or solids at room
branched isomers of alcohols.
temperature.
The boiling point of alcohols increases as t he number of carbon atoms in t he
molecules increases. This is because t he intermolecular forces between t he
molecules increase as t he size of t he molecules increases.
Solubility in water
The general r ule on solubility states t hat polar solutes dissolve in polar
solvents. Water is a polar solvent, t herefore alcohols, being polar, are soluble
in water. The small alcohols, such as met hanol, et hanol and propanol, are
completely soluble in water, however, t he solubility decreases as t he number
of carbon atoms in t he molecules increases.
Reactions of ethanol
Alcohols undergo a variety of reactions due to t he presence of t he hydroxyl
(–OH) functional group. n t his section we will be looking specically at t he
reactions of et hanol, however, t he ot her alcohols undergo similar reactions
since t hey all contain t he hydroxyl group. The strengt h of t he reactions
decreases as t he number of carbon atoms in t he alcohol molecules increases.
256
Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters Alcohols: C H OH
n 2n  1
Combustion of ethanol
Ethanol burns ver y easily in air or oxygen producing carbon dioxide and water
as steam. The reaction is exothermic, producing a large amount of heat energy.
The complete combustion of ethanol is shown in the equation below:
C H OH(l)  3O (g) 2CO (g)  3H O(g) H ve

2 5 2 2 2
Et hanol burns wit h a clear blue ame because t he ratio of carbon to hydrogen
atoms in t he molecule is low. All t he carbon is t herefore conver ted to carbon
dioxide and no unreacted carbon remains to produce soot.
Reaction of ethanol with sodium
Et hanol reacts wit h sodium to produce sodium et hoxide (C H ONa) and

2 5
hydrogen. When a piece of sodium metal is dropped into et hanol steady
effer vescence occurs as t he hydrogen gas is evolved and a colourless solution
of sodium et hoxide in alcohol is formed. The equation for t he reaction
between et hanol and sodium is given below: H H
2C H OH(l)  2Na(s) 2C H ONa(alc sol)  H (g) 

2 5 2 5 2
C O Na
sodium et hoxide
H H
Sodium et hoxide is an ionic compound containing t he et hoxide ion,
C H O . The fully displayed str ucture of sodium et hoxide is represented in

2 5  Figure 15.1.6 The fully displayed
Figure 15.1.6. structure of sodium ethoxide
The reaction between sodium and et hanol is similar to t he reaction between
sodium and water. n bot h reactions, t he sodium d isplaces hydrogen from
t he et hanol or t he water, forming hydrogen gas. However, t he strengt h of t he
reaction between sodium and water is much more vigorous (see Unit 17.2).
Dehydration of ethanol
When et hanol is mixed wit h concentrated sulfuric acid and t he mixture is
heated to 170 °C, t he et hanol is dehydrated to et hene. This can be achieved
in one of two ways:
● heating t he et hanol wit h excess concentrated sulfuric acid at a
temperature of 170 °C, where t he acid acts as a catalyst in t he reaction
● passing t he et hanol vapour over heated aluminium oxide, where t he
aluminium oxide acts as a catalyst.
n bot h met hods, a water molecule is removed from each et hanol molecule,
i.e. t he hydroxyl functional group is removed from one carbon atom and
a hydrogen atom is removed from t he ot her carbon atom. This results in
t he formation of a carbon–carbon double bond between t he two adjacent
carbon atoms.
The equation for t he dehydration of et hanol using concentrated sulfuric
acid is given below:
H H
H H
conc. H SO
2 4
C  H O
170 °C
H H
H H H
et hanol et hene water
or
conc. H SO
2 4
C H H (g)  H O(g)
2 5 2 4 2
170 °C
257
Alcohols: C H OH Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters
n 2n  1
Oxidation of ethanol
When et hanol is heated wit h a powerful oxidising agent, such as acidied
potassium manganate(VII) solution or acidied potassium dichromate(VI)
solution, t he et hanol is oxid ised to et hanoic acid. The oxidation of et hanol
can be represented by t he following equation:
C H OH(l)  2[O] CH COOH(aq)  H O(l)

2 5 3 2
et hanol from et hanoic acid
oxidising
agent
n t he above reaction, et hanol is behaving as a reducing agent. f t he reaction
occurs wit h acidied potassium manganate(VII) solution, t he solution
changes from pur ple to colourless because t he et hanol reduces t he purple
2
manganate(VII) ion (MnO ) to t he colourless manganese(II) ion (Mn ). f

4
t he reaction occurs wit h acidied potassium dichromate(VI) solution, t he
solution changes from orange to green because t he et hanol reduces t he
2 3
orange dichromate(VI) (Cr O ) to t he green chromium(III) ion (Cr ).

2 7
Reaction of ethanol with alkanoic acids
Et hanol reacts wit h alkanoic acids to form an ester and water. We will be
discussing t his in greater detail in Unit 15.3.
To investigate the oxidation of ethanol
You will be supplied with ethanol, acidied potassium dichromate( VI) solution and a test tube.
Method
1 Place about 2 cm of ethanol into the test tube.
2 Add an equal volume of acidied potassium dichromate( VI) solution and shake to mix.
3 Observe the colour of the solution periodically for about 15 minutes.
The breathalyser test
The reduction of acidied potassium dichromate(VI) and t he accompanying
colour change is used in t he breathalyser test to test t he alcohol content of a
driver’s breat h. The driver blows over a sample of orange acidied potassium
dichromate(VI) cr ystals. f t he driver’s breat h contains et hanol vapour, t he
et hanol will reduce t he orange dichromate(VI) ion (Cr O ) to t he green

2 7
3
chromium(III) ion (Cr ). As a result, t he cr ystals turn green
Production of ethanol by fermentation
Fermentation is t he chemical reaction in which carbohydrates are conver ted
into et hanol by yeast under anaerobic conditions, i.e. in t he absence of
oxygen. Yeast is a unicellular fungus which produces enzymes t hat break
down any complex carbohydrates into simple sugars, mainly glucose. The
yeast t hen produces anot her enzyme called zymase which conver ts t he
simple sugars into et hanol and carbon dioxide. This process, also known as
anaerobic respiration , releases energy which t he yeast cells use.
258
Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters Alcohols: C H OH
n 2n  1
The equation for t he fermentation of glucose is given below:
zymase in yeast Exam tip

✔
C H O (aq) 2C H OH(aq)  2CO (g) H ve
6 12 6 2 5 2
glucose et hanol
It is very important that you can draw
a line diagram to show the apparatus

When t he concentration of et hanol in t he fermentation mixture reaches
used to carry out fractional

about 14%, it begins to destroy t he zymase enzyme and t he fermentation
distillation in the laboratory.

reaction stops. The et hanol can t hen be separated from t he mixture by
fractional d istillation (Unit 2.4). During t he distillation process, t he
et hanol is collected at 78 °C and is about 96% pure.
conical
cork
flask
To prepare a sample of ethanol
glucose,
water lime
and yeast water
● observation, recording and reporting.  Figure 15.1.7 Production of ethanol by
fermentation
Method
thermometer
3 3
1 Place 10 g of glucose into a 250 cm conical ask. Add 100 cm of water
and mix to make a glucose solution.
2 Make a paste with 1g of dried yeast and a small quantity of water. Add
water out
the paste to the glucose solution.
condenser
3 Place a cork on the ask with a delivery tube leading to a beaker
fractionating
containing lime water. Ensure that all the connections are properly
column,
sealed. The lime water acts as an airlock to prevent the entry of aerobic
packed
with glass water in

bacteria which can cause the formation of ethanoic acid (vinegar). The
beads
lime water also shows when the production of carbon dioxide starts by
the formation of a white precipitate.
distillate
4 Leave the reaction until fermentation has stopped.
5 Pour the mixture into a distillation ask and fractionally distill it,
fermentation
collecting the fraction which distils at 78 °C, the boiling point of ethanol. mixture
containing
ethanol
heat
Fermentation is used in t he production of different alcoholic beverages
such as wine and r um. t is also used in baking where t he carbon dioxide
produced during t he process makes t he dough rise. We will look at wine and
r um making in more detail in t he next sections.

 Figure 15.1.8 Separation of ethanol by
fractional distillation
Winemaking
Wine is made primarily from grapes in a winer y. The grapes are rst cr ushed
Did you know?
to form a mixture of pulp, skins and juice known as ‘must’. To make white ?
wine t he skins are removed. The vintner (winemaker) t hen adds yeast to
Red or black grapes are used to
t he must in fermentation tanks and t he yeast ferments t he sugars present
make red wine and the grape
forming et hanol and carbon dioxide. When fermentation is complete any

skins are present throughout
skins are removed and t he wine is ltered to clarify it. The wine is t hen aged
fermentation to give the wine its
in storage tanks or oak barrels before bottling. The et hanol content of most
colour. White wine is made mainly
wines is between 10% and 14%. from ‘white’ grapes, which actually
vary in colour from green to pale
Great care must be taken t hroughout t he winemaking process to minimise
yellow.
t he exposure of t he wine to air. This is because cer tain aerobic bacteria may
259
Alkanoic acids: C H COOH Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters
n 2n  1
be present in t he wine from t he original grapes and, on exposure to oxygen
in t he air, t hese bacteria oxid ise t he et hanol to et hanoic acid, or vinegar:
aerobic bacteria
C H OH(aq)  O (g) CH COOH(aq)  H O(l)

2 5 2 3 2
et hanoic acid
The et hanoic acid t hen causes t he wine to become sour and undrinkable.
Rum manufacture
Rum is made from t he black treacle-like substance known as molasses,
which is produced during t he extraction of sugar from sugar cane (Unit 2.5).
The molasses is rst diluted wit h water and yeast is added. The yeast ferments
t he sugar in t he molasses forming et hanol and carbon dioxide. The mixture
produced is t hen sent to t he still where it is fractionally d istilled to produce
a distillate wit h an et hanol content of between 70% and 95%.
The distillate is then diluted and transferred to oak barrels to be aged. This process
can take 20 years or more. The oak barrels are charred on the inside to impart a
variety of avours to the rum, give it a smoother taste and add colour. More water
is then added to reduce the ethanol content to about 40% and a master blender
is responsible for blending various rums of different ages and/or from different
 Figure 15.1.9 A master blender in front
of the oak barrels barrels to produce the unique brands of the different rum manufacturers.
Summary questions
1 Give the names and fully displayed structural formulae of three straight chain isomers of pentanol.
2 Explain how the functional group of the alcohols affects their solubility and boiling points.
3 Ethanol burns in oxygen with a blue ame. Give a balanced equation for the reaction.
4 Ethanol can be dehydrated.
a Give the conditions required for the reaction.
b Draw the fully displayed structural formulae of the products formed in the reaction.
5 Give a balance chemical equation for the fermentation of glucose and give two ways in which the reaction may
be used.
Objectives B15.2 Alkanoic acids: C H COOH

n 2n  1

Alkanoic acids are also known as carboxylic acids . They are organic
be able to:
compounds which have t he carboxyl group, –COOH, as t heir functional
group. The carboxyl group can also be represented as:

● identify alkanoic acids by
the presence of the carboxyl O


 C

group, –COOH
O  H
The general formula of alkanoic acids which contain one carboxyl group
alkanoic acids with up to six

is C H COOH. This can also be written R–COOH, where R represents
n 2n  1
carbon atoms
C H , i.e. an alkyl group.
n 2n  1
● relate the volatility and
Alkanoic acids are named by using t he prex which indicates t he total
solubility of alkanoic acids to
number of carbon atoms in t he molecule plus t he sufx ‘-anoic acid’. t is
the presence of the polar –OH
impor tant to remember t hat t he functional group contains one carbon
part of the functional group
atom which must be taken into account when naming alkanoic acids, i.e.
t he prex is not derived directly from ‘ n’ in t he general formula, it is derived
ethanoic acid.
by adding 1 to t he value of ‘ n’. For example, t he name of t he acid wit h t he
formula CH COOH is et hanoic acid and not met hanoic acid.

3
260
Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters Alkanoic acids: C H COOH
n 2n  1
The names and formulae of t he straight chain isomers of t he rst six alkanoic
acids are shown in Figure 15.2.1.
Did you know?
H H H H H H ?




O O
O O





H  C  C  C H  C  C  C  C
H  C H  C  C


Organic acids containing one or




O  H O  H
O  H O  H
more carboxyl functional groups
H H H H H
H
can be found throughout the

met hanoic acid et hanoic acid propanoic acid butanoic acid
natural world. Methanoic acid is

(HCOOH) (CH COOH) (C H COOH) (C H COOH)
3 2 5 3 7
found in the venom of ant and
H H H H H H H H H
bee stings while ethanoic acid


O O


gives vinegar its sour taste. Citric
H  C  C  C  C  C H  C  C  C  C  C  C




acid, found in citrus fruits, has
O  H O  H
H H H H H H H H H
three carboxyl groups and tartaric
pentanoic acid hexanoic acid
acid, found in tamarinds, has
(C H COOH) (C H COOH)
4 9 5 11
two functional groups. Aspirin, or
 Figure 15.2.1 Structural formulae of the rst six alkanoic acids acetylsalicylic acid, which is used to
reduce fever and relieve aches and
Properties of alkanoic acids pains, has one carboxyl group.
Alkanoic acid molecules are polar due to the presence of the polar –OH part of
the carboxyl functional group. Like alcohols, the volatility of alkanoic acids and
their solubility in water are both related to the polar nature of their molecules.
Volatility
Alkanoic acids are less volatile than their corresponding alkanes with the
same number of carbon atoms, i.e. the boiling point of an alkanoic acid is
always much higher than that of the corresponding alkane. For example, the
boiling point of ethanoic acid (CH COOH) is 112 °C and the boiling point of
3
ethane (C H ) is 89 °C. This is because the forces of attraction between the
2 6
polar alkanoic acid molecules are stronger than between the non-polar alkane
molecules. All alkanoic acids are either liquids or solids at room temperature.
The boiling point of alkanoic acids increases as t he number of carbon atoms
in t he molecules increases because t he intermolecular forces between t he
molecules increase as t he size of t he molecules increases.
Solubility in water
Alkanoic acids, being polar, are soluble in water. The small alkanoic acids
such as met hanoic acid, et hanoic acid and propanoic acid are completely
soluble in water, however, t he solubility decreases as t he number of carbon
atoms in t he molecules increases.
When alkanoic acids dissolve in water, they also ionise to a very small degree
to form hydrogen (H ) ions, hence they are weak acids. For example, when
ethanoic acid dissolves in water about 1% of the ethanoic acid molecules are
ionised at any one time, i.e. the solution contains 1% ethanoate ions (CH COO )
3
and hydrogen ions (H ) and 99% ethanoic acid molecules (CH COOH).
3
The ionisation of et hanoic acid is shown in t he following equation:

3 3
et hanoate ion
Reactions of aqueous ethanoic acid
Aqueous solutions of alkanoic acids react in a ver y similar way to inorganic
acids such as hydrochloric acid when they react with reactive metals, metal
oxides, metal hydroxides and metal carbonates. The reactions are slower than
they would be with inorganic acids because the alkanoic acids are weak acids.
261
Alkanoic acids: C H COOH Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters
n 2n  1
n t his section we will be looking specically at t he reactions of et hanoic
acid. However, t he ot her alkanoic acids undergo similar reactions since t hey
all contain t he carboxyl group. The strengt h of t he reactions decreases as t he
number of carbon atoms in t he molecules increases.
Salts formed by et hanoic acid are known as ethanoates
Reaction with reactive metals
Reactive metals react wit h et hanoic acid to produce a salt and hydrogen gas.
Using t he reaction between magnesium and et hanoic acid as an example:
Mg(s)  2CH COOH(aq) (CH COO) Mg(aq)  H (g)

3 3 2 2
magnesium et hanoate
t is important to note that since the magnesium has displaced the H ion from
the –COOH functional group, it is written in the place of this H ion in the
formula of the salt. However, in the name of the salt, the metal still comes rst.
Reaction with metal oxides
Metal oxides react wit h et hanoic acid to produce a salt and water. These
reactions are neutralisation reactions . Using t he reaction between zinc
oxide and et hanoic acid as an example:
ZnO(s)  2CH COOH(aq) (CH COO) Zn(aq)  H O(l)

3 3 2 2
zinc et hanoate
H
C Reaction with metal hydroxides
O Na Metal hydroxides react wit h et hanoic acid to produce a salt and water. These
are also neutralisation reactions . Using t he reaction between sodium
 Figure 15.2.2 The fully displayed
hydroxide and et hanoic acid as an example:
structure of sodium ethanoate
NaOH(aq)  CH COOH(aq) CH COONa(aq)  H O(l)

3 3 2
sodium et hanoate
Summary questions
The fully displayed str ucture of sodium et hanoate is represented in
Figure 15.2.2.
1 Give the name of each of the
following compounds:
Reaction with metal carbonates
a C H COOH
3 7
Metal carbonates react wit h et hanoic acid to produce a salt, carbon dioxide
b C H COOH
5 11
and water. Using t he reaction between calcium carbonate and et hanoic acid
2 Explain why methanoic acid as an example:
is an acid. As part of your

CaCO (s)  2CH COOH(aq) (CH COO) Ca(aq)  CO (g)  H O(l)
3 3 3 2 2 2
calcium et hanoate
answer write a balanced
chemical equation which
Esterification
shows how methanoic acid
ionises in water.
Alkanoic acids react with alcohols to produce an ester and water. The reaction
is known as esterication and it requires a catalyst of concentrated sulfuric

3 Why is ethanoic acid less
acid and heat in order to take place. Since two molecules are reacting together
volatile than ethane?
with the loss of a water molecule from between them, the reaction may also be
4 Give a balanced chemical
referred to as a condensation reaction. The alkanoic acid and alcohol must be
equation for the reaction
in the pure liquid form and not in aqueous solution for the reaction to occur.
between ethanoic acid and:
Using t he reaction between et hanoic acid and propanol as an example:
a calcium oxide
conc. H SO
2 4
b potassium carbonate.
CH COOH(l)  C H OH(l) CH COOC H (l)  H O(l)

3 3 7 3 3 7 2
heat
5 Give the conditions necessary
et hanoic acid propanol propyl et hanoate water
for the reaction between
Propyl et hanoate is an ester. We will be looking at esters in more detail in
ethanoic acid and ethanol.
t he next unit.
262
Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters Esters: RCOOR
B15.3 Esters: RCOOR Objectives
An ester is a compound formed when an alkanoic acid reacts wit h an alcohol.
be able to:
The smaller esters are volatile liquids which usually have ver y distinctive
● identify esters by the presence

sweet fr uity smells. Esters are widespread in nature where t hey occur in
of the ester functional group,

bot h animals and plants, especially in owers and fr uits, giving t hem t heir
–COO–
distinctive smells and avours. Naturally occurring animal fats and vegetable
● describe how esters are

oils are esters of long-chain alkanoic acids and an alcohol called glycerol.
formed
Esters are used extensively as ar ticial perfumes, food avourings and
● write the names and formulae
essences, e.g. ar ticial avourings such as banana, strawberr y and apple
of esters
are esters. They are also used in t he manufacture of soap and as industrial
● explain the hydrolysis of esters
solvents for making paints and varnishes. Biod iesel is an ester produced
● explain the saponication of
from t he reaction of fats wit h met hanol.
fats and oils
Esters have t he ester group, –COO–, as t heir functional group. The ester ● distinguish between soapy and
group can also be represented as: soapless detergents.
C O
Did you know?
?
The general formula of a simple ester is C H COOC H where ‘n’ and
n 2n  1 x 2x  1
‘x’ may be t he same or different numbers. This can also be written R–COO–R , Some esters play an important role
where R and R represent alkyl groups which may be t he same or different. in animal communication. Animals
produce chemical signals called
pheromones which trigger natural
Formation of esters
responses in members of the
same species. Some of these are

Esters are made by a condensation reaction known as esterication. During
esters. For example, 3-methylbutyl

esterication, an alkanoic acid is heated wit h an alcohol in t he presence of
ethanoate, which is the main
concentrated sulfuric acid. The reaction is reversible and produces an ester
component of the banana aroma,
and water.
is also the alarm pheromone of
The reaction can be summarised by t he following general word equation: the honeybee. It is released when
a bee is attacked by a predator to
conc. H SO
2 4
trigger aggression in the other bees
alkanoic acid  alcohol ester  water
heat which provokes them to sting.
The concentrated sulfuric acid is added for two reasons:
● it acts as a catalyst to speed up t he reaction
● it is a powerful dehydrating agent, t herefore, it removes t he water
produced during t he reaction which favours t he for ward reaction and
increases t he yield of ester produced.
Using str uctural formulae to represent t he reaction between et hanoic acid
and et hanol to produce et hyl et hanoate, we can see t he str ucture of t he et hyl
et hanoate t hat is formed.
H O H H H O H H

conc. H SO
2 4
H  C  C  O  H + H  O  C  C  H H  C  C  O  C  C  H + H  O


heat
H O lost
2
H H H H H H H
et hanoic acid et hanol et hyl et hanoate water
The chemical equation for t he reaction is given below:
conc. H SO
2 4
CH COOH(l)  C H OH(l) CH COOC H (l)  H O(l)

3 2 5 3 2 5 2
heat
et hanoic acid et hanol et hyl et hanoate water
263
Esters: RCOOR Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters
Formulae and names of esters
When writing t he str uctural formula of an ester, t he rst par t of t he formula
comes from t he alkanoic acid and t he second par t comes from t he alcohol
t hat formed t he ester.
H O H H H


The name of an ester is also derived from t he alkanoic acid and t he alcohol.
H  C  C  O  C  C  C  H


However, t he rst par t of t he name is derived from t he alcohol and t he second
H H H H
par t of t he name is derived from t he alkanoic acid.
To summarise:
propyl ethanoate
 Figure 15.3.1 Structural formula of Formula: acid par t rst; alcohol par t second.
propyl ethanoate
Name: alcohol par t rst wit h t he ending ‘yl’; acid par t second wit h t he
ending ‘anoate’.
Exam tip
✔ The str uctural formula of propyl et hanoate is shown in Figure 15.3.1 as an
example of t his.
When writing the equation for the
Some more examples of t he formulae and names of esters are given in Figure
reaction between an alkanoic acid
and an alcohol, always write the 15.3.2.
formula of the acid first. In this

C H COOCH HCOOC H C H COOC H
2 5 3 4 9 3 7 2 5
way, when you write the formula of
the ester, you will always write the
methyl propanate butyl methanoate ethyl butanoate
acid part first.
 Figure 15.3.2 Other examples of esters
To prepare a sample of ethyl ethanoate
water out
condenser in the

reflux position
water in
Method
3 3
1 Place 10 cm of ethanoic acid into a round-bottomed ask. Add 10 cm of
mixture of ethanol
ethanol and 2 cm of concentrated sulfuric acid. and ethanoic acid
2 Attach a condenser to the ask in the reux position as shown in Figure 15.3.3.
3 Gently boil the mixture for 5 minutes.
4 Pour the mixture into a small beaker half lled with cold water and identify
the ester formed by its characteristic odour and oily appearance on the  Figure 15.3.3 Preparing a sample
of ethyl ethanoate
surface of the water.
The reaction between et hanoic acid and et hanol to produce et hyl et hanoate
proceeds relatively slowly. As t he reaction is heated, bot h reactants and any
ester produced boil forming vapours which must be retained. The condenser
is placed in t he reux position, i.e. ver tically, so t hat t he et hanoic acid,
et hanol and et hyl et hanoate vapours enter t he condenser where t hey
condense and return to t he ask. n t his way, t he et hanoic acid and et hanol
are returned for fur t her reaction and no et hyl et hanoate is lost. When t he
resulting mixture is poured into t he water, any unreacted acid and alcohol
dissolve in t he water. Et hyl et hanoate is only slightly soluble and, being less
dense t han water, it oats forming an oily layer on t he surface of t he water.
264
Hydrolysis of esters
During a hydrolysis reaction molecules are broken down into smaller
molecules by reacting wit h water.
Esters can be hydrolysed by heating wit h a dilute acid or an aqueous alkali.
The products of hydrolysis depend on whet her an acid or an alkali is used.
Acid hydrolysis
During acid hydrolysis, t he ester is heated wit h an acid catalyst such as
dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acid. The products of acid hydrolysis are an
alkanoic acid and an alcohol.
Using t he acid hydrolysis of et hyl et hanoate as an example:
H ions
CH COO H (l)  H O(l) CH COOH(aq)  C H OH(aq)

3 2 5 2 3 2 5
et hyl et hanoate et hanoic acid et hanol
Alkaline hydrolysis
During alkaline hydrolysis , t he ester is heated wit h sodium or potassium
hydroxide solution. The products of alkaline hydrolysis are t he sodium or
potassium salt of an alkanoic acid and an alcohol. The reaction occurs in two
stages.
Using t he alkaline hydrolysis of et hyl et hanoate by reacting it wit h sodium
hydroxide solution as an example:
Stage 1: et hanoic acid and et hanol are formed rst as in acid hydrolysis:
OH ions
CH COOC H (l)  H O(l) CH COOH(aq)  C H OH(aq)

3 2 5 2 3 2 5
et hyl et hanoate et hanoic acid et hanol
Stage 2: t he et hanoic acid is t hen neutralised by t he sodium hydroxide
solution to form sodium et hanoate:
CH COOH(aq)  NaOH(aq) CH COONa(aq)  H O(l)

3 3 2
et hanoic acid sodium et hanoate
The overall reaction is shown in t he following equation:
CH COOC H (l)  NaOH(aq) CH COONa(aq)  C H OH(aq)

3 2 5 3 2 5
et hyl et hanoate sodium et hanoate et hanol
Did you know?
Saponification of esters Glycerol is the common name
for propane-1,2,3-triol or
S aponi c ation refers to t he alkaline hydrolysis of large esters found in
1,2,3-propanetriol. The structural
animal fats and veget able oils. Saponi cation is used in t he manufacture
formula of glycerol is drawn for you
of soap. Dur ing t he manufactur ing process, fats and oils are boiled wit h
below:
concentrated pot assium or sodium hydroxide solution to produce t he

H
sodium salts of long-c hain alkanoic acids, also known as fatt y acid s .
The ot her product of t he reaction is t he alcohol, glycerol, C H (OH) . As

3 5 3
t he for mula shows, glycerol is an alcohol wit h t hree hydroxyl functional
g roups.
A simplied equation for t his reaction is:
heat
H
fat or oil  NaOH sodium salt of a long-chain alkanoic acid  glycerol
265
Example
One example of a fat is glycer yl octadecanoate ((C H COO) C H ).

17 35 3 3 5
Glycer yl octadecanoate is an ester of t he fatty acid known as octadecanoic
acid (C H COOH) and glycerol (C H (OH) ). When glycer yl octadecanoate

17 35 3 5 3
is hydrolysed by boiling wit h concentrated sodium hydroxide solution,
sodium octadecanoate (C H COONa) and glycerol are produced. Sodium

17 35
octadecanoate is one form of soap.
heat
(C H COO) C H (l)  3NaOH(aq) 3C H COONa(aq)  C H (OH) (aq)

17 35 3 3 5 17 35 3 5 3
glycer yl octadecanoate sodium octadecanoate glycerol
(fat) (soap)
When t he soap has been produced, t he mixture is added to saturated sodium
chloride solution to precipitate out and solidify t he soap.

+
CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH  C  O Na
3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 Figure 15.3.4 A soap molecule
To prepare a sample of soap
 Figure 15.3.5 Model of a soap
molecule
Method
3 3
1 Place 10 cm of cooking oil into a beaker and carefully add 15 cm of
Büchner funnel
3 3
ethanol and 15 cm of 5.0 mol dm sodium hydroxide solution. Stir the

soap
mixture thoroughly.
filter paper
perforated plate
2 Continue stirring the mixture while heating it gently on a hot plate for
about 30 minutes – the mixture must no longer separate into two layers
and it must be fairly thick. During heating, make sure that the mixture
cork doesn’t overheat or foam and that the volume doesn’t decrease too
much. Top the mixture up with a solution containing equal volumes of
to vacuum pump
ethanol and water if necessary.
3 When thick, let the mixture cool for a while, but do not let it cool
Büchner flask
completely.
4 Add the mixture to 100 cm of saturated sodium chloride solution and

filtrate
stir to precipitate out the soap.
 Figure 15.3.6 Suction ltration to
separate soap from the reaction 5 Filter the mixture using suction ltration and collect the soap in the lter
mixture
paper as the residue.
6 Rinse the soap with two separate 10 cm portions of iced distilled water
during ltration and continue the suction ltration to dry the soap.
7 Place a small portion of the soap in a test tube and add about 4 cm of
distilled water. Place a cork on the tube, shake thoroughly and observe.
266
Soapy and soapless detergents
A detergent is a chemical added to water to remove dir t from clot hing,
surfaces and oors. Detergent molecules are composed of long molecules
wit h two ends which have ver y different str uctures and proper ties.
● One end of t he molecule, t he ‘head’, is ionic and readily dissolves in
water. We say t hat t his end is hydrophilic or water-loving and oil-
hating. This end is of ten referred to as t he ionic head
● The opposite end of t he molecule, t he ‘tail’, is covalent and is
composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms. This end readily dissolves
in organic substances such as oils and grease. We say t hat t his end is
hydrophobic or water-hating and oil-loving. This end is referred to as
t he hydrocarbon tail
Dirt often consists of oily or greasy substances that do not dissolve in water. This
makes them difcult to remove. Detergents help to remove this dirt by lowering
the surface tension of water, loosening the dirt molecules and dispersing them
in the water, i.e. they help to make the greasy dirt mix with the water.
When a detergent is added to oily or greasy dir t on fabrics or t he skin, t he
hydrophobic (oil-loving) tail of t he detergent molecule dissolves in t he greasy
dir t and t he hydrophilic (water-loving) head sticks out. The head dissolves in
t he water and t he dir t is lif ted from t he fabric or skin and is washed away.
This is helped by agitation such as occurs in a washing machine.
Figure 15.3.7 shows how greasy dir t can be removed from fabric.
detergent
molecule
greasy dirt
fabric
The hydrophobic tails of the detergent The greasy dirt is lifted The greasy dirt is surrounded
molecules dissolve in the greasy dirt. off the fabric. by detergent molecules and broken
 Figure 15.3.7
The hydrophilic heads remain dissolved into smaller droplets that can mix
in the water. with water. This forms an emulsion How detergent molecules
which can be washed away.

remove greasy dirt
Detergent molecules can be classied into soapy or soapless depending on
t heir str ucture.
Soapy detergents
Soapy detergents are of ten just known as soap. They are made by boiling
animal fats or vegetable oils wit h concentrated potassium or sodium
hydroxide solution, as described in t he previous section. The str ucture of a
soap molecule is shown in Figure 15.3.4.
Soapy detergents do not lat her easily in hard water. Hard water contains
dissolved calcium and magnesium salts such as calcium and magnesium
hydrogencarbonate (Unit 21.1). The calcium and magnesium ions in t he hard
water displace t he sodium ions in t he soap forming an insoluble precipitate of
calcium or magnesium octadecanoate. This precipitate is known as scum
2 
2C H COONa(aq)  Ca (aq) (C H COO) Ca(s)  2Na (aq)

17 35 17 35 2  Figure 15.3.8 Scum forms when soap
soap scum
and hard water react
267
Scum removes t he soap from t he solution which prevents it from doing t he
job of removing greasy dir t. t is only when all of t he calcium and magnesium
ions have been precipitated out of t he water as scum t hat any remaining soap
molecules will form a lat her and do t heir job of removing t he dir t.
Soapless detergents
Soapless detergents are also known as synt hetic detergents and of ten just
called detergents. They are formed from petroleum. The str ucture of a
soapless detergent molecule is shown in Figure 15.3.9.

+
CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH  O  S O Na

3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 Figure 15.3.9 A soapless detergent molecule
Soapless detergents lat her much more easily wit h hard water t han soapy
detergents. This is because t heir calcium and magnesium salts are soluble,
t herefore, t hey do not form scum.
Apar t from t heir different lat hering abilities in hard water, soapy and soapless
detergents have ot her differences which are summarised in Table 15.3.1.
 Table 15.3.1 Soapy and soapless detergents compared
Soapy detergents Soapless detergents
They do not lather easily in hard water. Instead They lather in hard water. They do not form scum
they form unpleasant scum which wastes since their calcium and magnesium salts are soluble.
soap, forms a grey, greasy layer around sinks,
showers, etc. and discolours clothes.
They are biodegradable, i.e. they are Some are non-biodegradable. These cause foam to
broken down by bacteria in the environment, build up in sewerage systems and on waterways. This
therefore, they do not cause foaming in foam makes sewage treatment difficult and prevents
sewerage systems or on waterways, e.g. oxygen dissolving for aquatic organisms resulting in
lakes and rivers. their death. Most of the modern soapless detergents
are, however, biodegradable.
They do not contain phosphates, therefore, They contain phosphates which are added to
they do not cause pollution. improve their cleaning ability. Phosphates pollute
aquatic environments by causing eutrophication,
i.e. the rapid growth of green algae (Unit 20.5).
Eutrophication turns waterways green and eventually
makes them stagnant.
 Figure 15.3.10 Some soapless

They are manufactured from a renewable They are manufactured from a non-renewable
detergents are non-biodegradable and

resource, i.e. fats and oils. The supply of fats resource, i.e. petroleum. The supplies of petroleum
can damage the environment

and oils will not run out. will eventually run out.
To compare the effects of a soapy and a soapless detergent
on hard water
You will be supplied with a soapy detergent, a soapless detergent, a sample
of soft water, a sample of hard water, four boiling tubes and two dropping
pipettes.
268
Method
1 Label the boiling tubes A, B, C and D. Place 20 cm of soft water into
each of A and B, and 20 cm of hard water into each of C and D.
2 Using a dropping pipette, add one drop of soapy detergent to the water
in tube A. Place a cork on the tube and shake vigorously for 10 seconds.
3 Allow the test tube to stand for 1 minute. If there is no permanent lather,
repeat step 2. Continue repeating step 2 until a permanent lather forms.
4 Observe the appearance of the mixture and note how many drops of
soapy detergent were required to form a permanent lather.
5 Repeat steps 2 to 4 adding soapy detergent to C and soapless
detergent to B and D.
7 Compare the appearance of the contents of each tube when a
permanent lather formed and the number of drops of detergent needed
to form a permanent lather in each tube.
Summary questions
1 Give the conditions necessary for the formation of an ester.
2 Name the following esters:
a C H COOCH b C H COOC H
3 7 3 2 5 3 7
3 Give a balanced equation for:
a the formation of butyl ethanoate from ethanoic acid and butanol
b the hydrolysis of ethyl methanoate using sodium hydroxide solution.
4 What is saponication?
5 Compare a soapy detergent and a soapless detergent by referring to
their effects on:
a hard water b the environment.
Key concepts
● Alcohols have t he general formula C H OH

n 2n  1
● The functional group of alcohols is t he hydroxyl group, –OH.
● Alcohols wit h t hree or more carbon atoms display str uctural isomerism.
● Alcohol molecules are polar
● Alcohols are less volatile t han t heir corresponding alkanes because of
t he polar nature of t he molecules.
● The smaller alcohols are completely soluble in water because of t he
polar nature of t he molecules. Solubility decreases as t he molecular size
increases.
● Ethanol burns in air or oxygen wit h a clean blue ame to form carbon
dioxide and water as steam. The reaction is exot hermic.
● Et hanol reacts wit h sodium to form sodium et hoxide and hydrogen.
● Et hanol can be dehydrated to et hene by being heated to 170 °C wit h
concentrated sulfuric acid.
269
● Et hanol can be oxidised by reacting it wit h acidied potassium
manganate(VII) solution or acidied potassium dichromate(VI) solution.
The reaction produces et hanoic acid and water.
● The reduction of acidied potassium dichromate (VII) cr ystals by et hanol
and t he accompanying colour change from orange to green is used in
t he breat halyser test.
● Et hanol reacts wit h alkanoic acids to produce an ester and water.
● Et hanol can be produced by fermentation.
● Fermentation is t he chemical reaction in which carbohydrates are
conver ted into et hanol by yeast under anaerobic conditions.
● Wine and r um are made by fermentation.
● Alkanoic acids have t he general formula C H COOH

n 2n  1
● The functional group of alkanoic acids is t he carboxyl group, –COOH.
● Alkanoic acid molecules are polar
● Alkanoic acids are less volatile t han t heir corresponding alkanes because
of t he polar nature of t he molecules.
● The smaller alkanoic acids are completely soluble in water because of t he
polar nature of t he molecules. Solubility decreases as t he molecular size
increases.
● Alkanoic acids par tially ionise in water making t hem weak acids.
● Aqueous ethanoic acid reacts wit h reactive metals, metal oxides, metal
hydroxide and metal carbonates in t he same way as inorganic acids.
● Et hanoic acid reacts wit h alcohols to produce an ester and water.
● An ester is a compound formed when an alkanoic acid reacts wit h an
alcohol.
● The reaction which makes an ester is a condensation reaction known
as esterication. t requires a catalyst of concentrated sulfuric acid and
heat.
● Esters of ten have distinctive sweet fr uity smells. Animal fats and
vegetable oils are esters of long-chain alkanoic acids and glycerol.
● The functional group of esters is t he ester group, –COO–.
● Acid hydrolysis of an ester forms an alkanoic acid and an alcohol.
● Alkaline hydrolysis of an ester forms t he salt of an alkanoic acid and an
alcohol.
● Saponication is t he process by which soap is made by t he alkaline
hydrolysis of animal fats or vegetable oils.
● Soapless detergents are produced from petroleum.
● Soapy detergents do not lat her easily in hard water, instead t hey form
scum. Soapless detergents do lat her in water.
● Soapy detergents do not pollute because t hey are biodegradable and do
not contain phosphates. Soapless detergents can cause pollution because
some are non-biodegradable and t hey contain phosphates.
270
Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters Practice exam-style questions
a Draw t he fully displayed str uctures of each of

compounds A, C and D shown in t he reaction
scheme above. (4 marks)
b Name t he type of reaction involved in t he
Questions 1 and 2 refer to t he following types of reaction. conversion of:
When answering t he question, select t he most appropriate i) Glucose to A. (1 mark)
type of reaction. ii) A to C. (1 mark)
A fermentation
c State t he reaction conditions and any reagents
B reduction
necessar y to conver t:
C substitution
i) A to B (2 marks)
D oxidation
ii) C to A (2 marks)
iii) D to A and B (2 marks)

1 The process by which et hanol is produced from
d Write a balanced chemical equation for t he reaction

carbohydrates.
between B and magnesium and name compound E
2 The process by which et hanol is conver ted to et hanoic
(3 marks)
acid.
Total 15 marks
3 During t he breat halyser test to detect t he presence of
et hanol on a driver’s breat h, t he et hanol:
3 2
A oxidises t he green Cr ion to t he orange Cr O ion
2 7
2 3
B reduces t he orange Cr O ion to t he green Cr ion

2 7 8 a Describe how you could prepare a pure sample
3 2
C reduces t he green Cr ion to t he orange Cr O ion

2 7 of et hanol from a suitable carbohydrate in t he
2 3
D oxidises t he orange Cr O ion t he green Cr ion

2 7 laborator y. nclude an equation for t he reaction
and name t he most suitable met hod of obtaining a
4 Concentrated sulfuric acid is used in t he reaction
sample of et hanol from t he fermentation mixture.
between et hanoic acid and et hanol as:
(5 marks)
A a reducing agent
b Fats and oils are used to manufacture soaps. Fats and

B an oxidising agent
oils are esters which consist of long-chain fatty acids

C a catalyst
and glycerol.
D a neutralising agent
i) f t he str ucture of a fat is represented by t he
5 Acid hydrolysis of met hyl et hanoate will produce:

following general formula,
A met hanoic acid and et hanol
O
B met hanoic acid, et hanol and carbon dioxide
C et hanoic acid and met hanol
R C 
D et hanoic acid, met hanol and water
6 Which of t he following will not react wit h aqueous write a balanced chemical equation to represent
sodium hydroxide? t he formation of a soap from t his fat. (2 marks)
A et hanol ii) Calculate t he number of hydrogen atoms t hat
B propanoic acid would be present in t he R group of t he fat
C et hyl met hanoate represented in i) above if t hat group contains 18
D olive oil carbon atoms. (1 mark)
iii) Glycerol is a by-product in t he manufacture
Structured question of soap. The formula of glycerol is C H (OH) .

3 5 3
Would you expect glycerol to be soluble or
7 Study t he information given in t he following reaction
insoluble in water? Give a reason for your answer.
scheme and answer t he questions which follow.
(2 marks)
Compound B has been identied for you.
iv) Describe what you would expect to obser ve when
yeast Mg glycerol reacts wit h sodium. Give a balanced
C H O (glucose) A B (CH COOH) E + H (g)

6 12 6 3 2
equation to represent t he reaction. (3 marks)
v) State T WO ways in which a soap prepared from a
+ A fat or oil differs from a soapless detergent.
(2 marks)
Total 15 marks
C D
(an alkene) (a sweet
smelling
compound)
271
B16 Polymers
Polymers are very large molecules known as

Objectives
macromolecules. They can be natural or synthetic, i.e.

be able to:
man-made. Proteins, starch and cellulose are examples
● dene the term polymer

of natural polymers, whereas polystyrene, PVC,
● explain the process of addition
terylene and nylon are examples of synthetic polymers.
polymerisation
● show how alkenes are linked in Synthetic polymers are collectively called plastics.
the structure of a polyalkene
Understanding the chemistry of polymers is important
● give examples of polyalkenes
as it allows us to use and recycle them efficiently.

● state the uses of different
polyalkenes.
B16.1 Addition polymers
The carbon atom is unique among all elements t hat are found in nature. It
can form long-chain molecules known as macromolecules. Some of t hese
macromolecules are known as polymers. Polymers are made from small
molecules known as monomers which are linked toget her, usually in chains.
A polymer molecule may contain t housands of monomers.
The reaction which produces a polymer from monomers is known as
polymerisation
Addition polymers are synthetic, i.e. man-made, polymers which are made by
addition polymerisation . Addition polymerisation occurs when monomers
containing a carbon–carbon double bond, i.e. alkenes, are linked together to
form a polymer. For this to occur, one of the bonds in the double bond of
each alkene molecule breaks. The molecules then bond to one another by
Key fact single covalent bonds between adjoining carbon atoms to form a polymer.
A polymer is a macromolecule
Polyalkenes
formed by linking together 50 or
more small molecules, known as Addition polymers produced from alkenes by addition polymerisation are
monomers, usually in chains. known as polyalkenes. Polyalkenes are saturated compounds because t hey
only have single bonds between carbon atoms.
The carbon–carbon single bond (–C–C–) which links each monomer unit
toget her is known as an alkane linkage. The specic name of a polymer is
derived from t he name of t he monomer from which it was formed. Some
examples of polyalkenes are given in t he Table 16.1.1.
 Table 16.1.1 Names of some polyalkenes
Monomer ethene propene monochloroethene
Polymer polyethene polypropene polychloroethene
We will now look at t he formation of polyet hene and polypropene in more
detail.
Formation of polyethene
Polyethene is formed by placing et hene (C H ) in a pressurised container

2 4
and heating it wit h a catalyst. One of t he bonds in t he double bond of each
et hene molecule breaks and t he saturated polymer, polyet hene, is formed.
272
Polymers Addition polymers
The addition polymerisation of et hene can be represented by t he following:
high pressure
et hene polyet hene
catalyst, heat
In t he formation of polyet hene, t housands of et hene molecules join toget her.
We can represent t he reaction using str uctural formulae as in Figure 16.1.1.
alkane
linkage
H H H H
H H H H





high pressure,
n C  C + n C  C  C  C  C  C 



catalyst, heat
H H H H
H H H H
many et hene many et hene polyet hene
molecules
molecules
 Figure 16.1.1 The formation of polyethene
Formation of polypropene
Polypropene is formed by placing propene (C H ) in a pressurised container

3 6
and heating it wit h a catalyst. Thousands of propene molecules t hen join
toget her to form polypropene.
In order to show t he polymerisation of propene using str uctural formulae,
we must redraw t he propene molecule shown in A below so t hat only t he
two carbon atoms joined by t he double bond are drawn horizontally. This is
shown in B below.
CH
H 3 H
C C
H H H
H H
A B
We can now show how propene can polymerise to form polypropene using
str uctural formulae:
CH H CH H
3 3
CH CH
3
H 3
H
high pressure
n n
C C C C C
catalyst, heat
H H H H
H H H H n
many propene many propene
polypropene
molecules molecules
 Figure 16.1.2 The formation of polypropene
If t he monomer contains ot her atoms, groups of atoms or functional groups,
e.g. chlorine, uorine or t he et hyl group, t hen t he monomer and t he resulting
polymer can be represented as in Figure 16.1.3.
H X H X



C  C

n  C  C  where X is Cl, F, C H etc.


2 5

H H
H H
monomer polymer
 Figure 16.1.3 Formation of a polyalkenes
In addition polymerisation:
● t he polymer is t he only product – t he breaking of t he double bond
makes it possible for t he monomers to link toget her wit hout losing any
atoms from between t hem
273
Addition polymers Polymers
● t he monomers which make t he polymer are all t he same
● t he empirical formula of t he polymer is t he same as t he monomer t hat
formed it since no atoms are lost during its formation, t herefore, t he
ratio of atoms in t he two is t he same.
Examples of monomers and t heir addition polymers are given in t he
Table 16.1.2.
 Table 16.1.2 Examples of monomers and their addition polymers
Monomer H H H Cl F
F H CH H C H
3 6 5
H H H F H H
H F H H
ethene chloroethene tetrafluoroethene propene styrene
Polymer
H H H Cl F F H CH H C H
3 6 5
C C C C C C C C C C
H H H H
H H F F H H
n n n n n
polyethene polychloroethene polytetrafluoroethene polypropene polystyrene
Some addition polymers are more commonly known by ot her names, for
Did you know?

example, polychloroet hene is commonly known as polyvinyl chloride or
?
PVC, polytetrauoroet hene is commonly knowºn as PTFE and polystyrene
In polystyrene, C H is a ringed
6 5
is of ten called styrofoam.
structure of six carbon atoms as
shown below.
Uses of polyalkenes
Because polyalkenes can be moulded easily into different shapes, are light in
C
weight, are coloured easily, can be made to be exible or rigid, are good thermal
C C and electrical insulators and are durable, i.e. they do not corrode or decay, they
have a great many uses. Table 16.1.3 summarises some of these uses.
C C
 Table 16.1.3 Uses of some polyalkenes

C
Name of polymer Uses
This can also be represented as:

Polyethene To make plastic bags, plastic bottles, sandwich bags, cling
wrap, packaging materials and moisture barriers used in
construction.
or
Polychloroethene (PVC) To make pipe fittings, water pipes, guttering, plastic windows
and insulation for electrical wires and cables.
Polytetrafluoroethene (PTFE) As a non-stick coating on kitchen and garden utensils and to
make low-friction bearings.
Polypropene To make ropes, plastic toys, carpets and plastic food
containers.
Polystyrene (styrofoam) To make fast food containers and vending cups for drinks.
As a protective packaging material and an insulation material
in walls and roofs.
 Figure 16.1.4 Polyvinyl chloride is  Figure 16.1.5 Polypropene is used to
used to make guttering make ropes
274
Polymers Condensation polymers
Summary questions
1 What is a polymer?
2 Explain what happens during addition polymerisation.
3 For each of the following polymers, draw the structural formula of the
monomer that formed the polymer:
a H Cl H Cl H Cl
C C C C C C
H H H H H H
H H H
C C C C C C
H H H H H H
4 Give three examples of addition polymers and give two uses of each
of them.
B16.2 Condensation polymers Objectives
Condensation polymers are made by condensation polymerisation .

be able to:
Condensation polymerisation involves linking monomers toget her in long
● explain the process of

chains by eliminating a small molecule from between adjacent monomer
condensation polymerisation
units. The molecule is of ten water (H O), where one hydrogen atom (H)
2
● show how monomers are

comes from one monomer unit and an oxygen and a hydrogen atom (OH)
linked in the structure of a

come from t he adjacent monomer. Instead of water, ot her small molecules
polyester, a polyamide and a

can also be eliminated such as hydrogen chloride (HCl) or ammonia (NH ).
3
polysaccharide
The elimination of a small molecule makes it possible for t he monomers to
● give examples of
link up in chains.
polyesters, synthetic and
In contrast to addition polymerisation, during condensation

natural polyamides and
polymerisation:
polysaccharides
● state the uses of different
● t he polymer is not t he only product made – condensation
condensation polymers
polymerisation always forms two products, t he polymer and anot her
● discuss the harmful effects
compound made of small molecules
of synthetic polymers on the
● t he polymer is of ten made from more t han one different type of

environment.
monomer
● t he empirical formula of t he polymer is different from t he monomer
since atoms are lost during t he formation of t he polymer.
In order fo r monomer s to fo r m condensation p o ly m e r s , t he monomer
molecules m u st h ave t wo functional g roups, e.g. hy d r ox yl g roups
(–OH) and/or c a r b ox yl g roups (–COOH). We will be st u d y i n g t hree
d i f fe r e n t types of condensation p o ly m e r s , p o lye st e r s , p o lya m i d e s and
p o ly s a c c h a r i d e s .
275
Condensation polymers Polymers
Polyesters

O
O
 Polyesters are synthetic condensation polymers that are formed from the
C  X  C


H O
condensation reaction between an alkanoic acid and an alcohol. The acid and
OH
the alcohol must both have two functional groups in their molecules. The
a diacid
acid is, therefore, known as a diacid and the alcohol is known as a dialcohol.
H O  Y  O H The number of carbon atoms in t he acid and t he alcohol can var y, so we can
represent t he carbon chain to which t he functional groups are attached by
a dialcohol
X or Y. The str uctural formulae in Figure 16.2.1 show t he two monomers t hat
 Figure 16.2.1 Structural formulae of a are involved in t he formation of a polyester.
diacid and a dialcohol
When t hese two molecules react wit h each ot her, a water molecule is
eliminated from between t hem and an ester functional group (–COO–
O

or –OOC–) forms which links t he two toget her. The str ucture of t he ester
 C  O 
functional group is shown in Figure 16.2.2.
 Figure 16.2.2 The ester functional
A polyester forms by linking t housands of t hese monomers toget her
group or ester linkage
alternately in chains, wit h an ester functional group between adjacent
monomers. Therefore, we say t hat polyesters are polymers where t he linkages
between monomers are ester linkages
Figure 16.2.3 uses a diacid molecule and a dialcohol molecule to give a simple
representation of how t hey can be condensed to form a polyester molecule.
ester functional
group (linkage)
O O
C X C 1 Y C X C O Y O
H O O H
 Figure 16.2.3
H O lost
2
A section of a polyester molecule
An example of a polyester is polyet hylene terepht halate, also known as PET,
or by brand names such as Ter ylene or Dacron. Polyet hylene terepht halate
is formed from a diacid in which X has t he formula C H and a dialcohol in

6 4
which Y has t he formula C H

2 4
O

 C  N 

Polyamides
Polyamides all contain the amide functional group (–CONH– or –NHCO–).

 Figure 16.2.4 The amide functional
group or amide linkage The str ucture of the amide functional group is shown in Figure 16.2.4.
Some polyamides are synt hetic while ot hers occur naturally. We will be
looking at bot h types in t his section.
H

 N or  NH
2

Synthetic polyamides
Synthetic polyamides are made from a diacid and a diamine. A diamine has
 Figure 16.2.5 The amino functional
group two amino functional groups as shown in Figure 16.2.5.
The str uctural formulae in Figure 16.2.6 show t he two monomers t hat are
involved in t he formation of a synt hetic polyamide.

O H H
O


C  X  C N  Y  N




HO
H H
OH
a diacid diamine
 Figure 16.2.6 Structural formulae of a diacid and a diamine
276
When t hese two molecules react wit h each ot her, a water molecule is
eliminated from between t hem and an amide functional group forms
which links t he two toget her. A polyamide forms by linking t housands of
t hese monomers toget her alternately in chains, wit h an amide functional
group between adjacent monomers. Therefore, we say t hat polyamides are
polymers where t he linkages between monomers are amide linkages
Figure 16.2.7 uses a diacid molecule and a diamine molecule to give a simple
representation of how t hey can be condensed to form a synt hetic polyamide
molecule.
O O
C X C 1 N Y N C X C N Y N
H O O H H H
H H
H O lost
2
amide functional
group (linkage)
 Figure 16.2.7 A section of a polyamide molecule
An example of a synt hetic polyamide is nylon 6,6, which is formed from a
diacid in which X has t he formula C H and a dialcohol in which Y has t he

4 8
formula C H
6 12
Natural polyamides
Proteins are natural polyamides formed by linking monomers known as
amino acids toget her. Amino acids are molecules which have one amino
functional group and one carboxyl functional group. The str uctural formula
of an amino acid is given in Figure 16.2.8.
H

H O



N  C  C

 Figure 16.2.8 Structural formula of an

H O  H
R amino acid molecule
In t he amino acid molecule, R represents a variable hydrocarbon group
which may contain ot her atoms such as nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, as well
as carbon and hydrogen. There are 20 different groups, t herefore t here are 20
different amino acids which make up protein molecules.
Figure 16.2.9 uses two amino acid molecules to give a simple representation
of t he condensation of amino acid molecules to form a protein molecule.
H H H O H O
H H
N C C 1 N C C N C C N C C
H O H H O H
R R9 H R H R9
H O lost
2
amide functional
group (linkage)
 Figure 16.2.9 Formation of a protein molecule
Like synt hetic polyamides, proteins contain t he amide functional group or
amide linkage. In proteins, t his amide linkage is also known as t he peptide
linkage
Examples of proteins include keratin which is found in hair and nails and
collagen which is found in t he connective tissue t hat makes up str uctures
such as ligaments and tendons. Haemoglobin, enzymes, antibodies and
many hormones are also made of proteins.
277
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are natural polymers formed by linking monomers known
as monosaccharides toget her. Examples of monosaccharides include
glucose, fr uctose and galactose. These are all isomers wit h t he molecular
formula C H O
6 12 6
Starch is a polysaccharide formed when glucose undergoes condensation
polymerisation. The simplied chemical equation for t his reaction can be
written as follows, where n is t he number of repeating glucose units in t he
polysaccharide:
nC H O (C H O )  nH O
6 12 6 5 10 5 n 2
glucose starch
The str uctural formula of a glucose molecule is given in Figure 16.2.10.
If we t hink of two of t he –OH groups of a glucose molecule as being functional
H

groups, t hen we can represent t he glucose molecule as H–O–X–O–H, where
H  C  O  H X represents t he rest of t he glucose molecule, i.e. C H O . Figure 16.2.11 uses


6 10 4
two glucose molecules to give a simple representation of t he condensation of
H

glucose molecules to form a starch molecule.

C O
H
H


ether functional
C C

OH H group (linkage)

HO OH
C C

H O X O H X O H O X O X
H OH H O lost
2
 Figure 16.2.10 Structural formula of a

 Figure 16.2.11 Formation of a starch molecule
glucose molecule
Polysaccharides contain t he ether linkage (– O –) between t he monomers.
Ot her polysaccharides include glycogen or animal starch and cellulose
which is found in plant cell walls.
Uses of condensation polymers
Like polyalkenes, synt hetic condensation polymers have a variety of uses.
Their molecules are extremely long and one of t heir main uses is to make
bres. These bres are strong, light in weight and durable, which makes
t hem ver y useful in t he production of a variety of fabrics. Table 16.2.1
summarises some of t he uses of bot h synt hetic and natural condensation
polymers.
 Table 16.2.1 Uses of some condensation polymers
Type of polymer Name of polymer Uses
Polyester Polyethylene terephthalate To make clothing, especially outdoor clothing,
(PET, Terylene or Dacron) bed sheets, towels, boat sails and carpets.
To make PET bottles for soft drinks.
Polyamide Nylon To make fishing lines, seatbelts, carpets and
clothing, especially where stretch is required,
e.g. nylon stockings and activity wear.
Polyamide Protein To build body cells, hair and nails. To make
enzymes, antibodies and some hormones.
Exam tip
✔
Polysaccharide Starch Used to produce energy during respiration
in living organisms after first being digested
It is very important that you know
to glucose. Stored as a food reserve in living
the uses of the different types of

organisms.
polymers.
Polysaccharide Cellulose Used to build cell walls of plant cells.
278
Environmental impact of synthetic polymers (a)
Synt hetic polymers, ot her wise known as plastics, can have a variety of
harmful effects on living systems and t he environment. Some of t hese are
given below.
● During t he manufacture of plastics, a variety of toxic chemicals are
released into t he environment. Some of t hese continue to be released
from t he plastic items t hemselves during use and when disposed
of. Many of t hese chemicals are persistent, i.e. t hey remain in t he
environment doing damage for a great many years.
● Most plastics are non-biodegradable. They build up in t he environment
leading to land and water pollution. They are par ticularly harmful to
aquatic organisms, of ten leading to t heir deat h by being ingested or by
causing suffocation.
(b)
● Plastics produce dense smoke and poisonous gases when burnt. These
can lead to air pollution and serious healt h problems, such as ast hma,
immune system damage, cancer and damage to t he ner vous and
reproductive systems.
● Many plastics are ammable. As a result t hey pose re hazards.
● Plastics are made from petroleum which is a non-renewable resource.
Their manufacture is contributing to t he world wide depletion of
petroleum.
 Figure 16.2.12 Polyethylene
Summary questions terephthalate is used to make
(a) boat sails and (b) PET bottles
1 Explain what happens during condensation polymerisation.
2 Give two differences between addition polymerisation and condensation
polymerisation.
3 Draw the partial structure of a polyester which is made from four
monomer units.
4 Draw the structural formulae of the two monomer units in the following
polymer:
O O O O
C N C N
H H H H
5 Give two examples of synthetic condensation polymers and one
example of a natural condensation polymer. Give two uses of each
polymer named.
279
Key concepts
● A polymer is a macromolecule formed by linking toget her 50 or more
small molecules, known as monomers, usually in chains.
● Polymers can be synt hetic, i.e. man-made, or natural. Synt hetic
polymers are collectively known as plastics
● The reaction which forms a polymer is known as polymerisation
● Add ition polymers are formed by add ition polymerisation . Alkenes
form addition polymers when one bond in t he carbon–carbon double
bond of each alkene molecule breaks. The molecules t hen bond to one
anot her by single covalent bonds between adjoining carbon atoms.
● In addition polymerisation t he only product is t he polymer, all t he
monomers are identical and t he empirical formulae of t he polymer and
t he monomer are t he same.
● Alkenes form polymers known as polyalkenes
● Polyalkenes contain t he alkane linkage (–C–C–) between monomers.
● Polyet hene, polypropene, polychloroet hene (PVC) and polystyrene are
examples of polyalkenes.
● Polyalkenes have a variety of uses.
● Condensation polymers are formed by condensation polymerisation .
Condensation polymerisation involves linking monomers toget her in
long chains by eliminating a small molecule from between adjacent
monomer units.
● In condensation polymerisation t he polymer and anot her compound
composed of small molecules are produced, t he monomers are not
necessarily identical and t he empirical formulae of t he polymer and t he
monomer are different.
● Polyesters are synt hetic condensation polymers formed by t he
condensation of a diacid and a dialcohol.
● Polyesters contain t he ester linkage (–COO–) between monomers.
● Polyet hylene terepht halate (PET), also known as Ter ylene or Dacron, is
an example of a polyester.
● Synthetic polyamides are condensation polymers formed by t he
condensation of a diacid and a diamine.
● Nylon is an example of a synt hetic polyamide.
● Natural polyamides are condensation polymers formed by t he
condensation of amino acids.
● Proteins are natural polyamides.
● All polyamides contain t he amide linkage (–CONH–) between
monomers.
● Polysaccharides are natural condensation polymers formed by t he
condensation of monosaccharides.
● Polysaccharides contain t he ether linkage (–O–) between monomers.
● Starch, glycogen and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides.
● Condensation polymers have a variety of uses.
● Synt hetic polymers can have a variety of harmful effects on living
systems and t he environment.
280
Polymers Practice exam-style questions
Use t he information to answer t he following

questions.
i) What type of polymerisation is involved in t he
formation of EACH polymer? (3 marks)
ii) Draw t he str uctural formula of EACH monomer

1 Which of t he following is not an addition polymer?
unit of A and of B. (2 marks)

A polystyrene
B ter ylene iii) Name t he monomer unit of B. (1 mark)
C polyet hene
iv) Name ONE naturally occurring polymer t hat
D polypropene
could be represented by C and name t he
monomer which makes up t he polymer you have
2 Amide linkages are found in:
named. (2 marks)
I proteins
b The two compounds, E and F, illustrated below,

II ter ylene
undergo polymerisation.
III nylon
A I and II only O O
B II only C X C HO Y OH
C I and III only O O
E F
D I, II and III
i) Using T WO molecules of E and T WO molecules

3 Amino acids are so called because t hey:
of F, show how t he compounds are linked

A contain t he NH group
2
toget her to form a polymer. (2 marks)

B contain t he COOH group
C turn blue litmus red ii) Name t he type of linkage formed between t he
D contain t he NH group and t he COOH group monomers in t he polymer you have drawn
2
in par t i) above and name t he type of
4 In a condensation polymerisation reaction,
polymer. (2 marks)
A t he polymer has a different empirical formula to t he
iii) Give a named example of t he type of polymer
monomer
drawn in i) above and state T WO of its uses.
B one product is formed
(3 marks)
C t he polymer is always formed from one type of
Total 15 marks
monomer only
D water is always produced
5 The monomer of starch is:
A fr uctose 8 Polymers are found in ever y aspect of our daily lives.
B sucrose a What are polymers? (1 mark)
C galactose
b Polymers can be classied into two groups, addition
D glucose
polymers and condensation polymers. Briey discuss
ONE named addition polymer and ONE named
6 Which of t he following is not tr ue about plastics?
synt hetic condensation polymer. You should include
A They are ammable.
in your answer:
B They are easily biodegraded.
i) The str ucture of t he monomer units of EACH

C They are good insulators.
polymer. (2 marks)
D They are easily moulded.
ii) Appropriate str uctures to show how t he
monomers are linked to form EACH polymer.
Structured question
(4 marks)
7 a The str uctures A, B and C represent t hree types of
iii) The name of t he type of linkage formed between
polymers.
t he monomer units in EACH polymer. (2 marks)
H H H H H H
iv) T WO uses of EACH polymer. (2 marks)
A C C C C C C
c Addition polymers are formed by a process called
addition polymerisation and condensation polymers
H CH H CH H CH
3 3 3
are formed by condensation polymerisation.
Give T WO differences between t he two types of
H O H O H O
polymerisation. (2 marks)
B N C C N C C N C C
d Give T WO disadvantages of t he extensive use of
synt hetic polymers (plastics) in today ’s world.
H CH H CH H CH
3 3 3
(2 marks)
Total 15 marks
C O X
281
Section C
Characteristics of metals
C17
Most elements in the periodic table are metals. In fact,

Objectives
metals account for about 80% of all the elements in the

be able to:
table. Metallurgy, i.e. the study of metals, is one of the
● describe the physical

oldest applied sciences, dating back to 6000 BC with
properties of metals
the discovery of gold. Metals have a variety of physical

● relate the physical properties
of metals to the way in which and chemical properties which enable them to play an
metal atoms are bonded in the
extremely important part in our daily lives.
metallic lattice.
C17.1 Physical properties of metals
Metals are elements whose atoms have a small number of valence electrons,
usually 1, 2 or 3. Most metals are found in Groups ,  and  of t he periodic
table and between Groups  and  as t he transition metals.
n Unit 5.4 you learnt t hat t he type of bonding between metal atoms in a metal
is known as metallic bond ing and t hat metals have ver y distinct physical
proper ties as a result of t his bonding. Recall t hat a metal lattice is composed
of metal cations surrounded by a ‘sea’ of delocalised, mobile electrons and
t hat t he lattice is held toget her by t he strong electrostatic force of attraction
between t he positive cations and t he delocalised, negative electrons known
as t he metallic bond
The way in which t he metal atoms are bonded in metal lattices helps us to
understand t he physical proper ties of metals. We will consider some of t hese
in detail below.
Metals have high melting points and boiling points
The electrostatic forces of attraction between t he positive cations and
negative, delocalised electrons are relatively strong. As a result, large amounts
of heat energy are required to separate t he atoms in order to melt or boil t he
metals. All metals are found in t he solid state at room temperature, wit h t he
exception of mercur y which is a liquid
Metals are good conductors of electricity and heat
The delocalised electrons in t he metal lattice are not held in any xed
position and are free to move. These moving electrons act as charge carriers
allowing an electric current to be carried t hrough t he metal. They also act
as heat carriers allowing heat to be carried t hrough t he metal when, for

 Figure 17.1.1 Because metals are
example, one end of a piece of metal is placed in a hot environment, such as

good conductors of heat they are
used to make frying pans a ame, t he ot her end of t he metal quickly heats up.
Metals have a shiny lustre
Lustre is t he shininess of a metal. Metals generally have a ver y
shiny, metallic lustre. This is because t he mobile electrons
reect t he photons of light back from t he metal surface before
t hey are allowed to penetrate far into t he surface.
 Figure 17.1.2 This silver cup has a shiny metallic lustre
282
Characteristics of metals Chemical properties and reactions of metals
Metals are hard, malleable and ductile
Metals are considered to be hard because t hey are not easily damaged when
a force is applied to t hem. They are, however, malleable meaning t hat t hey
can be bent and hammered into different shapes. They are also ductile,
meaning t hat t hey can be drawn out into wires. This is because t he atoms in
t he metal are all of t he same type, t herefore t hey are all t he same size. f force
is applied to t he metal, t he atoms can roll over each ot her into new positions
wit hout breaking t he metallic bond.
 Figure 17.1.3 This gold ring demonstrates the malleability of metals
Metals have high densities
The density of any substance is calculated by dividing t he mass of t he
substance by its volume. Metals have high densities because t heir atoms are
packed ver y closely toget her. This means t hat t here are as many metal atoms
as possible in a given volume of metal.
Summary questions
1 Explain why metals have high melting points and boiling points.
2 Why are metals good conductors of electricity and heat?
3 Explain the terms ‘malleable’ and ‘ductile’. Explain why metals are
malleable and ductile.
4 Why do metals have a high density?
C17.2 Chemical properties and reactions of metals Objectives

Because metals are elements whose atoms have a small number of valence
be able to:
electrons, usually 1, 2 or 3, t hey form positive cations in chemical reactions
by losing t hese valence electrons. This can be summarised as follows:

n various metals with oxygen,

M M  ne
water and dilute acids
As a result, metals form ionic compounds when t hey react and t he metal
● name the products formed by
behaves as a reducing agent since it gives electrons to t he ot her reactant, i.e.
the reactions
it causes t he ot her reactant to gain electrons (RG).
● write balanced chemical
Some metals are relatively stable while ot hers react violently when exposed to equations for the reactions of
ot her substances, e.g. oxygen, water and acids. The way in which a par ticular various metals with oxygen,
metal reacts gives an indication of its reactivity. The reactivity of a metal is water and dilute acids.
related to t he metal’s position in t he periodic table.
We will now look at t he reactions of cer tain metals wit h oxygen, water and
dilute acids.
283
Chemical properties and reactions of metals Characteristics of metals
The reactions of metals with oxygen
Some metals can be exposed to air wit hout reacting to any great extent wit h
t he oxygen in t he air. These metals include t he ones t hat we use regularly
and see around us. The surface of ot her metals oxid ises immediately on
exposure to air and some metals react so vigorously wit h oxygen t hey have
to be stored under parafn, e.g. potassium and sodium. The parafn acts as a
barrier, preventing t he metals from coming into contact wit h t he air.
When metals react wit h oxygen, t hey form ionic compounds known as metal
oxides. This can be summarised by t he following general word equation:
metal  oxygen metal oxide
 Figure 17.2.1 Sodium has to be

Table 17.2.1 shows what happens when cer tain metals react wit h oxygen in
stored under parafn to prevent it from

t he air.
reacting with oxygen in the air
 Table 17.2.1 Reactions of metals with oxygen
Description of the reaction Description of the reaction
Metal Products formed when heated and equation
when exposed to dry air when heated in air
Potassium Reacts very readily forming Burns vigorously with a lilac

Forms a white powdery solid, potassium oxide:
potassium oxide flame
4K(s)  O (g) 2K O(s)

2 2
Sodium Reacts very readily forming Burns vigorously with an orange

Forms a white powdery solid, sodium oxide:
sodium oxide flame
4Na(s)  O (g) 2Na O(s)

2 2
Calcium Reacts readily to form coating of Burns very easily with a brick red
Forms a white powdery solid called calcium oxide:
calcium oxide flame
2Ca(s)  O (g) 2CaO(s)

2
Magnesium Reacts slowly to form a coating Burns easily with a bright white
Forms a white powdery solid, magnesium oxide:
of magnesium oxide flame

2
Aluminium Reacts slowly to form a thin Burns when heated strongly,

Forms a white powdery solid, aluminium oxide:
coating of aluminium oxide especially if powdered
4Al(s)  3O (g) 2Al O (s)

2 2 3
Zinc Reacts very slowly to form a thin Burns when heated strongly,
Forms a white powdery solid, zinc oxide, which is yellow when hot:
coating of zinc oxide especially if powdered
2Zn(s)  O (g) 2ZnO(s)

2
Iron Does not react with dry air Burns when heated strongly,
Forms a black powdery solid, iron(II, III) oxide:
especially if powdered
3Fe(s)  2O (g) Fe O (s)

2 3 4
Copper Does not react with dry air Does not burn when heated, but
Forms a black solid, copper(II) oxide:
does form an oxide coating if
2Cu(s)  O (g) 2CuO(s)

2
heated very strongly
Silver Does not react with dry air Does not react, even when
heated very strongly
f t he metal oxides produced in t hese reactions can dissolve in water, t he
resulting solution is alkaline. For example, potassium oxide reacts wit h
water to form soluble potassium hydroxide, sodium oxide reacts wit h water
to form soluble sodium hydroxide and calcium oxide reacts wit h water to
form calcium hydroxide which is slightly soluble. Potassium hydroxide,
sodium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide are alkalis. All t he ot her oxides in
Table 17.2.1 are insoluble.
Looking at t he reactions of metals wit h oxygen in t he air we see t hat
potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium are t he most reactive metals.
These metals are found in Groups  and  of t he periodic table, i.e. to t he far
lef t of t he table. n general, t he reactivity of metals decreases from lef t to right
across t he periodic table.
284
The reactions of metals with water
Metals can also be added to water to determine t heir reactivity. n general,
metals t hat are ver y reactive wit h oxygen are highly reactive when exposed
to water.
When a metal reacts wit h water, t he metal hydroxide and hydrogen are
produced. The reaction can be summarised by t he following general word
equation:
metal  water metal hydroxide  hydrogen
When a metal reacts wit h steam, t he metal oxide and hydrogen are produced.
The reaction can be summarised by t he following general word equation:
metal  steam metal oxide  hydrogen
Table 17.2.2 shows what happens when cer tain metals are allowed to come
into contact wit h water or steam.
 Table 17.2.2 Reactions of metals with water or steam
Metal Description of the reaction Products formed and equation
Potassium Reacts very vigorously with cold

Potassium hydroxide and hydrogen:
water producing a lilac flame
2K(s)  2H O(l) 2KOH(aq)  H (g)

2 2
Sodium Reacts vigorously with cold

Sodium hydroxide and hydrogen:
water, producing an orange flame
2Na(s)  2H O(l) 2NaOH(aq)  H (g)

2 2
Calcium Reacts moderately with cold

Slightly soluble calcium hydroxide and hydrogen:
water
Ca(s)  2H O(l) Ca(OH) (aq)  H (g)

2 2 2
Magnesium Reacts very slowly with cold W ith water: very slightly soluble magnesium
water and slowly with hot water hydroxide and hydrogen:
Mg(s)  2H O(l) Mg(OH) (aq)  H (g)

2 2 2
Reacts vigorously with steam W ith steam: magnesium oxide and hydrogen:
Mg(s)  H O(g) MgO(s)  2H (g)

2 2
Aluminium Does not react with cold or hot

Aluminium oxide and hydrogen:
water. Reacts with steam
2Al(s)  3H O(g) Al O (s)  3H (g)

2 2 3 2
Zinc Does not react with cold or hot

Zinc oxide and hydrogen:
Zn(s)  H O(g) ZnO(s)  H (g)

2 2
Iron Does not react with cold or hot

Iron(II III) oxide and hydrogen:
3Fe(s)  4H O(g) Fe O (s)  4H (g)

2 3 4 2
Copper Does not react with water or
steam
Silver Does not react with water or
steam
t can be seen from Table 17.2.2 t hat some of t he metals do not react wit h
water. They do, however, react wit h steam. The fact t hat t hey require steam
to react means t hat t hey are less reactive t han t he ones t hat react wit h cold
water. Once again, potassium, sodium and calcium are metals t hat react
most vigorously wit h water.
When potassium and sodium react wit h cold water, t hey bot h roll into a ball
and move rapidly around on t he surface of t he water as t hey decrease in size.
As t hey move, a lilac ame forms around t he ball of potassium and an orange
 Figure 17.2.2 A lilac ame forms
ame forms around t he ball of sodium. The lilac ame around t he potassium
around potassium when it reacts with
is shown in Figure 17.2.2. cold water
285
Chemical properties and reactions of metals Characteristics of metals
Investigating reactions of metals with water
Great care must be taken when reacting potassium and sodium with
water.
Method
1 Place about 2 cm of distilled water into a test tube and add a piece of
clean magnesium ribbon. Leave undisturbed for one hour.
2 Look for signs of effervescence and dip a piece of red litmus into the
solution.
3 Place about 2 cm of distilled water into another test tube and add a
piece of calcium.
4 Look for effervescence and test the gas for the presence of hydrogen
by placing a burning splint at the mouth of the tube. Dip a piece of red
litmus paper into the solution.
5 Half ll a large trough with water and place a very small piece of
potassium onto the surface of the water.
6 Look for a trail of effervescence as the potassium moves around on the
surface of the water. Note the colour of the ame that forms around the
potassium. When the potassium disappears, dip a piece of red litmus
paper into the solution.
7 Repeat step 6 with a small piece of sodium. If a ame does not form
around the ball of sodium, test for the presence of hydrogen by touching
the sodium with a burning splint.
8 Which metal reacted the most vigorously with water and which reacted
the least vigorously?
9 Write balanced chemical equations for the four reactions.
The reactions of metals with dilute acids
n general, reactive metals react wit h acids, except nitric acid, to form a salt
and hydrogen. We can again see t hat t he metals which are ver y reactive
wit h oxygen and water are also ver y reactive wit h acids. The reaction can be
summarised by t he following general word equation:
reactive metal  acid salt  hydrogen
The salt t hat is produced depends on t he metal used and t he acid.
Table 17.2.3 shows what happens when cer tain metals react wit h dilute
hydrochloric acid. When a metal reacts wit h hydrochloric acid t he salt
formed is a chloride.
286
 Table 17.2.3 Reactions of metals with hydrochloric acid
Metal Description of the reaction Products formed and equation
Potassium An extremely violent reaction occurs

Potassium chloride and hydrogen: 2K(s)  2HCl(aq) 2KCl(aq)  H (g)
2
Sodium A violent reaction occurs

Sodium chloride and hydrogen: 2Na(s)  2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq)  H (g)
2
Calcium A fairly violent reaction occurs

Calcium chloride and hydrogen: Ca(s)  2HCl(aq) CaCl (aq)  H (g)
2 2
Magnesium A very vigorous reaction occurs

Magnesium chloride and hydrogen: Mg(s)  2HCl(aq) MgCl (aq)  H (g)
2 2
Aluminium A vigorous reaction occurs

Aluminium chloride and hydrogen: 2Al(s)  6HCl(aq) 2AlCl (aq)  3H (g)
3 2
Zinc A fairly vigorous reaction occurs

Zinc chloride and hydrogen: Zn(s)  2HCl(aq) ZnCl (aq)  H (g)
2 2
Iron A very slow reaction occurs

Iron(II) chloride and hydrogen: Fe(s)  2HCl(aq) FeCl (aq)  H (g)
2 2
Copper Does not react with dilute acids –
Silver Does not react with dilute acids –
Looking at t he reactions of metals wit h hydrochloric acid we can again see
t hat potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium are t he most reactive

Did you know?
?
metals.
It is unadvisable to perform the
The reactions between t he metals and dilute sulfuric acid are ver y similar to
reactions of potassium, sodium and
t he reactions which occur wit h dilute hydrochloric acid. However, when a

calcium with an acid because these
metal reacts wit h sulfuric acid, t he salt formed is a sulfate.

three metals react so violently that
the reactions are dangerous.
Investigating reactions of metals with dilute acids
You will be supplied with samples of the metals magnesium, aluminium,
zinc, iron and copper, dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute sulfuric acid, ve test
tubes and a wooden splint.
Method
1 Carefully place about 2 cm of dilute hydrochloric acid into each of the
ve test tubes.
2 Label each tube with the symbol of the particular metal that will be
added.
hydrogen gas
3 Add a small piece of metal to each tube so that each tube contains a
lighted splint
different metal as indicated by its label.
4 Observe each tube for signs of effervescence. If effervescence is seen,
test the gas for the presence of hydrogen by placing a lighted splint
 Figure 17.2.3 The production of

at the mouth of the tube and feel the bottom of the tube to see if it
hydrogen gas can be conrmed
becomes warm.
by holding a lighted splint near the
5 If no effervescence is seen, heat the tube gently. If effervescence is mouth of the test tube. A ‘squeaky
pop’ sound will identify the gas as
seen on heating, test the gas for the presence of hydrogen. Make sure
hydrogen.
that you do not confuse effervescence with bubbling that occurs if the
acid boils. Effervescence continues after the tube is removed from the
source of heat, boiling does not.
287
Reactions of metal compounds Characteristics of metals
Summary questions
6 Repeat the method using dilute sulfuric acid in place of dilute
hydrochloric acid.
1 Write a balanced chemical
7 Record your observations in a table, noting if the reaction needed
equation for each of the
heating.
following reactions:
8 Did the metals differ in their reactivity with the acids? If they did, which
a calcium reacting with oxygen
metal reacted the most vigorously and which showed no reaction at all,
b zinc reacting with
hydrochloric acid even when heated?
c iron reacting with sulfuric

9 In what ways were the reactions between the metals and the two acids
acid.
similar? Were there any differences?
2 How do the products of the

10 Aluminium did not react as described in Table 17.2.3 until the test
reactions differ when magnesium

tubes were heated. Can you suggest why?
reacts with water and when
11 Write balanced chemical equations for the reactions of the metals with
it reacts with steam? Write a
dilute sulfuric acid.
balanced chemical equation for
each reaction.
Dur ing t he exper iment, you possibly discovered t hat aluminium did
3 Which seems to be more
not react wit h t he acids until t he test tubes were heated. This is because
reactive, iron or copper?
aluminium is coated wit h a t hin  lm of aluminium oxide whic h prevents
4 Which seem to be the least

it from reacting wit h acids when cold. When heated, t he acids react wit h
reactive, Group I metals, Group II

t he aluminium oxide for ming soluble aluminium c hlor ide or aluminium
metals or the transition metals? sulfate. These salts dissolve and t he aluminium is t hen able to react wit h
t he acids.
Objectives C17.3 Reactions of metal compounds
You have already come across some of t he reactions of metal compounds.

be able to:
We will review t hese and look at some new reactions in t his unit. The
compounds we will be looking at include metal oxides, metal hydroxides,
metal oxides, hydroxides and
metal carbonates and metal nitrates.
carbonates with acids
● describe the decomposition
reactions of metal nitrates, Reactions of metal oxides
carbonates and hydroxides.
Metal oxides react wit h acids to form a salt and water. The reaction can be
summarised by t he following general word equation:
metal oxide  acid salt  water
This reaction is known as a neutralisation reaction since t he metal oxide is
a base t hat neutralises t he acid to form a salt and water. When a metal oxide
reacts wit h an acid t he reaction becomes warmer because it is exot hermic.
Examples
1 Copper(II) oxide reacts wit h sulfuric acid to produce soluble copper(II)
sulfate and water:
CuO(s)  H SO (aq) CuSO (aq)  H O(l)

2 4 4 2
During t he reaction, t he black, powder y copper(II) oxide disappears
 Figure 17.3.1 Black powdery copper( II)
slowly and a blue solution forms. This is because soluble copper(II)
oxide slowly disappears in sulfuric
2
sulfate is produced which contains blue Cu ions. The reaction can be

acid as it reacts to form soluble, blue
copper( II) sulfate speeded up by heating it.
288
Characteristics of metals Reactions of metal compounds
2 Magnesium oxide reacts wit h hydrochloric acid to produce soluble
magnesium chloride and water:
MgO(s) 2HCl(aq) MgCl (aq)  H O(l)

2 2
The white, powder y magnesium oxide disappears as it reacts wit h t he
acid to form a colourless solution of magnesium chloride.
Reactions of metal hydroxides
Metal hydroxides also react wit h acids to form a salt and water. The reaction
can be summarised by t he following general word equation:
metal hydroxide  acid salt  water
This reaction is also a neutralisation reaction since t he metal hydroxide
is a base and it neutralises t he acid to form a salt and water. The reaction is
exot hermic, t herefore it becomes warmer.
Examples
1 Copper(II) hydroxide reacts wit h nitric acid to produce soluble copper(II)
nitrate and water:
Cu(OH) (s)  2HNO (aq) Cu(NO ) (aq)  2H O(l)

2 3 3 2 2
During t he reaction, t he blue copper(II) hydroxide disappears and a blue
solution forms due to t he production of soluble copper(II) nitrate which
2
contains blue Cu ions.
2 Zinc hydroxide reacts wit h hydrochloric acid to produce soluble zinc
chloride and water:
Zn(OH) (s)  2HCl(aq) ZnCl (aq)  2H O(l)

2 2 2
The white, powder y zinc hydroxide disappears at it reacts wit h t he acid
to form a colourless solution of zinc chloride.
Reactions of metal carbonates
Metal carbonates react wit h acids to form a salt, carbon dioxide and water.
The reaction can be summarised by t he following general word equation:
metal carbonate  acid salt  carbon d ioxide  water
When a metal carbonate reacts wit h an acid, effer vescence is seen as t he
carbon dioxide is evolved.
Examples
1 Calcium carbonate reacts wit h nitric acid to produce soluble calcium
nitrate, carbon dioxide and water:
CaCO (s)  2HNO (aq) Ca(NO ) (aq)  CO (g)  H O(l)

3 3 3 2 2 2
During t he reaction, fairly vigorous effer vescence occurs, and t he white
calcium carbonate quickly disappears as it reacts wit h t he acid to form a
colourless solution of calcium nitrate.
289
2 ron(II) carbonate reacts wit h sulfuric acid to produce iron(II) sulfate,
carbon dioxide and water:
FeCO (s)  H SO (aq) FeSO (aq)  CO  H O(l)

3 2 4 4 2 2
Fairly vigorous effer vescence occurs. The green iron(II) carbonate quickly
disappears and a green solution forms due to t he production of soluble
2
iron(II) sulfate which contains green Fe ions.
Decomposition of metal compounds
Many metal compounds decompose when t hey are heated. Table 17.3.1
summarises t he effects of heat on metal nitrates, metal carbonates and metal
hydroxides.
 Table 17.3.1 The effect of heat on metal nitrates, metal carbonates and metal hydroxides
Metal compound
Metal
Nitrates Carbonates Hydroxides
Do not decompose. Do not decompose.

Potassium Decompose to form the metal nitrite and oxygen:
The carbonates are stable. The hydroxides are stable.
Sodium 2NaNO (s) 2NaNO (s)  O (g)

3 2 2
Decompose to form the metal oxide, nitrogen Decompose to form the metal oxide Decompose to form the metal oxide and
Calcium
dioxide and oxygen: and carbon dioxide: water (as steam):
Magnesium
2Mg(NO ) (s) 2MgO(s)  4NO (g)  O (g) MgCO (s) MgO(s)  CO (g) Mg(OH) (s) MgO(s)  H O(g)
3 2 2 2 3 2 2 2
Aluminium
2Cu(NO ) (s) 2CuO(s)  4NO (g)  O (g) CuCO (s) CuO(s)  CO (g) Cu(OH) (s) CuO(s)  H O(g)
3 2 2 2 3 2 2 2
Zinc
Iron
Lead
Copper
Sliver Decomposes to form the metal, silver, nitrogen Silver carbonate does not exist since it Silver hydroxide does not exist since it is
dioxide and oxygen: is too unstable. too unstable
2AgNO (s) 2Ag(s)  2NO (g)  O (g)

3 2 2
When some metal compounds are heated and they decompose, colour changes
are obser ved. For example, when the compounds of copper are heated they
change colour from blue or blue-green to black because black copper(II) oxide
is formed in each reaction. When compounds of lead are heated, they change
colour from white to yellow because yellow lead(II) oxide is produced. Tests
given in Table 22.3.1 on page 354 can be used to identify the oxygen, nitrogen
dioxide, carbon dioxide and water vapour produced when metal compounds
decompose.
Looking at t he decomposition of metal compounds we can see t hat potassium
and sodium form stable compounds which do not decompose on heating or,
in t he case of t he nitrates, only decompose slightly. However, silver forms
compounds which are too unstable to exist or, in t he case of silver nitrate,
decomposes ver y easily and completely when heated.
Investigating the decomposition of metal compounds
You will be supplied with samples of sodium nitrate, calcium nitrate, sodium carbonate, copper( II) carbonate,
magnesium hydroxide, lime water, a wooden splint, a piece of blue litmus paper, a piece of cobalt chloride paper
and dry test tubes, one tted with a cork which has a delivery tube running through it.
290
Characteristics of metals Reactions of metal compounds
Method
1 Place a spatula of sodium nitrate into a test tube and heat strongly until you see vigorous effervescence. While
still heating test for the presence of oxygen by inserting a glowing splint slowly into the tube.
2 Repeat step 1 using calcium nitrate in place of sodium nitrate. This time test for oxygen when a brown gas
begins to be produced. Place a piece of moist blue litmus paper into the brown gas. Take care not to inhale the
fumes. If you have a fume cupboard available, you should do this in the fume cupboard.
3 Place a spatula of copper( II) carbonate into a test tube. Place the cork into the mouth of the tube with the other
end of the delivery tube leading into a test tube containing lime water (see Figure 8.1.2). Heat the test tube
strongly and observe the lime water.
4 Repeat step 3 using sodium carbonate in place of copper( II) carbonate.
5 Place a spatula of magnesium hydroxide in a test tube and heat strongly. Place a piece of dry cobalt chloride
paper across the mouth of the tube.
6 Describe what you saw when each compound was heated.
7 Which compound did not decompose? Explain why.
8 Explain the colour change you saw when you heated copper( II) carbonate.
9 Write balanced chemical equations for the decomposition reactions.
Summary questions
1 Write a balanced chemical equation for each of the following:
a the reaction between magnesium hydroxide and nitric acid
b the reaction between copper( II) carbonate and hydrochloric acid
c the reaction between zinc oxide and sulfuric acid.
2 Describe and explain the colour change which occurs when copper( II)
oxide is put into sulfuric acid and heated gently.
3 Write balanced chemical equations to show the effect of heat on the
following metal compounds:
a calcium carbonate
b potassium nitrate
c zinc hydroxide
d lead( II) nitrate.
291
Key concepts
● Metals are elements whose atoms have a small number of valence
electrons, usually 1, 2 or 3, and t hey form positive cations in chemical
reactions by losing t hese valence electrons.
● A metal lattice is composed of metal cations surrounded by a ‘sea’ of
delocalised electrons.
● The electrostatic attraction between positive cations and delocalised
negative electrons, known as t he metallic bond, holds t he metal lattice
toget her.
● n general, metals have high melting points and boiling points, conduct
electricity and heat, have a shiny lustre, are malleable and ductile and
have high densities.
● The proper ties of metals can be explained by relating t hem to t he
str ucture of t he metallic lattice.
● Metals form positive cations in chemical reactions by losing valence
electrons. As a result t hey form ionic compounds
● Metals behave as reducing agents in reactions.
● Metals react wit h oxygen to form metal oxides.
● f metal oxides can dissolve in water t hey form alkaline solutions.
● Potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium react wit h water to form
t he metal hydroxide and hydrogen.
● Ot her metals, except copper, react wit h steam to form t he metal oxide
and hydrogen.
● Reactive metals react wit h hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid to form a
salt and hydrogen.
● Metal oxides react wit h acids to form a salt and water. The reaction is a
neutralisation reaction.
● Metal hydroxides react wit h acids to form a salt and water. The reaction
is also a neutralisation reaction.
● Metal carbonates react wit h acids to form a salt, carbon dioxide and
water.
● The nitrates of potassium and sodium decompose when heated to form
t he metal nitrite and oxygen.
● The nitrates of ot her metals, except silver, decompose when heated to
form t he metal oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.
● Silver nitrate decomposes when heated to form silver, nitrogen dioxide
and oxygen.
● The carbonates and hydroxides of potassium and sodium are not
decomposed when heated.
● The carbonates of ot her metals, except silver, decompose when heated
to form t he metal oxide and carbon dioxide. Silver carbonate does not
exist.
● The hydroxides of metals, except silver, decompose when heated to form
t he metal oxide and water as steam. Silver hydroxide does not exist.
292
Characteristics of metals Practice exam-style questions
i) Complete t he table by writing in t he missing

information. (3 marks)
ii) Using t he symbols A and B, as shown in t he
table above, write balanced equations for t he
1 All metals: following:
 are solid at room temperature – t he reaction between A and steam
 lose electrons when t hey react – t he reaction between B and hydrochloric
 form soluble basic oxides when they react with oxygen acid
– t he reaction between A and oxygen.

A  only
(5 marks)
B  and  only
b i) When most nitrates are heated, one or two

C  and  only
gases may be given off. From t he nitrates of

D  and  only
t he metals calcium, sodium, zinc and copper,
2 The following statements are all tr ue except:

select ONE nitrate t hat:
A When calcium reacts wit h cold water it forms calcium

– gives off ONE gas
hydroxide and hydrogen.

– gives off T WO gases. (2 marks)
B ron reacts more vigorously t han zinc wit h hydrochloric

ii) Write t he equation for t he reaction which
acid.
gives off T WO gases above. (2 marks)
C Magnesium burns readily in air.

c An unknown metal, Z, was found to react in a ver y
D When silver nitrate decomposes it forms silver.

similar way to magnesium. How would t he action
of heat on t he carbonate of Z differ from t he

3 Metals can conduct an electric current because:
action of heat on sodium carbonate?

A t he atoms in t he metal vibrate
Give t he relevant equation(s) given t hat Z forms

B t he cations in t he metal lattice are mobile
2
t he Z ion. (3 marks)
C t here are small spaces between t he atoms in t he metal
lattice which allow electricity to pass t hrough Total 15 marks
D some of t he electrons in t he metal lattice are mobile
4 Which of t he following is a tr ue statement?
A Metals react wit h oxygen in t he air to form acidic oxides. 8 a Metals have cer tain physical proper ties in
B All metal hydroxides decompose when heated. common. They are good conductors of electricity,
C Magnesium carbonate decomposes into magnesium t hey are malleable and ductile and t hey have
oxide and carbon dioxide when heated. high melting points. By reference to t he bonding
D Copper reacts readily wit h hydrochloric acid. in metals, explain t he reason for EACH of t he
proper ties listed. (6 marks)
5 Zinc liberates hydrogen gas from:
b Zinc carbonate, copper(II) oxide and magnesium
 cold water
hydroxide are each treated wit h excess dilute
 steam
nitric acid in t hree separate experiments. Discuss
 sulfuric acid
EACH reaction using t he following sub-titles:
A  and  only
i) obser vations on adding dilute nitric acid
B  and  only
ii) explanation of t he obser vations
C ,  and 
iii) equation for t he reaction. (9 marks)
D  only
Total 15 marks
6 When sodium nitrate cr ystals are heated:
A t hey melt but do not decompose
B t hey form a brown, acidic gas
C t hey form a gas which relights a glowing splint
D t hey evolve a gas which causes a lighted splint to be
extinguished wit h a squeaky pop
Structured question
7 a The table below gives some information about two
metals, A and B, and t heir reactions.
Charge on the Action of dilute hydrochloric acid
Metal Action of water on the metal Action of air on the metal
metal ion on the metal
A 2 Does not react with cold or hot water Burns when heated strongly, especially
but does react with steam if powdered
B  Reacts violently
293
Reactivity, extraction and
C18
uses of metals
Metals vary considerably in their reactivity. Some are

Objectives
so reactive that they must be stored out of contact

be able to:
with oxygen or moisture in the air. Others are extremely
● discuss the reactivity of metals

unreactive. The reactive metals occur in the Earth’s
● describe displacement
crust in ionic compounds from which they are extracted.

reactions between metals and
metal compounds These compounds are known as ores. The unreactive
● explain the basis of the
ones occur in the Earth’s crust in their elemental state.
reactivity series of metals
Metals are used extensively by man to make many

● deduce the order of
reactivity of metals based on

of the things we see around us and this makes their
experimental results.
extraction extremely important.
C18.1 The reactivity of metals
t is possible to determine t he reactivity series of metals by looking at t heir
reactions. The reactivity series of metals is a list of metals arranged in order
from t he most reactive to t he least reactive based on t he following:
● t he strengt h of t heir reactions wit h oxygen, water and dilute
hydrochloric acid or dilute sulfuric acid
● how easily t heir compounds are decomposed when heated
● displacement reactions between t he metals and metal compounds.
We will now look at each of t hese.
Strength of reaction with oxygen, water and
dilute acids
You studied t he reactions of a variety of metals wit h oxygen, water and dilute
acids in Unit 17.2. Looking at t hese we can see cer tain trends.
● Potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium appear to be t he most
reactive metals wit h oxygen, water and hydrochloric and
sulfuric acid.
● Copper is t he least reactive metal wit h oxygen and it does not react
wit h steam or dilute acid. Silver does not react wit h oxygen, water or
dilute acids.
● Star ting from potassium, t he strengt h of t he reaction of t he metals
wit h oxygen, water and dilute acid decreases in t he following order:
potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, copper and
nally silver.
n Unit 4 you learnt t hat t he reactivity of a metal is determined by how
easily its atoms ionise, known as ease of ionisation . The more easily a metal
ionises, t he more reactive it is. Of t he metals studied, potassium is t he most
reactive metal because it ionises t he most easily and silver is t he least reactive
because it ionises t he least easily.
294
Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals The reactivity of metals
Decomposition of metal compounds
We studied t he decomposition of metal compounds in Unit 17.3. Looking at
t hese reactions we can again see cer tain trends.
● The ver y reactive metals, potassium and sodium, form fairly stable
compounds. Their carbonates and hydroxides are so stable t hat t hey are
not decomposed when heated and t heir nitrates are decomposed only
ver y slightly.
● The compounds of silver are extremely unstable such t hat silver
carbonate and silver hydroxide are too unstable to exist and silver nitrate
decomposes ver y easily when heated.
● Compounds of t he ot her metals decompose when heated. Star ting
from t he compounds of calcium, t he ease of decomposition of t he
compounds increases in t he following order: calcium, magnesium, zinc,
aluminium, iron, lead and nally copper.
From t his it can be seen t hat t he more reactive t he metal is, t he more stable
are its compounds. The less reactive t he metal is, t he less stable are its
compounds and t he more easily t hey decompose. This is because t he reactive
metals ionise easily and t he ions t hey form are ver y stable. This makes t heir
compounds ver y stable. The less reactive metals do not ionise easily and
t he ions t hey form are unstable. This means t hat t heir compounds are also
unstable.
Displacement reactions
A d isplacement reaction occurs when a metal in its free state (chemically
uncombined) takes t he place of (displaces) anot her metal from a compound.
A more reactive metal will always displace a less reactive metal from its
compounds.
f a more reactive metal is placed in a solution containing ions of a less
reactive metal, t he more reactive metal will ionise and t he ions of t he less
reactive metal will be d ischarged to form atoms. As a result, a precipitate of
t he less reactive metal will form on t he surface of t he more reactive metal.
This of ten drops off into t he solution when disturbed and t he more reactive
metal gradually decreases in size. Depending on t he nature of t he solution, it
may also undergo a colour change as t he reaction proceeds.
Displacement reactions are exothermic reactions . The greater t he
difference in t he reactivity of t he two metals, t he more heat is produced in
t he reaction.
A displacement reaction can be summarised by t he following general
equation:
A  BX AX  B
more less
reactive reactive
t han B t han A
n
● A is more reactive t han B. A ionises to form A ions:
n
A A  ne
n
● B is less reactive t han A. The B ions are discharged to form B atoms:
n
B  ne B
295
The reactivity of metals Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals
Displacement reactions are also redox reactions . The more reactive metal
acts as a reducing agent because it gives electrons to t he ions of t he less

Did you know?
?
reactive metal. The more reactive t he metal is, t he more powerful it is as a
It is possible to make a ‘silver tree’ reducing agent.
by placing a coil of copper wire into
a solution of silver nitrate. Copper is

Example
more reactive than silver, therefore,
it displaces the silver from the The reaction between magnesium and copper(II) sulfate solution:
silver nitrate and after a while silver

4 4
is deposited on the copper wire
forming a beautiful ‘tree’. Magnesium is more reactive t han copper, t herefore, t he magnesium ionises
2
and t he Mg ions enter t he solution.
2
Mg(s) Mg (aq)  2e
2
The Cu ions in t he copper(II) sulfate solution are discharged forming
copper atoms:
2
A pink precipitate of copper builds up on t he magnesium and drops off into
t he solution when disturbed. The magnesium becomes smaller and t he blue
2
colour of t he solution gradually fades as t he blue Cu ions are discharged.
The overall ionic equation for t he reaction is:
2 2
Mg(s)  Cu (aq) Mg (aq)  Cu(s)
 Figure 18.1.1 When copper is placed
into a solution containing silver ions,

Investigating displacement reactions
silver is deposited on the copper
You will be supplied with clean samples of the following metals of
approximately the same size: magnesium, zinc and copper, magnesium
sulfate solution, zinc sulfate solution, copper( II) sulfate solution and six test
tubes.
Method
1 Place about 5 cm magnesium sulfate solution into each of two test
3 3
tubes, 5 cm of zinc sulfate solution into another two tubes and 5 cm
of copper( II) sulfate solution into the last two tubes. Measure and record
the temperature of each solution.
2 Add a piece of magnesium to the zinc sulfate and the copper( II) sulfate
solutions, a piece of zinc to the magnesium sulfate and the copper( II)
sulfate solutions and a piece of copper to the magnesium sulfate and
the zinc sulfate solutions.
3 Gently shake each tube periodically and observe what occurs in
each. If a displacement reaction occurs, it should be possible to see
the displaced metal deposited on the metal you added and possibly
dropping off from the metal into the solution when shaken.
4 After 10 minutes, measure the temperature of the contents of each
tube. If the temperature of any tube increases, calculate the increase.
296
Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals The reactivity of metals
5 Observe the colour of the copper( II) sulfate solution in each tube after
about 30 minutes.
6 Record your observations and any temperature increases in a table
similar to the one outlined below. The dash indicates that the reaction
was not carried out. If no reaction occurred, place a cross in the
appropriate place.
Observations on adding
Magnesium Zinc Copper
Magnesium sulfate
solution
Zinc sulfate solution –
Copper(II) sulfate solution –
7 Using the information from the table, draw up a list of the three metals
so that the most reactive metal occurs at the top and the least reactive
metal appears at the bottom.
8 Why was the temperature increase greater when magnesium was
placed in copper( II) sulfate solution than when it was placed in zinc
sulfate solution?
9 Write balanced chemical equations for each reaction that occurred.
10 Explain the following:
a why a reaction occurred between magnesium and copper( II) sulfate
solution
b why no reaction occurred between copper and zinc sulfate solution
c why the blue colour of the solution faded in the reaction between
zinc and copper( II) sulfate solution.
most reactive
potassium
magnesium zinc copper(II)

sodium
sulfate solution sulfate solution sulfate solution
calcium
magnesium
aluminium
zinc
iron
lead
(hydrogen)
copper
 Figure 18.1.2 The displacement reactions of various metals with metal salts
mercury
silver
The reactivity series of metals

gold
The reactivity series of some of t he common metals, drawn up from t he
strengt h of t he reactions of t he metals wit h oxygen, water and dilute acids,

least reactive
t he ease of decomposition of t he metal compounds and displacement
 Figure 18.1.3 The reactivity series of
reactions, is given in Figure 18.1.3.

metals
297
The reactivity of metals Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals
Potassium, at t he top, is t he most reactive. t ionises t he most easily and forms
t he most stable ions which are ver y hard to discharge. Gold, at t he bottom, is
Exam tip
✔
t he least reactive. t ionises wit h great difculty and forms ver y unstable ions
It is really important that you learn which are ver y easy to discharge.
the order of reactivity of the
We can use t he reactivity series of metals to make cer tain predictions
metals in the reactivity series.
● We can predict how any metal will react if its position in t he reactivity
series is known. For example, if a metal occurs between calcium and
magnesium it will react less vigorously t han calcium wit h oxygen,
water and dilute acids but more vigorously t han magnesium. The metal
will also not displace calcium but will displace magnesium from t heir
compounds.
● We can predict what position a metal will occupy in t he reactivity series if
t he way it reacts is known. For example, if a metal is found to react more
vigorously wit h dilute hydrochloric acid t han zinc and is also found
to displace zinc from zinc sulfate solution but not magnesium from
magnesium sulfate solution, t hen t he metal must occur above zinc but
below magnesium.
f two metals are ver y similar in t he way t hey react, t hen it is easy to determine
which is higher in t he series by carr ying out displacement reactions between
t he two metals and t heir compounds. The higher metal will always displace
t he lower metal from its compounds.
Hydrogen is included in t he reactivity series even t hough it is a non-metal.
We can use t he position of hydrogen to predict how metals will react wit h
acids since acids contain t he hydrogen ion, H :
● if a metal is above hydrogen in t he reactivity series, t hen it will react

Exam tip
✔
wit h t he acid because it displaces t he hydrogen in t he acid
It is important that you know how

● if a metal is below hydrogen in t he reactivity series, it will not react wit h
to deduce the order of reactivity

t he acid because it will not displace t he hydrogen in t he acid
of metals based on experimental
● t he higher up t he metal is in t he series, i.e. t he fur t her it is away from
results or data supplied.
hydrogen, t he more vigorous t he reaction will be wit h an acid.
Summary questions
1 Why is sodium more reactive than copper?
2 Why don’t potassium carbonate and sodium carbonate decompose
when heated?
3 Would a reaction occur if:
a a piece of clean magnesium ribbon was placed into copper( II)
sulfate solution
b a clean piece of copper was placed into sodium sulfate solution?
If a reaction occurs, explain why and give a balanced equation for the
reaction.
4 Explain the benet of including hydrogen in the reactivity series of
metals even though it is a non-metal.
5 Metal A will react with a solution containing ions of metal B but will not
react with a solution containing ions of metal C. Write metals A, B and
C in their correct order of reactivity from the most reactive to the least
reactive.
298
Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals The extraction of metals
C18.2 The extraction of metals Objectives
The ver y unreactive metals occur in t he Ear t h’s cr ust in t heir free elemental
be able to:
state, e.g. silver and gold, and can, t herefore, be mined directly from t he
● explain how the position of a
Ear t h. Most metals, however, occur combined wit h ot her elements in impure
metal in the reactivity series
ionic compounds and t hey t hen have to be extracted from t hese compounds.
determines its extraction
Compounds from which metals can be extracted are known as ores. The
method
most impor tant ores are metal oxides, suldes and carbonates.
● describe the extraction of
The extraction of a metal from its ore is a reduction process because t he

aluminium
positive metal cations have to be discharged to form atoms by gaining

● describe the extraction of iron.
electrons:
n
M  ne M
The actual met hod used depends on t he position of t he metal in t he reactivity
series.
● Metals high in t he reactivity series, i.e. potassium, sodium, calcium,
magnesium and aluminium, form ver y stable ions which are difcult to
reduce. They need a powerful met hod of reduction. The most powerful
met hod is electrolysis of the molten ore . This met hod uses t he most
energy and is t he most expensive.
● Metals lower down in t he reactivity series, i.e. zinc and below, form less
stable ions which are easier to reduce t han t hose high in t he series.
They need a less powerful met hod of reduction which involves heating
the ore with a reducing agent such as carbon, carbon monoxide or
hydrogen. This met hod uses less energy t han electrolysis and is less
expensive.
Extraction of aluminium
Aluminium is t he t hird most abundant in t he Ear t h’s cr ust af ter oxygen and
silicon, and t he most abundant metal. The main ore from which aluminium
is extracted is known as bauxite. Bauxite is impure, hydrated aluminium
oxide, Al O xH O. There are large bauxite reser ves in bot h Jamaica and
2 3 2
Guyana. Af ter t he bauxite has been mined, it is puried to form pure,
anhydrous aluminium oxide, also known as alumina, Al O . The alumina

2 3
is t hen expor ted, mainly to Canada and t he USA , where t he aluminium is
extracted by electrolysis
The electrolysis of alumina takes place in a large steel tank lined with carbon
(graphite), which forms an electrolytic cell. The carbon lining acts as the
negative cathode in the electrolysis process. n the middle of the tank there are
huge blocks of carbon, hung from above, which act as the positive anode.
An electrolytic cell used for t he extraction of aluminium is shown in
Figure 18.2.1.
carbon blocks
(positive anode)
steel cell
bubbles of
alumina dissolved
oxygen gas +
in molten cryolite
carbon lining molten aluminium
molten aluminium
(negative cathode) can be tapped off
 Figure 18.2.1 Extracting aluminium by

–
electrolysis
299
The extraction of metals Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals
The extraction process involves t he following steps:
1 The pure alumina (aluminium oxide) is dissolved in molten cryolite
at about 950 °C. Cr yolite is sodium aluminium uoride, Na AlF . The

3 6
alumina is dissolved in t he cr yolite because t he melting point of alumina
is extremely high, i.e. 2050 °C, and t he liquid formed when it melts is a
poor conductor. By dissolving it in molten cr yolite, its melting point is
reduced meaning less energy is required and t he solution produced is a
much better conductor of electricity. Once t he alumina has dissolved in
t he molten cr yolite, its ions are free to move.
2 The molten cryolite/alumina solution is electrolysed in the electrolytic cell:
● The aluminium ions move towards t he cat hode where t hey are
reduced to form aluminium atoms:
3
Al (l)  3e Al(l)
The molten aluminium t hat forms collects at t he bottom of t he cell
Did you know?
? and is tapped off. t is t hen made into sheets or blocks.
● The oxide ions move towards t he anode where t hey are oxidised to
The extraction of aluminium by
form oxygen gas:

electrolysis is an expensive process
2
since it requires energy to melt the
2O (l) O (g)  4e
2
cryolite, it uses huge amounts of
The oxygen gas t hat forms is released as bubbles. t forms carbon
electricity and replacing the anodes
dioxide by reacting wit h t he carbon anodes, and over time t he anodes
is costly.
need to be replaced since t hey disintegrate as a result of t he reaction.
Extraction of iron
The main ores from which iron is extracted are haematite and magnetite.
Haematite is impure iron(III) oxide, Fe O and magnetite is impure iron(II,

2 3
III) oxide Fe O . The extraction of iron from its ores involves reducing t he
3 4
ores using t he reducing agent, carbon monoxide , in a blast furnace.
A blast furnace for t he extraction of iron is shown in Figure 18.2.2. t is a
chimney shaped tower t hat can be up to 30 m tall.
iron ore, limestone
and coke
hot waste gases released;

hot waste
they are used to heat the

gases
air that enters the furnace

released
iron(III) oxide meets
carbon monoxide
hot air is
hot air is blasted

blasted into the
into the furnace

furnace
molten slag from the reaction of silicon dioxide
slag can be
and calcium oxide
molten iron
drained off
iron is tapped off
 Figure 18.2.2 A blast furnace used for extracting iron
300
Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals The extraction of metals
The extraction process
The following steps are involved in t he extraction of iron from its ores.
1 A mixture of iron ore, limestone and coke is added t hrough t he top of
t he furnace. The limestone is calcium carbonate and coke is t he name
given to a substance t hat is made from coal which is mainly carbon. The
mixture is known as ‘t he charge’.
2 Hot air is blown in t hrough t he bottom of t he furnace.
3 At t he bottom of t he furnace, t he coke burns in t he hot air forming
carbon dioxide:
C(s)  O (g) CO (g) ΔH ve

2 2
The reaction is exot hermic and keeps t he temperature at t he bottom of
t he furnace at about 1900 °C. The carbon dioxide rises fur t her up t he
furnace.
4 n t he middle of t he furnace, t he carbon dioxide reacts wit h more coke to
form carbon monoxide:
CO (g)  C(s) 2CO(g)

2
The carbon monoxide t hen rises fur t her up t he furnace.
5 n t he upper part of t he furnace, t he carbon monoxide t hen reduces t he

Did you know?
?
iron ores to iron:
The iron that runs out of the bottom
Fe O (s)  3CO(g) 2Fe(l)  3CO (g)

2 3 2
of the blast furnace flows into a
series of moulds that branch off

or
from the main channel. These
Fe O (s)  4CO(g) 3Fe(l)  4CO (g)

3 4 2
moulds resemble a litter of suckling
piglets in the way that the piglets lie

The molten iron r uns to t he bottom of t he furnace where it is tapped
next to each other when they are
off. This iron contains a fairly high percentage of carbon (about 4%), as
feeding from a sow. This is why the
well as ot her impurities such as silicon and phosphor us, and is known as
iron that is tapped off from the blast
‘pig iron’. Most of t he pig iron is t hen puried and conver ted into steel,
furnace is known as ‘pig iron’.
an alloy of iron.
 Figure 18.2.3 ‘Pig iron’ gets its name from the moulds in which liquid iron collects.
These moulds resemble a litter of suckling piglets.
The function of the limestone
ron ore contains a lot of impurities, mainly silicon dioxide (sand), which
would eventually build up and ‘clog up’ t he blast furnace. Limestone is added
to remove t he silicon dioxide. The steps involved are as follows:
● The heat in t he upper part of t he blast furnace causes t he calcium
carbonate to decompose forming calcium oxide and carbon dioxide:

3 2
301
Uses of metals and their alloys Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals
● The calcium oxide, being basic, then reacts with the acidic silicon dioxide
to form calcium silicate, CaSiO . Calcium silicate is also known as slag:

3
CaO(s)  SiO (s) CaSiO (l)

2 3
slag
The slag melts and r uns down to the bottom of the blast furnace where it
forms a layer above the molten iron and is tapped off separately. t is then
used in road building or can be nely ground and mixed with cement.
n t he extraction of iron it is possible to use carbon or hydrogen in place of
carbon monoxide as t he reducing agent to reduce t he iron ore, for example,
t he spat steel plant in Por t Lisas, Trinidad, uses hydrogen. Hydrogen is ideal
since it produces water vapour as a product and no ot her harmful gases.
Pollution problems associated wit h t he use of coke, such as t he release of
carbon dioxide and ot her waste gases into t he atmosphere, are avoided wit h
t he use of hydrogen.
Summary questions
1 Why are different methods used to extract aluminium and iron
from their ores?
2 a Name the ore from which aluminium is extracted.

A
b Outline the process by which aluminium is extracted from the ore
named in a above.
3 The diagram shows a blast furnace:
a What are the three materials that are added to the top of the blast iron ore
reduced
furnace at A in the extraction of iron?
to iron
b What is removed at B and C?
c Explain why air is blown into the blast furnace.
molten iron
d The carbon monoxide acts as a reducing agent when it reacts with
the iron( III) oxide. What does this mean?
e Why is it easy to remove the slag?

hot air hot air
4 Write the balanced chemical equation to show how
iron(III) oxide is converted to iron in the blast furnace.

B
Objectives
C18.3 Uses of metals and their alloys

be able to:
Metals are used extensively by man. The use of a metal is directly linked to
● describe the uses of aluminium,

its par ticular proper ties, especially its physical proper ties. Metals are used
lead and iron

because t hey are strong and last a relatively long time. They are also shiny,
● relate the uses of aluminium,

malleable and ductile, have high densities and can conduct electricity and
lead and iron to their properties

heat. All of t hese proper ties make metals par ticularly useful. Metals can also
● explain what an alloy is

be mixed wit h ot her metals to make alloys. This is done to improve or modify
● explain why metal alloys are

t he proper ties of t he metals.
often used in place of the metals
● describe the uses of aluminium,
Uses of metals
iron and lead alloys
● relate the uses of aluminium,

n t his unit we will look at t he uses of t hree metals, aluminium, lead
iron and lead alloys to their

and iron.
properties.
302
Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals Uses of metals and their alloys
Aluminium
Aluminium is a par ticularly useful metal because it has a t hin layer of
aluminium oxide on its surface. This layer adheres to t he metal and makes
it ver y resistant to corrosion (Unit 19). Because of t his, aluminium is used to
produce louvred windows and window frames, which can resist corrosion
when t hey are exposed to oxygen and moisture in t he air. Anot her major use
of aluminium is to make aluminium cans used as containers to store food
and drink.
 Figure 18.3.1 Aluminium is used to  Figure 18.3.2 Aluminium cans  Figure 18.3.3 Aluminium can be used
make louvred windows are used to store drinks to make saucepans
Aluminium is a good conductor of electricity which enables it to be used
in overhead power cables. These cables have a steel core down t he centre to Did you know?
?
strengt hen t hem. Aluminium is also a good conductor of heat which makes
There was a time when aluminium

it useful to make saucepans. Aluminium foil is used for cooking since it is
was considered more precious than

protected by t he t hin, unreactive layer of aluminium oxide and it has a
gold. Napoleon III was believed

highly reective surface t hat allows it to reect heat back into t he food, t hus
to have held a banquet where
keeping it warm for a longer period of time.
the honoured guests were given
Aluminium has t he disadvantage t hat it is not t he strongest of metals. For aluminium utensils to eat with while
t his reason it is usually alloyed wit h ot her metals to make it stronger. We will the other guests were only given
gold utensils.
be discussing some of t he uses of aluminium alloys in t he next section.
Lead
As one of t he rst metals to be discovered, lead has been used for several
t housand years. The largest use of lead today is in lead–acid batteries because
it is highly resistant to corrosion and conducts electricity. A typical 12-volt
batter y used in motor vehicles consists of six cells. Each cell has an anode
made of lead alloyed wit h a small quantity of antimony, a cat hode made of
lead(IV) oxide (PbO ) and an electrolyte of sulfuric acid. Chemical reactions

2
occurring in each cell produce electricity. Since t he reactions are reversible,
t he batter y can be recharged.
Anot her impor tant use of lead is as a radiation shield around X-ray equipment
and nuclear reactors because X-rays and nuclear radiation do not penetrate
 Figure 18.3.4 A lead–acid battery
t hrough it. Whenever you have an X-ray taken you are given a lead apron to
wear which shields you from t he harmful effects of t he X-rays.
Iron
Today, iron is t he most widely used of all met als because of its high
abundance, low cost and high strengt h. However, because pure iron is quite
303
sof t it is usually hardened by alloying it wit h carbon to for m steel . Pure
iron, commercially known as wrought iron, has been used for centur ies
Did you know?
?
to make a var iety of or nament al str uctures, suc h as fur niture, lighting
The word plumbing was derived  xtures, gates and railings. Most items descr ibed as wrought iron today
from the Latin plumbum, meaning

are actually made of mild steel because it is easier and c heaper to produce
lead. Plumbing was originated by

t han wrought iron. The descr iption wrought iron is still used because
ancient civilisations such as Roman

t hese items have t he bent and shaped appearance of items for merly made
and Greek as they developed
of wrought iron.
public baths, piped drinking water
and drainage systems. Some
historians have speculated that
the decline of the Roman Empire
was due to lead from water pipes
getting into the water supply and
causing widespread lead poisoning.
Exam tip
✔
 Figure 18.3.5 Wrought iron gates

It is important that you can relate
the uses of metals and their alloys
The uses of metals and t he proper ties t hat make t hem par ticularly suitable
to their physical properties
for each use are summarised in Table 18.3.1.
 Table 18.3.1 Properties and uses of metals
Metal Use Properties
Aluminium • to make overhead electrical • good conductor of electricity, resistant to
cables (with a steel core) corrosion, light in weight, ductile
• to make saucepans • good conductor of heat, resistant to
corrosion, non-toxic, light in weight,
attractive appearance
• to make aluminium cans to store • resistant to corrosion, non-toxic, light in
food and drink weight, malleable
• to make window frames • resistant to corrosion
• to make foil for cooking • unreactive (due to the aluminium oxide
coating), therefore does not react with food,
non-toxic, highly reflective
• manufacture of aluminium alloys • easily alloyed with other metals
Lead • to make lead–acid batteries, e.g. • good conductor of electricity, resistant to
car batteries corrosion
• as a radiation shield • high density prevents radiation from
penetrating through
• to make weights, e.g. fishing • high density, malleable
weights, keel weights for sailboats
• manufacture of lead alloys • easily alloyed with other metals
Wrought • to produce ornamental iron work • malleable and ductile, therefore easily
iron shaped, easily welded, strong therefore
(rarely used) resistant to stress
• manufacture of steel • easily alloyed with carbon and other metals
304
Alloys and their uses
There are many situations where metals are not used in t heir pure form. More
atoms of the
t han one metal may be combined to produce a mixture of metals known as

original metal
an alloy. Sometimes a non-metal may also be added.
atoms of the
alloying element
To make an alloy, t he metals are heated, mixed t horoughly and cooled so
t hat t hey solidify again. Alloys are solid metallic solutions. The pur pose of  Figure 18.3.6 Structure of an alloy
making an alloy is to improve t he proper ties of t he metals or to modify t heir
proper ties. Alloys are usually harder, stronger and more resistant to corrosion
Did you know?

t han t he original metals.
?
The atoms of t he metals t hat are mixed are usually of different sizes. Even
Brass is a copper alloy consisting
if t hey are only slightly different in size, t he regular packing of atoms is

of about 70% copper and 30%
changed and it makes it more difcult for t he atoms to slide over each ot her zinc. It is used to manufacture
when a force is applied. This is why alloys are harder and stronger t han t he electrical pins for plugs since it is
stronger than copper and to make

metals alone.
musical instruments due to being
We will now look at t he alloys of aluminium, lead and iron.
malleable and having very good
acoustic properties.
Aluminium alloys
Aluminium is of ten mixed wit h copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon
and zinc to produce different alloys. Two of t he most common alloys of
Did you know?
aluminium are duralumin and magnalium. The composition, uses and

?
proper ties of duralumin and magnalium are given in Table 18.3.2.

Duralumin was developed and
patented by a German metallurgist
 Table 18.3.2 Composition, uses and properties of aluminium alloys
called Alfred W ilm in 1909.
Aluminium alloy Composition Uses Properties

Originally it was only made by a
Duralumin About 94% aluminium, In the construction of Stronger than aluminium German company called Dürener
4% copper with small aircraft and to make so it can withstand

Metallwerke. The name duralumin
amounts of magnesium precision tools greater stress, as light in
is a contraction of ‘Dürener’ and
and manganese weight as aluminium
‘Aluminium’. In 1917 during World
Magnalium About 95% aluminium Construction of aircraft Stronger, harder
War I, Hugo Junkers, a German
and 5% magnesium and automobile parts, and more resistant
aircraft designer, pioneered the use
to make metallic mirrors to corrosion than
of duralumin in the construction of

and scientific instruments aluminium, lighter in
weight than aluminium the J 7 fighter plane.
Did you know?
Iron can be alloyed with a variety
of metals to form what are known
as specialist steels. For example,
 Figure 18.3.7 Duralumin is strong and lightweight and is used to construct aircraft
titanium steel is an alloy of iron and
titanium, manganese steel is an
Iron alloys
alloy of iron and manganese and
cobalt steel is an alloy of iron and

The building industr y makes extensive use of iron, usually in t he form of
cobalt. Each steel has specialist

steel. Steel is an alloy of iron wit h carbon or various ot her metals. There are
uses; titanium steel can withstand
quite a few different types of steel. Steels formed by alloying iron wit h carbon
very high temperatures so is used
are known as carbon steels. Generally t he amount of carbon in carbon steels
to make spacecrafts, cobalt steel
varies between 0.1% and 1.5%. As t he carbon content increases, t he steel
is magnetised easily so is used to
becomes harder but less malleable and ductile and t herefore becomes more
make magnets.
brittle and harder to weld.
305
The composition, uses and proper ties of some of t he common alloys of iron
are given in Table 18.3.3.
 Table 18.3.3 Composition, uses and properties of some iron alloys
Iron alloy Composition Uses Properties
Mild steel Contains less than 0.25% In the construction of Harder and stronger than
carbon buildings, bridges, ships iron, malleable and ductile
and motor vehicles. To so easily shaped, easy to
make wire, nails and ‘tin weld
cans’ to store food and
other items, i.e. ‘tin cans’
are made of steel coated
in a thin layer of tin to
prevent corrosion.
High carbon Contains between 0.25% To make cutting tools, drill Harder than mild steel, but
steel and 1.5% carbon bits, knives and masonry more brittle
nails
Stainless steel Typical values are about To make cutlery, cooking Hard, strong and much
70% iron, 20% chromium utensils, kitchen sinks, more resistant to corrosion
and 10% nickel hospital equipment, (rusting) than carbon
catering equipment steels. Has a shiny,
 Figure 18.3.8 Steel is widely used in

attractive appearance,
the construction industry

but is more expensive
to produce than carbon
steels.
Cast iron Contains about 4% To make small castings, Inexpensive and easy to
carbon e.g. manhole covers, cast into exact shapes.
railings, grates, cylinder Hard, but more brittle than
blocks in engines and steel, therefore it tends to
saucepans shatter rather than bend
when hit.
Lead alloys
Lead is of ten mixed wit h tin, antimony or copper to make alloys. One
common alloy of lead is lead solder. Lead solder is composed of about 60%
lead and 40% tin. t is used to join metallic items toget her. To do t his, t he
solder is melted so t hat it ows into t he joint between t he items. On cooling
t he solder solidies, joining t he items toget her. The melting points of t he
metals being joined must be higher t han t hat of t he lead solder.
By alloying lead wit h tin, t he lead solder produced has a lower melting point
t han lead and is also harder and stronger t han lead.
Summary questions
1 What properties of aluminium make it useful for:
a making overhead electrical cables
b making saucepans?
2 Other than making alloys, give two uses of lead and in each case explain
why lead is suitable for the use given.
3 What is an alloy?
4 What are the advantages of using an alloy rather than a pure metal?
5 Discuss two named alloys of aluminium by referring to the composition
and the uses of each.
306
Key concepts
● t is possible to determine t he reactivity series of metals by looking at t he strengt h of
t heir reactions wit h oxygen, water and dilute acids, how easily t heir compounds are
decomposed when heated, and displacement reactions between t he metals and metal
compounds.
● The more reactive t he metal, t he more stable its compounds.
● n a d isplacement reaction , a more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its
compounds.
● The reactivity series of t he common metals from t he most reactive to t he least reactive
is: potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, lead (hydrogen),
copper, mercur y, silver, gold.
● The position of hydrogen in t he reactivity series can be used to compare how cer tain
metals will react wit h dilute acids.
● The ver y unreactive metals occur in t he Ear t h’s cr ust in t heir free elemental state,
e.g. silver and gold, and can, t herefore, be mined directly from t he Ear t h.
● Most metals occur in t he Ear t h’s cr ust combined wit h ot her elements in impure ionic
compounds and t hey have to be extracted from t hese compounds.
● Compounds from which metals can be extracted are known as ores. The most impor tant
ores are metal oxides, suldes and carbonates.
● The extraction of a metal from its ore is a reduction process.
● Metals high in t he reactivity series, i.e. potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and
aluminium, form ver y stable ions which are difcult to reduce. They need a powerful
met hod of reduction, i.e. electrolysis of the molten ore .
● Metals lower down in t he reactivity series, i.e. zinc and below, form less stable ions which
are easier to reduce. They need a less powerful met hod of reduction, i.e. heating the ore
with a reducing agent
● Aluminium is extracted from its ore, bauxite, by electrolysis.
● Bauxite is impure, hydrated aluminium oxide, Al O xH O.

2 3 2
● During electrolysis, aluminium forms at t he cat hode and oxygen forms at t he anode.
● ron is extracted from its ores, haematite and magnetite by reducing t he ores using
carbon monoxide as t he reducing agent in a blast furnace.
● Haematite is impure iron( III) oxide, Fe O and magnetite is impure iron(II, III) oxide
2 3
Fe O
3 4
● Molten iron and molten slag, calcium silicate (CaSiO ), are produced in t he blast furnace.
3
● The physical proper ties of metals make t hem ver y useful to man.
● The main uses of aluminium are to make overhead electrical cables, saucepans, window
frames, aluminium storage cans and foil for cooking.
● The main use of lead is to make lead–acid batteries. t is also used to make radiation
shields and weights.
● The main use of iron is to manufacture steel.
● An alloy is a mixture of metals alt hough sometimes a non-metal can be added.
● Alloys are of ten more useful t han t he pure metal because t hey are harder, stronger and
more resistant to corrosion t han t he pure metal
● Duralumin and magnalium are alloys of aluminium. Their main use is in t he
constr uction of aircraf t.
● Steel is an alloy of iron wit h carbon or ot her elements. Different types of steel have
different proper ties and uses.
● Solder is an alloy of lead and tin. t is used to join metal items.
307
Practice exam-style questions Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals
iii) Explain your answer to a ii). (1 mark)

iv) What would be t he colour of t he solid
precipitate t hat was seen in t he bottom of t he
beaker af ter several hours? (1 mark)
v) Name t he type of reaction occurring in t he

1 Which of t he following reactions is likely to take place
beaker. (1 mark)
most readily?
vi) How would t he rate of t he reaction be affected

A Mg(s)  2AgNO (aq) Mg(NO ) (aq)  2Ag(s)
3 3 2
if t he zinc rod was replaced wit h a piece of

B Mg(s)  Pb(NO ) (aq) Mg(NO ) (aq)  Pb(s)
3 2 3 2
magnesium of t he same dimensions? (1 mark)

C Mg(s)  Cu(NO ) (aq) Mg(NO ) (aq)  Cu(s)
3 2 3 2
vii) Explain your answer to a vi) (2 marks)

D Mg(s)  Zn(NO ) (aq) Mg(NO ) (aq)  Zn(s)
3 2 3 2
b Anot her student carried out experiments 1 and 2
2 The met hod used to extract a metal from its ore is
below in order to determine t he relative reactivity
determined by:
of lead, iron and an unknown metal X, which has a
A t he melting point of t he metal
valency of 2.
B t he position of t he metal in t he reactivity series
Experiment 1: A piece of metal X was placed into a
C t he solubility of t he ore
solution of lead(II) nitrate. Metal X became coated
D t he electrical conductivity of t he molten ore
wit h lead.
Experiment 2: A piece of metal X was placed into a

3 Aluminium is extracted from alumina by:
solution of iron(II) sulfate. There was no change in

A reduction of molten alumina using carbon
t he appearance of metal X.
B reduction of alumina dissolved in cr yolite using
i) Use t he information given to place lead, iron and

carbon monoxide
metal X in order of reactivity, star ting wit h t he

C electrolysis of molten alumina
most reactive. (2 marks)

D electrolysis of alumina dissolved in molten cr yolite
ii) Write an ionic equation for t he reaction between
4 Which of t he following is a list of t he raw materials used
metal X and t he lead(II) nitrate solution.
in t he extraction of iron?
(2 marks)
A haematite, limestone, air, carbon monoxide
iii) How would you expect metal X to react wit h
B limestone, carbon dioxide, magnetite, coke
hydrochloric acid? (1 mark)
C haematite, air, limestone, coke
Total 15 marks
D coke, air, haematite, silicon dioxide
5 Which of t he following is most widely used in t he

constr uction industr y?
7 a Chemical and electrolytic reduction are t he two
A stainless steel
main met hods used to extract metals from t heir ores.
B mild steel
dentify ONE factor t hat determines t he met hod t hat
C duralumin
should be employed in t he extraction of metals from
D solder
t heir ores. Explain how t his factor determines t he
met hod to be used. (3 marks)
Structured question
b Outline t he main steps involved in t he extraction of
6 a A student places a zinc rod in a beaker containing

iron from its ore, iron(III) oxide. Your answer must
copper(II) sulfate solution and leaves it for several

include THREE relevant equations. Details of how t he
hours, gently shaking t he solution occasionally.

impurity, silicon dioxide, is removed are not required.
The diagrams below show what t he student saw at

(7 marks)
t he star t of t he experiment and t hen again af ter

c Stainless steel, an alloy of iron, is used to make
several hours.
cooking utensils.
i) What is an alloy? (1 mark)
ii) Suggest T WO reasons why stainless steel is used
to make cooking utensils instead of iron.
zinc rod zinc rod
(2 marks)
d Aluminium is anot her metal used to make alloys.

copper(II) solution
sulfate
solid precipitate Name ONE alloy of aluminium and give its main use.
solution
(2 marks)
start of the experiment after
experiment several hours
Total 15 marks
i) Explain why t he zinc rod decreased in size
during t he experiment. Give a relevant ionic
equation to suppor t your answer. (3 marks)
ii) What change would you expect to obser ve in t he
solution? (1 mark)
308
Metals in living systems and
C19
the environment
Some metals are extremely important in the lives of

Objectives
plants and animals, while others can cause severe

be able to:
poisoning if consumed and can have harmful effects
● explain what happens when

on the environment. Conversely, the environment can
metals corrode
have devastating effects on metals and can lead to their

● give the conditions necessary
corrosion. for metals to corrode
aluminium corrodes
C19.1 The corrosion of metals

iron rusts.
Metals, especially t hose used outdoors, tend to undergo cor rosion .
Cor rosion occurs when t he surface of t he metal g radually wears away due
to its reaction wit h c hemicals in t he environment, mainly oxygen and
moisture, and it is speeded up by t he presence of cer tain pollutants. n some
cases it may lead to t he tot al destr uction of t he metal object. When metals
cor rode, t hey are oxid ised to t heir oxides. They sometimes also for m salts,
e.g. carbonates are for med by t he reaction wit h carbon dioxide.
The rate at whic h most met als cor rode is linked to t he metal’s reactivity. n
general, t he more reactive t he metal, t he faster it will cor rode. Met als t hat
are used close to t he sea will tend to cor rode at an even faster rate t han
nor mal because of t he presence of sodium c hlor ide in t he atmosphere.
Aluminium and iron corrode wit h quite different results; t he corrosion of
aluminium is mostly benecial while t he corrosion of iron is detrimental.
We will now look at t he corrosion of bot h t hese metals in more detail.
The corrosion of aluminium
On exposure to air, a fresh piece of aluminium immediately forms a layer
of aluminium oxide , Al O . This layer adheres to t he metal below, does not

2 3
peel off and is relatively unreactive. As a result, it protects t he aluminium
from fur t her corrosion. t is because of t his aluminium oxide layer t hat
aluminium appears less reactive t han is predicted by its position in t he
reactivity series.
f a piece of aluminium is scratched and t he oxide layer is removed, it is
possible to see t he shiny metal underneat h. t does not take ver y long for
t hat shiny section to become dull as t he aluminium reacts wit h t he oxygen
in t he air again and renews its oxide lm.
Aluminium can be made even more resistant to corrosion by anod ising. This
is t he process by which t he t hickness of t he oxide layer on t he aluminium is
ar ticially thickened by electrolysis (Unit 10.5). The oxide layer gives added
advantages to t he aluminium; it makes t he surface harder and it readily
absorbs dyes, so anodised objects can be coloured attractively. Because of
t hese added advantages, anodised aluminium has a great many uses, from
making cookware such as pots and pans to protecting satellites from space
debris.
309
The corrosion of metals Metals in living systems and the environment
The corrosion of iron
On exposure to oxygen and moisture in t he air iron and steel objects
immediately begin to corrode to form mainly hydrated iron(III) oxide ,
Fe O xH O, which has an orange-brown colour. Hydrated iron(III) oxide is

2 3 2
commonly known as rust. Corrosion of iron and steel is known as rusting
n order for iron to r ust, bot h oxygen and water or moisture must be present.
t does not occur if only one is present. The r usting of iron can be bot h
damaging and costly. Unlike t he adherent coating of aluminium oxide t hat
 Figure 19.1.1 Rust formation on a

forms on t he surface of aluminium, r ust does not adhere to t he iron below.
padlock
Rust akes off and exposes fresh iron to oxygen and moisture. The newly
exposed iron t hen r usts and t he process continues and gradually wears away
t he iron.
To investigate what conditions are needed for rusting to occur
You will be supplied with three steel nails, some calcium chloride, some oil and three test tubes with corks.
Method
1 Place one nail into the rst test tube, add enough water to half cover the nail and cork the tube.
2 Place the second nail into a dry test tube. Add a small amount of calcium chloride and cork the tube.
The calcium chloride absorbs any moisture from the air in the tube.
3 Boil some water to remove the dissolved oxygen and allow it to cool quickly. Place the third nail into another
test tube and add enough of this boiled water to completely cover the nail. Gently pour some oil down the side
of the tube so that it forms a layer on top of the water. Cork the tube.
4 Leave the nails in the three test tubes for a few days and carefully observe any changes in the nails.
5 Record your observations in a suitable table.
6 What was the purpose of adding the oil layer to the third tube?
7 Which nail rusted the most? What conditions were present in this case?
8 Did any nails show no signs of rusting? If so, what condition was absent in each case?
9 What conclusion can you draw about the conditions necessary for rusting?
10 Explain how you could test whether a steel nail rusts more quickly in sea water or tap water.
air
air dry air
layer of oil
boiled water
steel nail
calcium
water
chloride
Test tube 1 Test tube 2 Test tube 3
 Figure 19.1.2 Investigating the conditions needed for rusting
310
Metals in living systems and the environment The impact of metals on living systems and the environment
Summary questions
1 What happens when a metal corrodes?
2 You are given the four metals copper, iron, zinc and aluminium.
a Which metal tends to appear less reactive than its position in the
reactivity series would suggest? Why is this?
b Which metal rusts?
3 What conditions must be present for rusting to occur?
4 Explain why aluminium and iron corrode differently.
5 Suggest reasons for the following.
a Metal railings made of iron tend to rust more at the bottom of the
railing than at the top.
b Pieces of iron on shipwrecks tend to rust very slowly when found
deep below the surface of the water.
C19.2 The impact of metals on living systems Objectives

and the environment
be able to:
Many metals and t heir compounds are extremely impor tant to living
● explain the importance of
organisms. However, cer tain metals and t heir compounds can have harmful
metals and their compounds in
effects on t he same living organisms and also on t he environment.
living organisms
● discuss the harmful effects of
The importance of metals and their compounds
metals and their compounds
Metal ions play a vital role in the functioning of living organisms. Some of on living organisms and the
these ions are required by the human body in amounts in excess of 100 mg per environment.
day, e.g. calcium, potassium, sodium and magnesium. These are sometimes
referred to as macro-minerals. Others are recommended in smaller amounts
for good health, these include manganese, iron, zinc, cobalt, copper,
molybdenum, selenium and chromium. These are referred to as micro-
minerals or trace minerals. Plants also require cer tain metal ions for healthy
growth. Some of the ions required by plants and animals are used to make
organometallic compounds , for example, chlorophyll and haemoglobin.
Table 19.2.1 summarises t he impor tance of cer tain metal ions in living
organisms.
 Table 19.2.1 The importance of metals and their compounds in living organisms
Metal ion Importance in living organisms
Magnesium Magnesium ions are necessary for the formation of chlorophyll in green plants.
Chlorophyll is the green pigment found in the chloroplasts of plant cells. It gives green
plant parts their colour. Chlorophyll is essential in plants to trap the sunlight energy
so that the plant can manufacture its own food by photosynthesis. The equation for
photosynthesis is given below:
sunlight energy
6CO (g)  6H O(l) C H O (aq)  6O (g)

2 2 6 12 6 2
absorbed by chlorophyll glucose
A shortage of magnesium causes the leaves of plants to become yellow, a condition
known as chlorosis
Magnesium ions are also required for more than 300 biochemical reactions in the
human body since they are essential for the functioning of many enzymes. The ions
play a vital role in the production of energy in cells, in the formation of strong bones
and teeth, in the transmission of nerve impulses and in the contraction of muscles.
311
The impact of metals on living systems and the environment Metals in living systems and the environment
 Table 19.2.1 (continued)
Metal ion Importance in living organisms
Iron Iron ions are necessary for the formation of haemoglobin in animals. Haemoglobin is
the red pigment found in the red blood cells. It is essential to carry oxygen around the
body. The oxygen is then used by the body cells in respiration to provide the body
with energy. The equation for respiration is given below:
C H O (aq)  6O (g) 6CO (g)  6H O(l)  energy

6 12 6 2 2 2
glucose
A shortage of iron leads to a reduction in the number of red blood cells in the body,
tiredness and a lack of energy, a condition known as anaemia
Calcium Calcium ions are necessary for the production of calcium phosphate in the body.
Calcium phosphate is needed to build strong bones and teeth. Calcium ions are also
necessary for the blood to clot at a cut.
A shortage of calcium leads to bones and teeth becoming soft and weak. It may also
lead to rickets, a condition in which the legs become bowed.
Zinc Zinc ions play an important part in the functioning of the immune system, in the
Key fact
healing of wounds, and in cell and tissue growth and repair.
Sodium and Sodium and potassium ions play an important role in the transmission of nerve
Pollution is the contamination of

potassium impulses and the contraction of muscles.
the natural environment by the
release of unpleasant and harmful
substances.
The harmful effects of metals and their compounds
Some of the same metals required by living organisms to maintain their
health become toxic to the same living organisms when their levels become
Did you know?

too high. Other metals, not required by living organisms, can also be toxic to
?
them. Many of these are in a group known as heav y metals, which mainly
The phrase ‘mad as a hatter’
includes the transition metals and some of the metalloids. All of these metals
was coined during the 1800s
occur naturally in ionic compounds, however, their concentrations within the
when mercury was used in the
environment are increasing due to pollution caused by man’s activities.
production of felt, which was then
used by felters to make hats. The

Heavy metal ions become par ticularly toxic when t hey form organometallic
felters were exposed daily to trace

compounds by combining wit h organic compounds, e.g. tetraet hyl lead and
levels of mercury. This gradually

met hyl mercur y. Table 19.2.2 summarises some metal ions t hat can have
accumulated in their bodies
harmful effects on t he human body.
causing them to develop symptoms
of dementia (madness).
 Table 19.2.2 Harmful effects of metals
Metal ion Sources in the environment Toxic effects
Lead Disused car batteries, car exhaust fumes Lead damages a variety of body
Did you know?
? when using leaded petrol, lead based tissues and organs, in particular the
paints. kidneys, bones and the nervous system,
Minamata disease was first especially the brain. It also interferes
with the normal formation of red blood

discovered in the city of Minamata,
cells leading to anaemia. It is especially

Japan, in 1956. It was caused
harmful to young children causing
by the release of methyl mercury
reduced IQ and potentially permanent
in industrial wastewater from a

learning disorders.
chemical factory into Minamata
Mercury Disused thermometers from hospitals Mercury damages the central nervous
Bay. This methyl mercury gradually
and laboratories, disused fluorescent system impairing muscular coordination,
built up in shellfish and fish in the

lights, industry, e.g. combustion of coal, hearing, sight, speech and the sense of
bay, which, when eaten by the extraction and refining of metals such as touch known as Minamata disease.
gold, manufacture of sodium hydroxide.

local population, resulted in severe
mercury poisoning and over 1700

Cadmium Disused nickel–cadmium batteries, Cadmium causes damage to the
cigarette smoke, industry, e.g. respiratory system, kidneys and liver. It

deaths.
combustion of fossil fuels, extraction and can also cause osteoporosis where the
refining of metals, manufacture of paint bones become weakened and fragile.
and certain plastics, e.g. PVC.
Arsenic Mining of certain metals, especially gold, Arsenic can cause cancer and skin
extraction and purification of metals, problems. It also damages the nervous
burning of fossil fuels, especially coal. system, heart and blood vessels.
312
Metals in living systems and the environment The impact of metals on living systems and the environment
Heav y metal ions are par ticularly harmful in t he environment because t hey
Did you know?

are persistent, i.e. t hey remain in t he environment and do not decay like
?
organic pollutants. They also have t he potential to build up in t he tissues
In general women need more
of living organisms, especially fatty tissue, and t hey concentrate up food
iron than men since they lose iron
chains, harming t he top consumers such as humans.
from their bodies each month in
haemoglobin during menstruation.

Consumption of sh, especially large sh, is t he major source of ingested
Also women must ensure that

mercury in humans due to mercur y concentrating up t he food chain. Small
they get adequate supplies of
sh eat plankton. f t his plankton contains small amounts of mercur y,
zinc during pregnancy since it is
t his mercur y gradually builds up in t he bodies of t he sh t hroughout t heir
essential for growth of the cells and
lifetime. Larger sh t hen eat t he smaller sh, constantly building up t he
tissues of the foetus.
mercur y in t heir bodies t hroughout t heir lifespan. This continues up t he
food chain to t he ver y large, long-lived sh such as sharks, marlin, tuna and
swordsh.
Disposal of solid waste containing heavy metals poses a serious problem
since t hese metals should not be allowed to enter t he environment. This
waste includes:
● lead–acid batteries from motor vehicles
● t hermometers containing mercur y from hospitals and laboratories
● compact uorescent light bulbs and ot her uorescent bulbs containing
mercur y vapour
● nickel–cadmium batteries.
These items should not be disposed of in landll sites because of t he possibility
of contaminating groundwater and nearby soil. They should also not be
incinerated because of t he possibility of releasing harmful gases containing
 Figure 19.2.1 Compact uorescent

t he metal ions into t he air. The problem of t heir disposal can be solved to a
light bulbs contain mercury vapour
large extent by recycling all items containing heavy metals.
Summary questions
1 What is haemoglobin? Why is it important in our bodies?
2 What is chlorophyll? Why is it important to plants?
3 Why are zinc and calcium important to humans?
4 a Name three different metals whose ions have negative effects on the
human body.
b Describe some of the negative effects of each metal named in a
5 Explain why it may be dangerous to consume large sh such as
swordsh or marlin.
313
The impact of metals on living systems and the environment Metals in living systems and the environment
Key concepts
● Metals, especially t hose used outdoors, tend to undergo corrosion.
● Corrosion occurs when t he surface of t he metal gradually wears away
due to its reaction wit h chemicals in t he environment, mainly oxygen
and moisture, and it is speeded up by t he presence of cer tain pollutants.
● When metals corrode, t hey are oxidised to t heir oxides and sometimes
t hey form salts.
● Reactive metals tend to corrode much faster t han t hose t hat are lower in
t he reactivity series.
● When aluminium corrodes it forms a layer of aluminium oxide which is
relatively unreactive and adheres to the metal below, protecting it from
fur t her corrosion.
● The layer of aluminium oxide can be t hickened by anod ising
● When iron corrodes it forms hydrated iron (III) oxide, also known as
rust
● n order for iron to r ust, bot h oxygen and water or moisture must be
present.
● Rust akes off over time exposing fresh iron to oxygen and moisture.
The newly exposed iron t hen r usts and t he process continues and
gradually wears away t he iron.
● Metal ions play a vital role in t he functioning of living organisms. Some
of t hese are combined wit h organic compounds to form organometallic
compounds
● Macro-minerals are needed by t he human body in amounts in excess
of 100 mg per day. Calcium, potassium, sodium and magnesium are t he
macro-minerals needed.
● Micro-minerals are required in small amounts by t he human body for
good healt h. Two of t he most impor tant micro-minerals are iron and
zinc.
● One impor tant metal ion required by plants is magnesium.
● Metals can have a negative effect on living organisms. Many of t hese
are in a group known as heav y metals, which mainly includes t he
transition metals and some of t he metalloids.
● The concentration of t hese harmful heavy metals wit hin t he
environment is increasing due to pollution caused by man’s activities.
● The most harmful metals include lead, mercur y, cadmium and arsenic.
● Heavy metal ions are harmful in t he environment because t hey do not
decay and t hey concentrate up food chains, harming t he top consumers
such as humans.
● Consumption of sh, especially large sh, is t he major source of ingested
mercur y in humans due to mercur y concentrating up t he food chain.
● Disposal of solid waste containing heavy metals poses a serious problem
since t hese metals should not be allowed to enter t he environment. This
waste includes lead–acid batteries, mercur y t hermometers, uorescent
light bulbs and nickel–cadmium batteries.
● Waste containing heavy metals should be recycled.
314
Metals in living systems and the environment Practice exam-style questions
7 a Most metals undergo corrosion. n t he case of
Multiple-choice questions aluminium t his can be benecial to t he metal while
in t he case of iron it can be harmful and costly.
1 Which of t he following must be present for iron to r ust?
i) What happens when a metal corrodes? (1 mark)
 oxygen
ii) Explain why t he corrosion of aluminium is
 carbon dioxide
benecial while t he corrosion of iron is not. Your
 moisture
answer should include reference to t he products
A  only
of corrosion and t heir proper ties. (6 marks)
B  and  only

b ‘Metal ions are extremely impor tant to living
C  and  only

organisms.’ By reference to magnesium, iron and
D ,  and 
calcium, provide evidence to suppor t t his statement.
(6 marks)
2 Which of t he following is not a benet to be gained from
c Cer tain metals are harmful to living organisms.

t he corrosion of aluminium?
Explain why t hese metals are so harmful when

A t causes aluminium to be less reactive t han its
t hey are released into t he environment by human

position in t he reactivity series predicts.
activities. (2 marks)
B t forms an oxide layer on t he aluminium, which can
be coloured attractively. Total 15 marks
C The oxide layer formed akes off easily.
D t forms a relatively unreactive oxide layer on t he
aluminium.
3 Which of t he following metals is a constituent of
chlorophyll?
A magnesium
B zinc
C calcium
D iron
4 Which of t he following is a trace mineral needed by t he
human body for good healt h?
A calcium
B potassium
C zinc
D magnesium
5 Which of t he following is a list of heavy metal ions t hat
are harmful to t he human body?
A arsenic, iron, mercur y, lead
B arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercur y
C cadmium, calcium, mercur y, lead
D arsenic, cadmium, magnesium, mercur y
6 Consumption of large sh is most likely to cause:
A rickets
B anaemia
C cancer
D Minamata disease
315
C20 Non-metals
Most elements in the periodic table are metals, the

Objectives
rest make up a group of elements known as the non-

be able to:
metals. The non-metals are found on the right-hand
● give the general physical

side of the table. Many non-metals are found naturally
properties of non-metals
in their elemental state, mostly as gases or solids.

● give the specic physical
properties of hydrogen, They are also found combined with other non-metals
oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine,
in covalent compounds and combined with metals in
carbon and sulfur
ionic compounds. Non-metals are used extensively by

● state where hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, chlorine, carbon and

man. However, because the properties of the different
sulfur occur naturally.
non-metals vary significantly, their uses also vary quite
considerably.
C20.1 Physical properties of non-metals
Non-metals are elements whose atoms usually have a large number of
valence electrons, usually 5, 6, 7 or 8. Most non-metals are found in Groups
, ,  and 0 of t he periodic table.
The bonding between non-metal atoms in a non-metal varies. n Unit 5.5
you learnt about t he bonding in t he two allotropes of carbon, i.e. diamond
and graphite. Several of t he ot her non-metals are composed of d i atomic
molecules. Each diatomic molecule is made up of two atoms of t he non-
metal bonded covalently. Weak intermolecular forces t hen exist between t he
diatomic molecules. Non-metals composed of diatomic molecules include
hydrogen (H ), oxygen (O ), nitrogen (N ) and all t he halogens, i.e. t hose

2 2 2
in Group  of t he periodic table including uorine (F ), chlorine (Cl ),

2 2
bromine (Br ) and iodine ( ). The non-metals in Group 0, i.e. t he noble gases,
2 2
exist as individual atoms due to having full valence electron shells. Bonding
between t he atoms of ot her non-metals varies.
Because t he way in which t he non-metal atoms are bonded differs, t he
physical proper ties of t he different non-metals also var y to some extent.
However, non-metals have t he following general physical proper ties:
Exam tip
✔ ● t hey have low melting points and boiling points
● t hey are poor conductors of heat and electricity

It is important that you can give
the differences between the ● t hey are dull in appearance when in t he solid state
physical properties of metals and
● t hey are weak and brittle when in t he solid state
non-metals.
● t hey have low densities.
Many of t he non-metals are gases at room temperature because of t he weak
forces of attraction between t he diatomic molecules or atoms, e.g. hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, uorine, chlorine and all t he noble gases. Bromine is
found as a liquid at room temperature and t he ot her non-metals are solids
The specic proper ties and characteristics of some of t he non-metals are
given in Table 20.1.1.
316
Non-metals Physical properties of non-metals
 Table 20.1.1 Properties and characteristics of some non-metals
Non-metal Properties and characteristics Occurrence
Hydrogen (H ) A colourless, tasteless, odourless gas Occurs in the compound water (H O), in hydrocarbons and in most other organic
2 2
compounds
The lightest of all elements
Acts as a reducing agent
Oxygen (O ) A colourless, tasteless, odourless gas Occurs in the elemental state as O molecules in the air. It makes up about 21% of the air.
2 2
Acts as an oxidising agent Occurs in water, in oxides of metals and non-metals, e.g. metal ores, silicon dioxide (sand)
and carbon dioxide, in metal carbonates and metal sulfates, in many organic compounds
and in very many other compounds
Nitrogen (N ) A colourless, tasteless, odourless gas Occurs in the elemental state as N molecules in the air. It makes up about 78% of the air.
2 2
One of the least reactive non-metals; Occurs in proteins, metal nitrates and ammonium compounds
it is considered relatively inert
Chlorine (Cl ) A yellow green gas Occurs combined in metal chlorides, e.g. sodium chloride (table salt)
2
Has a strong odour
Poisonous to humans
Acts as an oxidising agent
Carbon Has two main allotropes, diamond and Occurs in the elemental state as diamond and graphite
graphite (Unit 5.5)

Occurs in all organic compounds, in metal carbonates and metal hydrogencarbonates and
Diamond is an extremely hard, in carbon dioxide
transparent, colourless, sparkling solid.
It has a very high melting point.
Graphite is a soft, flaky, opaque, dark
grey solid. It has a very high melting
point and conducts electricity.
Acts as a reducing agent
Sulfur A light yellow solid Occurs in the elemental state, e.g. near hot springs and in volcanic regions
Occurs in metal sulfides and metal sulfates
Comparing the properties of two metals and two non-metals
You will be supplied with samples of two metals, e.g. aluminium foil and
copper, samples of two non-metals, e.g. graphite and roll sulfur, a cell, a
bulb, a switch, conducting wire and two crocodile clips.
Summary questions
Method
1 List ve properties of

1 Set up a circuit using the cell, bulb, switch, connecting wire and
hydrogen.
crocodile clips as shown in Figure 20.1.1. Attach each metal and
non-metal in turn between the crocodile clips and close the switch. 2 Name seven diatomic
In each case, does the bulb light up? elements.
metal or non-metal
2 Classify each metal and 3 Where would you nd oxygen
to be tested
non-metal according to the in nature?
following criteria:
4 Compare diamond and
bulb
● Is it shiny or dull?
graphite, giving the similarities
● Is it malleable or brittle?
and the differences between
● Is it a conductor or a them.
non-conductor?
cell switch 5 By means of a table, compare
3 Record your ndings in a

the properties of metals with
 Figure 20.1.1 A circuit to test electrical
table. conductivity
those of non-metals.
317
Chemical properties and reactions of non-metals Non-metals
Objectives C20.2 Chemical properties and reactions of

non-metals
be able to:
Because non-metals are elements whose atoms usually have a large number
● describe the reactions of non-
of valence electrons, usually 5, 6, 7 or 8, t hey for m negative anions in
metals with oxygen and metals
chemical reactions wit h metals by gaining electrons into t heir valence
● state the products formed by
electron shell.
the reactions of non-metals
with oxygen and metals N  ne N
● explain the oxidising and
As a result t hey form ionic compounds when t hey react wit h metals. The
reducing properties of non-
non-metal behaves as an oxidising agent since it gains electrons from t he

metals.
metal, i.e. it causes t he metal to lose electrons (OL).
Non-metals can also react wit h each ot her. n t hese reactions t hey share
valence electrons forming covalent compounds and may behave as oxidising
and reducing agents.
We will now look at t he reactions of cer tain non-metals wit h oxygen and
metals, and at t he oxidising and reducing proper ties of non-metals.
Reactions of non-metals with oxygen
Non-metals react wit h oxygen to form compounds known as non-metal
oxides. These non-metal oxides are usually gases at room temperature. This
is in contrast wit h metal oxides which are solids at room temperature.
Most non-metal oxides are acidic, e.g. carbon dioxide (CO ), sulfur dioxide
2
(SO ), sulfur trioxide (SO ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO ). These oxides are also
2 3 2
known as acid anhydrides (Unit 8.1) since t hey react wit h water to form
acidic solutions. A few non-metal oxides are neutral, e.g. water (H O), carbon
2
monoxide (CO) and nitrogen monoxide (NO). They don’t react wit h acids
or alkalis.
Table 20.2.1 summarises t he reactions of cer tain non-metals wit h oxygen.
 Table 20.2.1 Reactions of some non-metals with oxygen
Non-metal Reaction with oxygen
Hydrogen Hydrogen burns with a very pale blue, almost colourless, flame forming water as
Did you know?
? steam:
2H (g)  O (g) 2H O(g)

2 2 2
The destruction of the Hindenburg
airship killing 35 passengers A mixture of hydrogen and air or oxygen explodes when lit.
is an infamous example of the
Nitrogen Nitrogen reacts with oxygen if the temperature is high enough, forming nitrogen
combustion of hydrogen. The

monoxide (nitrogen(II) oxide):
Hindenburg was a luxurious airship
N (g)  O (g) 2NO(g)

2 2
measuring 804 feet long and
This reaction occurs during lightning storms and in the engines of motor vehicles.
135 feet tall. Inside were two
decks for passengers and crew Carbon Carbon burns forming either carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide.
and sixteen gas cells filled with

If the oxygen supply is limited, carbon monoxide is produced:
hydrogen to make it lighter than air.

2C(s)  O (g) 2CO(g)
2
As it was coming to land in New
If the oxygen supply is plentiful, carbon dioxide is produced:
Jersey on 6 May 1937, a flame
C(s)  O (g) CO (g)

2 2
appeared at the rear of the ship
and within 34 seconds the entire Sulfur Sulfur burns with a blue flame forming sulfur dioxide (sulfur(IV) oxide):
ship was consumed in flames.

S(s)  O (g) SO (g)
2 2
318
Non-metals Chemical properties and reactions of non-metals
Investigating reactions of non-metals with oxygen
Method
1 Place a small piece of carbon on to a deagrating spoon.
2 Carefully heat the spoon in a Bunsen burner ame until the carbon
begins to burn. Once burning, place it into a gas jar full of oxygen and
observe what happens.
3 Repeat steps 1 and 2 using sulfur in place of carbon.
4 Compare the violence of the reaction of carbon with oxygen and sulfur
with oxygen. Which seems more reactive?
5 What products were formed in each reaction?
Reactions of non-metals with metals
Non-met als react wit h metals to for m ionic compound s . A reaction between
a metal and a non-met al is a redox reaction because t he metal loses electrons,
i.e. it is oxidised, and t he non-met al gains t hese electrons, i.e. it is reduced. The
non-met al acts as an oxid ising agent in all of t hese reactions.
● Hydrogen reacts wit h metals to form metal hydrides,
e.g. Ca(s)  H (g) CaH (s)

2 2
calcium hydride
● Oxygen reacts wit h metals to form metal oxides,
e.g. 2Mg(s)  O (g) 2MgO(s)

2
magnesium oxide
● Nitrogen reacts wit h metals to form metal nitrides,
e.g. 3Mg(s)  N (g) Mg N (s)

2 3 2
magnesium nitride
● Chlorine reacts wit h metals to form metal chlorides,
e.g. 2Al(s)  3Cl (s) 2AlCl (s)

2 3
aluminium chloride
● Sulfur reacts wit h metals to form metal suldes,
e.g. Fe(s)  S(s) FeS(s)
iron(II) sulde
Non-metals as oxidising and reducing agents
Non-metals can behave as bot h oxidising agents and reducing agents. They
generally behave as oxidising agents, however, some non-metals can also behave
as reducing agents, for example, hydrogen, carbon and sulfur.
319
Chemical properties and reactions of non-metals Non-metals
Non-metals as oxidising agents
● All non-metals behave as oxid ising agents when t hey react wit h metals
to form ionic compounds. They remove electrons from t he metal atoms,
e.g. 2Zn(s)  O (g) 2ZnO(s)

2
2Fe(s)  3Cl (s) 2FeCl (s)

2 3
Mg(s)  S(s) MgS(s)
● Chlorine and oxygen are par ticularly powerful oxid ising agents.
Whenever t hey react wit h anot her element or compound t hey act as
oxidising agents,
e.g. S(s)O (g) SO (g)

2 2
2KBr(aq)  Cl (g) 2KCl(aq)  Br (aq)

2 2
Oxygen caused the oxidation number of sulfur to increase from 0 to 4 in
the rst reaction. Chlorine removed electrons from the Br ions causing
their oxidation number to increase from 1 to 0 in the second reaction.
Non-metals as reducing agents
● Hydrogen , carbon and sulfur act as reducing agents when t hey react
wit h oxygen, a ver y powerful oxidising agent,
e.g. 2H (g)  O (g) 2H O(g)

2 2 2
C(s)  O (g) CO (g)

2 2
S(s)  O (g) SO (g)

2 2
n each t hese reactions, t he non-metal caused t he oxidation number of
each oxygen atom in t he oxygen to decrease from 0 to 2.
● Hydrogen and carbon also act as reducing agents when t hey react wit h
metal oxides. They reduce t he metal ions to atoms,
e.g. CuO(s)  H (g) Cu(s)  H O(l)

2 2
2Fe O (s)  3C(s) 4Fe(s)  3CO (g)

2 3 2
2
Hydrogen caused t he oxidation number of t he Cu ion in t he copper(II)
oxide to decrease from 2 to 0 in t he rst reaction. Carbon caused t he
3
oxidation number of each Fe ion in t he iron(III) oxide to decrease from
3 to 0 in t he second reaction.
Summary questions
1 What is produced when a non-metal reacts with oxygen?
2 When carbon reacts with oxygen it can form one of two different oxides.
a What determines which oxide is produced?
b Write balanced chemical equations to show the formation of the
two different oxides.
3 Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions:
a the reaction between aluminium and chlorine
b the reaction between sodium and hydrogen.
4 When a non-metal reacts with a metal, the non-metal always acts as an
oxidising agent. Explain the reason for this.
5 Certain non-metals can act as both oxidising agents and reducing
agents. Name one non-metal that can behave as both and support your
answer by reference to two different reactions of the named non-metal.
Include balanced equations for the reactions.
320
Non-metals Laboratory preparation and uses of gases
C20.3 Laboratory preparation and uses of gases Objectives

Oxygen, carbon dioxide and ammonia are all gases which, if required, can be
be able to:
made wit h relative ease in t he laborator y. These same gases also have some
ver y impor tant uses in today ’s world.

● describe how oxygen, carbon
dioxide and ammonia can be

When considering t he met hod to be used to prepare a gas in t he laborator y,
prepared in the laboratory

t he following proper ties of t he gas need to be considered:
● relate the methods of drying
● The solubility of t he gas in water to determine if t he gas can be collected
and collecting the gases to
by bubbling it t hrough water.
their properties
● The reactivity of t he gas wit h different dr ying agents to determine which
● explain the uses of oxygen and
dr ying agents can be used.
carbon dioxide based on their
● The density of t he gas relative to t he density of air to determine t he

properties.
met hod used to collect t he dr y gas.
Laboratory preparation of oxygen
Oxygen is prepared in t he laborator y by t he decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide solution using a catalyst of manganese(IV) oxide. The hydrogen
oxyge
peroxide decomposes according to t he following equation:
MnO
2
2H O (aq) 2H O(l)  O (g) hydrogen

2 2 2 2
peroxide
solution
The oxygen t hat is produced can t hen be collected in one of two ways
water
which depends on whet her dr y oxygen is required or not.
● f dr y oxygen is not required, t hen t he gas can be collected by
bubbling it t hrough water into an upside down gas jar, as shown in
Figure 20.3.1, since oxygen is not ver y soluble in water. As t he oxygen
lls t he gas jar, t he water level in t he jar drops. This is known as

manganese(IV)
oxide catalyst
downward d isplacement of water and it is easy to see when t he jar is
full. The oxygen collected in t his way contains water vapour due to it
 Figure 20.3.1 The laboratory
having been bubbled t hrough water. preparation of oxygen
● f dr y oxygen is required, t hen it can be dried by passing it t hrough a
U-tube containing anhydrous calcium chloride or calcium oxide, or by
bubbling it t hrough a wash bottle containing concentrated sulfuric acid,
as shown in Figure 20.3.2. All t hese compounds absorb t he water vapour
in t he oxygen. The dr y gas is t hen collected directly into a gas jar by
upward d isplacement of air since it is slightly denser t han air and sinks
in t he jar, displacing t he air upwards. The problem wit h t his met hod is
t hat it cannot be determined when t he jar is full.
Laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide
Carbon d ioxide can be prepared by reacting a carbonate wit h an acid. The
usual met hod is to react calcium carbonate wit h hydrochloric acid as shown
in t he following equation:
CaCO (s)  2HCl(aq) CaCl (aq)  CO (g)  H O(l)

3 2 2 2
As wit h t he preparation of oxygen, t he met hod of collection depends on
whet her dr y carbon dioxide is required or not.
● f dr y carbon dioxide is not required, t hen t he gas can be collected by
bubbling it t hrough water into an upside down gas jar since it is not ver y
soluble in water. However, t he carbon dioxide collected will contain
water vapour.
321
Laboratory preparation and uses of gases Non-metals
● f dr y carbon dioxide is required, t hen it can be dried by passing it
t hrough a U-tube containing anhydrous calcium chloride or by bubbling

Exam tip
✔
it t hrough a wash bottle containing concentrated sulfuric acid. Calcium
It is very important that you oxide cannot be used to dr y t he gas because carbon dioxide reacts
can draw line drawings of the wit h it. The dr y gas is t hen collected directly into a gas jar by upward
apparatus used to prepare oxygen,

d isplacement of air since it is denser t han air.
carbon dioxide and ammonia in the
laboratory.
hydrochloric acid
carbon
dioxide
concentrated
sulfuric acid
calcium carbonate
 Figure 20.3.2 The laboratory preparation of dry carbon dioxide
t is impor tant to note t hat calcium carbonate and sulfuric acid cannot
be used to produce carbon dioxide since t he reaction produces insoluble
calcium sulfate. This forms a layer around t he calcium carbonate cr ystals,
which prevents t hem from continuing to react wit h t he acid and t he reaction
quickly stops.
Laboratory preparation of ammonia
ammonium chloride
Ammoni a can be prepared in t he laborator y by reacting an alkali wit h an

and calcium hydroxide
ammonium salt, for example, calcium hydroxide and ammonium chloride
ammonia
as shown in t he following equation:
Ca(OH) (s)  2NH Cl(s) CaCl (s)  2NH (g)  2H O(g)

2 4 2 3 2
The solid calcium hydroxide and ammonium chloride are mixed toget her in
heat
a boiling tube. They are t hen heated using a Bunsen burner wit h t he boiling
calcium
tube placed horizontally, as shown in Figure 20.3.3. Since ammonia is ver y
oxide
soluble in water, it cannot be collected over water. The gas is dried by passing
it t hrough a U-tube or up a dr ying tower containing calcium oxide. Neit her
calcium chloride nor concentrated sulfuric acid can be used to dr y t he gas
 Figure 20.3.3 The laboratory
since ammonia reacts wit h bot h of t hem.

preparation of dry ammonia
The ammonia is collected in a gas jar by downward d isplacement of air
since it less dense t han air and rises to t he top of t he jar, displacing t he air
downwards. t is possible to determine when t he gas jar is full of ammonia by
placing a piece of moist red litmus paper at t he mout h of t he jar. f t he litmus
turns blue, t he jar is full.
Table 20.3.1 summarises t he met hods used to prepare oxygen, carbon dioxide
and ammonia in t he laborator y.
322
Non-metals Laboratory preparation and uses of gases
 Table 20.3.1 Summary of the methods used to prepare gases in the laboratory
Gas Usual reagents Solubility of gas in water Drying agent(s) Method of collecting the dry gas
Oxygen Hydrogen peroxide Slightly soluble. Can be collected over Anhydrous calcium chloride Upward displacement of air. Oxygen is
and a catalyst of water. slightly denser than air.

Calcium oxide
manganese(VI) oxide
Concentrated sulfuric acid
Carbon Calcium carbonate and Slightly soluble. Can be collected over Anhydrous calcium chloride Upward displacement of air. Carbon
dioxide hydrochloric acid water. dioxide is slightly denser than air.

Concentrated sulfuric acid
Ammonia Calcium hydroxide and Very soluble. Ammonia reacts with water Calcium oxide Downward displacement of air.
ammonium chloride to form ammonium hydroxide, therefore, Ammonia is less dense than air.
cannot be collected over water.
Uses of gases
The gases which we can make in t he laborator y also have many impor tant
uses. We will look at some of t he uses of oxygen and carbon dioxide based on
t heir proper ties.
Uses of oxygen
Oxygen is essential for all living organisms to make energy during t he process
of aerobic respiration . Humans obtain t his oxygen from t he air when we
breat he. Oxygen is also essential for combustion to occur. Because of t hese
 Figure 20.3.4 A re extinguisher
two proper ties, humans have found a variety of uses for oxygen, some of
which are given below.
Summary questions
● Oxygen is used in hospitals for patients who have difculty breat hing
and also to ease cer tain medical disorders, e.g. emphysema, ast hma,
1 Describe how you could
chronic bronchitis and hear t disease.
prepare dry oxygen in the
● Oxygen is carried on aeroplanes and submarines for breat hing pur poses
laboratory.
in emergencies.
2 Ammonia can be prepared in
● Nearly pure oxygen is used in spacesuits for astronauts to breat he.
the laboratory by heating a
● Oxygen is used in oxyacetylene and oxyhydrogen torches to burn t he
mixture of calcium hydroxide
acetylene or hydrogen and produce extremely high-temperature ames
and ammonium chloride.
t hat are used to weld and cut metals.
a Write a balanced equation
● Liquid oxygen is used to burn the fuel that generates the lift in spaceships.
for the reaction.
b Name a suitable drying
Uses of carbon dioxide

agent for the gas.
Carbon d ioxide has cer tain proper ties t hat make it useful to humans. c What method would be
used to collect the dry gas

● Pressurised liquid carbon dioxide is used in re extinguishers. When t he
and why is this method

pressure is reduced by opening t he valve of t he extinguisher, t he carbon
used?
dioxide is released. The carbon dioxide is non-ammable and denser
d Why is ammonia not

t han air, so it smot hers t he ames, keeping out t he oxygen in t he air.
collected over water?
● Solid carbon dioxide (‘dr y ice’) is used as a refrigerant in t he food
3 a What method is used to

industr y. t sublimes at 78.5 °C, t herefore, it can be used to keep food
items extremely cold and leaves no liquid when it sublimes to a gas. collect dry carbon dioxide
in the laboratory?
● Carbon dioxide is used to make carbonated soft drinks. The solubility of
b Why is this method used?

the gas increases as the pressure increases. The carbon dioxide is dissolved
in the drink under pressure. When the pressure is released by opening the
4 Explain why oxygen is used:
bottle or can, its solubility decreases and bubbles form causing the drink
a in hospitals b in welding.
to ‘zz’. The carbon dioxide also adds a pleasant taste to the drink.
5 Explain why carbon dioxide is
● Carbon dioxide is used as an aerosol propellant in cans containing
used in re extinguishers.
cer tain foodstuffs, such as whipped cream, because it is relatively iner t.
323
The uses of non-metals Non-metals
Objectives C20.4 The uses of non-metals
Alt hough only a small number of elements in t he periodic table are non-
be able to:
metals, t hese elements are used in a wide range of applications. Some of
● list the uses of various non-

t hem play a par ticularly impor tant role in industr y. The uses of some non-
metals and their compounds.

metals and t heir compounds are given in Tables 20.4.1–20.4.6.
 Table 20.4.1 The uses of carbon and its compounds
Non-metal/compound Uses
Carbon (diamond) • in jewellery
• to cut and engrave glass and other diamonds
• in the tips of drills
• diamond powder is used as an abrasive for polishing and fine grinding
Carbon (graphite) • as the ‘lead’ in pencils
• to make electrodes for use in industry
• as a solid lubricant
• to make carbon fibres to strengthen plastics
Sodium carbonate • to soften hard water
(Na CO )
2 3
• in the manufacture of glass
Sodium • as a raising agent in baking powder
hydrogencarbonate
• as an antacid
(NaHCO )
3
• in fire extinguishers
 Figure 20.4.1 This tennis racquet has
been reinforced with carbon bre
 Figure 20.4.2 Carbon in the form of diamond is used to make jewellery
Did you know?

 Table 20.4.2 The uses of sulfur and its compounds
?
Vulcanisation is the process of
Sulfur • to vulcanise (harden) rubber, e.g. for car tyres

hardening rubber. The rubber
• in the manufacture of medicinal drugs and ointments to treat fungal

is heated with sulfur to make it
infections
stronger, more elastic and more
• in the manufacture of fungicides to prevent fungal attacks on crops and

resistant to chemical attack. This
garden plants
is achieved by the sulfur forming
• to make the heads of matches

cross-links between the polymer
• to manufacture sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid

chains of the rubber. Charles
Goodyear is generally credited with Sulfur dioxide (SO ) • as a food preservative, e.g. in jams and fruit juices
2
its discovery in 1839, however, the • as a bleaching agent in the manufacture of paper
history of stabilising rubber dates

Sulfuric acid (H SO ) • in the manufacture of fertilisers, e.g. ammonium sulfate
2 4
back to 1600 BC
• in lead–acid batteries, e.g. car batteries
324
Non-metals The uses of non-metals
 Table 20.4.3 The uses of phosphorus and its compounds
Did you know?

?
Phosphorus • to make the striking surface of safety matches
Fertilisers are added to the soil
• to make flares, fireworks and explosives

to supply plants with one or more
• to make pesticides
of the elements that they require
• in the manufacture of phosphoric acid

for healthy growth. Three of the
major elements needed by plants

Phosphoric acid (H PO ) • to manufacture phosphate fertilisers, e.g. ammonium phosphate
3 4
are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P)

[(NH ) PO ]
4 3 4
and potassium (K). Fertilisers which

• as a rust remover
supply mainly these elements are
Phosphorus sulfides, • to make the heads of matches
known as NPK fertilisers.
e.g. P S
4 3
 Figure 20.4.3 The heads of these matches contain a phosphorus sulde
 Table 20.4.4 The uses of chlorine and its compounds
 Figure 20.4.4 Chlorine is used to
Chlorine • to treat drinking water to destroy bacteria manufacture chlorine bleaches
• to make solvents and dry-cleaning fluids, e.g. tetrachloroethene (C Cl )

2 4
• to make pesticides, e.g. DDT
• to make antiseptics, e.g. TCP and Dettol

Did you know?
?
• to make monochloroethene, which is used to make PVC for pipes,
window frames and guttering Chlorine gas was used as a
poison gas during World War I in

• to manufacture sodium chlorate(I) and calcium chlorate(I)
the trenches in Europe.
Sodium chlorate( ) • as bleaching agents
(NaClO) and calcium

• to sterilise drinking water and swimming pool water – the compound
chlorate( ) [Ca(ClO) ]
2
releases ‘free chlorine’ which is toxic to bacteria
• as disinfectants
 Table 20.4.5 The uses of nitrogen and its compounds
Nitrogen • liquid nitrogen is used to quick freeze foods
• to fill light bulbs together with argon
• in food packaging to provide an inert atmosphere which prevents
aerobic decay
• in the manufacture of ammonia
Ammonia (NH ) • in household cleaners, e.g. oven and window cleaners

3
• to manufacture fertilisers, e.g. ammonium nitrate (NH NO ),

4 3
ammonium sulfate [(NH ) SO ] and ammonium phosphate

4 2 4
[(NH ) PO ]
4 3 4
• in the manufacture of nitric acid
Nitric acid (HNO ) • to manufacture fertilisers, e.g. ammonium nitrate (NH NO )

3 4 3
 Figure 20.4.5 Ammonia is often used
• to manufacture explosives and dyes
in cleaning agents
325
Harmful effects of non-metals and their compounds Non-metals
 Table 20.4.6 The uses of silicon and its compounds
Silicon • in the manufacture of silicon chips used in electronic devices from
pocket calculators to computers
• to make silicone implants for plastic and reconstructive surgery
• to make a silicon steel alloy in the steel industry
Silicon dioxide (quartz) • in jewellery, e.g. amethyst is purple quartz
(SiO )
2
• in the manufacture of glass – silicon dioxide is the main ingredient of
glass
• in the manufacture of cement
• mixed with cement and aggregate to make concrete
Metal silicates • to make ceramic products, such as pottery and porcelain products,
roof tiles, floor tiles, building bricks and sewer pipes
Summary questions
1 Which four compounds of non-metals are used to make fertilisers?
2 What is mean by ‘vulcanisation of rubber’? Name the non-metal that is
used to vulcanise rubber and explain what happens during the process
of vulcanisation.
3 Discuss some of the uses of the following non-metals and their
compounds:
a carbon b chlorine c silicon.
Objectives C20.5 Harmful effects of non-metals and their
compounds
be able to:
While non-metals and t heir compounds are extremely useful to humans,
● discuss the harmful effects
some compounds of t he same non-metals can have harmful effects on living
of non-metals and their
systems and t he environment. Like cer tain metals, t he concentrations of
compounds on living systems
t hese non-metal compounds wit hin t he environment are increasing due
and the environment.
to pollution caused by man’s activities. These harmful substances are called
pollutants
We will now look at some of t he sources of some of
t hese pollutants and t heir negative effects on t he
environment in Table 20.5.1. Some of t hese effects
will also be discussed in more detail af ter t he table.
 Figure 20.5.1 Pollution harms the environment
 Table 20.5.1 Harmful effects of some compounds of non-metals
Non-metal compound/
Sources in the environment Harmful effects
pollutant
Sulfur dioxide (SO ) Combustion of fossil fuels, especially coal and Sulfur dioxide causes respiratory problems in humans,
2
heavy oils, e.g. in industry and power stations e.g. bronchitis. It reduces the growth of plants and
dissolves in rainwater forming an acidic solution known
as acid rain (see later in this unit).
Carbon monoxide (CO) Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, mainly Carbon monoxide binds with haemoglobin much more
in motor vehicles readily than oxygen causing a reduction in the amount of
oxygen reaching body tissues. This reduces respiration
and mental awareness, causes visual impairment,
dizziness, headaches, unconsciousness and even death.
326
Non-metals Harmful effects of non-metals and their compounds
Non-metal compound/
Sources in the environment Harmful effects
pollutant
Carbon dioxide (CO ) Complete combustion of fossil fuels, e.g. in Carbon dioxide, together with other gases, builds up in
2
motor vehicles, industry, power stations and the upper atmosphere contributing to the greenhouse
aeroplanes effect and global warming (see later in this unit).
About 25% of the carbon dioxide released is absorbed
by the oceans leading to ocean acidification. This
increase in acidity is expected to affect the ability of
shellfish such as oysters, sea urchins and corals to
produce and maintain their shells.
Hydrogen sulfide (H S) Decay of organic matter in garbage dumps, Hydrogen sulfide is extremely toxic. Like carbon
2
landfills and farmyards. Released from monoxide, it combines readily with haemoglobin, which
petroleum refineries. reduces cellular respiration and causes dizziness,
headaches, unconsciousness and even death. Low
concentrations irritate the eyes and respiratory system.
Oxides of nitrogen (NO and NO ) Combustion at high temperatures in motor Oxides of nitrogen are extremely toxic causing lung
2
vehicle engines and power stations causing damage. Low concentrations irritate the skin, eyes and
nitrogen and oxygen in the air to react respiratory system. They also cause leaves to die, reduce
the growth of plants, play a major role in the development
of photochemical smog and dissolve in rainwater forming
acid rain (see later in this unit).
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Used as a refrigerant in air-conditioners and CFCs break down the ozone layer in the upper
refrigerators and as a propellant in some atmosphere allowing more ultraviolet light to reach the
aerosol sprays Earth’s surface (see later in this unit).
Carbon particles (C) Combustion of fossil fuels, e.g. in industry. Carbon particles blacken trees reducing photosynthesis
Bush fires and cigarettes. and blacken buildings. They combine with water vapour
and sulfur dioxide to form smog, which causes poor
visibility for drivers and aircraft pilots and respiratory
problems, e.g. bronchitis, asthma and lung disease.
Nitrate ions (NO ) and phosphate ions Fertilisers used in agriculture, especially in These ions cause eutrophication (see later in this unit).
3
(PO ) intensive farming. Synthetic detergents.

4
Pesticides, e.g. insecticides, fungicides and Used in agriculture for pest control, disease Pesticides concentrate up food chains harming top
herbicides control and control of weeds. Used to control consumers (see later in this unit). They can also harm
vectors of disease, e.g. mosquitoes. useful as well as harmful organisms, for example, bees
which are essential for pollination are being killed by
insecticides.
Acid rain
Acid rain is formed when pollutant gases such as sulfur dioxide and oxides
of nitrogen are released into the atmosphere. These oxides are acidic and
when t hey react wit h rainwater t hey form acidic solutions, for example:

2 2 2 3
sulfurous acid
2NO (g)  H O(l) HNO (aq)  HNO (aq)

2 2 2 3
nitrous acid nitric acid
These acidic solutions t hen fall to Ear t h as acid rain which can have a serious
effect on plants, animals, t he soil and water. Acid rain decreases t he pH of
t he soil, damages crops, trees and ot her plants and harms animals. t also
corrodes buildings, cars, machiner y and historical monuments and it
causes lakes, streams and rivers to become acidic and unsuitable for aquatic
 Figure 20.5.2 A limestone statue
organisms, such as sh. corroded by acid rain
327
Harmful effects of non-metals and their compounds Non-metals
The greenhouse effect and global warming
When fossil fuels are burnt a number of gases are produced and released into
t he atmosphere, including carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is known as a
greenhouse gas. Ot her greenhouse gases include water vapour, dinitrogen
monoxide (N O) and met hane (CH ).

2 4
Greenhouse gases form a layer around t he Ear t h. Radiation from t he Sun
passes t hrough t his layer, reaches t he Ear t h’s surface and warms t he Ear t h.
The Ear t h’s surface t hen radiates t his heat back into t he atmosphere as
infrared radiation. Some of t his radiation goes back into space and some is
absorbed by t he greenhouse gases around t he Ear t h. The greenhouse gases
t hen re-emit t his radiation. Some of it is re-emitted into space, however, most
of it is re-emitted back towards t he Ear t h as heat. The heat causes a warming
known as the greenhouse effect
the Earth radiates
heat back into space

 Figure 20.5.3 The effects of acid rain
on trees
some absorbed radiation
is radiated into space
radiation from
CH
4
the Sun warms H O

2
the Earth CO
2
CO
absorb some radiation
2
H O H O
2
2
400
CO
CH
2
space 4
CO H O
2 2
noillim
is radiated back towards Earth

380 atmosphere
H O
2 CO
2
CH
4
rep
360
straP
 Figure 20.5.4 The greenhouse effect
340
An increase in greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide caused by t he
320 combustion of fossil fuels, is resulting in t he Ear t h getting warmer. The
warming of t he Ear t h’s surface as a result of increasing concentrations of
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
greenhouse gases in t he atmosphere is called global warming. This global

Year
warming is causing polar ice caps and glaciers to melt, sea levels to rise,
 Figure 20.5.5 Average carbon dioxide
ooding of low-lying coastal areas, global climate changes and more severe
levels in the atmosphere from 1960 to
2012 weat her patterns.
Ozone layer depletion
Did you know?
?
Ozone (O ) is a gas found in the upper atmosphere which shields the Ear th from
3
In 1800 the average carbon dioxide dangerous ultraviolet (U) radiation. This ozone layer is becoming depleted
concentration in the atmosphere by chlorouorocarbons (CFCs) which, until recently, were used extensively
was about 280 parts per million

in aerosol sprays, refrigerators and air-conditioners. These CFCs are iner t and
(ppm) or 0.028%. In 1960 the figure

insoluble in water causing them to accumulate in the atmosphere where they
was about 316 ppm and in 2012 it

are damaging the ozone layer. Depletion of the ozone layer means that more
had risen to about 394 ppm. The
U light is reaching the Ear th and this is leading to more and more people
concentration is currently increasing
developing skin cancer, cataracts and depressed immune systems.
at about 2 ppm per year.
Eutrophication
Eutrophication is the rapid growth of green plants and algae in waterways
such as lakes, ponds and rivers caused by nitrates and phosphates entering the
water. Nitrate and phosphate ions are needed by green plants to make proteins
so they can grow. When their concentrations increase, it promotes the growth
of plant life, especially algae. This rapid growth causes the water to turn
328
Non-metals Harmful effects of non-metals and their compounds
green. Underwater plants then begin to die due to reduced light penetration
and the algae start to die due to overcrowding. The dead plants and algae are
decomposed by aerobic bacteria which multiply and use up all the dissolved
oxygen. This leads to the death of other aquatic organisms such as sh.
Effects of pesticides
Pesticides are chemicals used to destroy pests. They are used especially in
agriculture and in t he control of vectors of disease such as mosquitoes. There
are different types of pesticides: herbicides are used to kill weeds, insecticides
 Figure 20.5.6 Eutrophication occurs

are used to kill insects and fungicides are used to destroy fungi.
when there is uncontrolled growth of
Some pesticides are par ticularly harmful in t he environment because t hey green algae in water
are persistent, i.e. t hey do not break down in t he environment. They also
have t he potential for bioaccumulation which occurs when organisms
absorb toxic substances at a faster rate t han t hey excrete t hem. For example,
if fat soluble pesticides such as DDT are absorbed by living organisms t hey are
stored in fatty tissues of t he organisms where t hey gradually accumulate. The
concentration of t he pesticides in t he fatty tissues of animals t hen increases
moving up food chains. As a result, consumers at t he top of t he food chain
are ver y of ten harmed, especially birds of prey.
Disposal of solid waste
Plastics are organic compounds composed of non-metals. Even t hough
t hey are organic compounds, most plastics are non-biodegrad able , i.e. t hey
cannot be broken down by microorganisms and t herefore t hey remain in t he
environment for ver y long periods of time. This makes t he disposal of solid
waste containing plastics a serious problem.
● Plastics make up about 25% of all solid waste going to landlls, meaning
t hat more and more land is being used up to extend and build landlls
to accept all t hese plastics.
● Some plastics release toxic chemicals which are persistent wit hin t he
environment. When plastics are disposed of in landlls t here is t he
danger of t hese chemicals contaminating groundwater and nearby soil.
● Plastics produce toxic gases when burnt which can lead to air pollution
and serious healt h problems if t hey are disposed of in incinerators.
● When not disposed of properly, plastics ver y of ten land up in water ways
and oceans where t hey are par ticularly harmful to aquatic organisms,
of ten leading to t heir deat h by being ingested or by causing suffocation.
The problem of t he disposal of plastics can be solved to a large extent by
recycling all items made of plastic.
Summary questions
1 Explain how carbon dioxide contributes to global warming and suggest some of the consequences of global
warming.
2 Name two gases which can form acid rain and discuss some of the effects of acid rain.
3 What are pesticides and why are they harmful to organisms at the top of food chains?
4 a What is eutrophication and what is it caused by?
b Why is eutrophication a problem in aquatic environments?
5 What are some of the problems of disposing of plastics?
329
Green chemistry Non-metals
Objectives C20.6 Green chemistry
Green chemistry is also known as sustainable chemistry . Green chemistr y

be able to:
involves designing chemical products and processes t hat reduce or eliminate
● dene green chemistry
t he use or generation of substances t hat are hazardous to living organisms
● outline the principles of green
and t he environment.
chemistry.
The principles of green chemistr y provide a framework for chemists to use
when t hey are designing new materials, products, processes and systems.
The principles focus on t he development of sustainable designs which allow
for economic development at t he same time as protecting human healt h
and t he environment.
Trad itional chemical processes usually take place in several steps and
use a variety of reagents, including solvents. They of ten require elevated

Key fact
!
temperatures and pressures and purication has to take place at each step.
Green chemistry is the utilisation

They usually create yields below 100%, generate substantial waste, incur
of a set of principles that reduces

heavy costs associated wit h raw materials, energy usage and waste disposal
or eliminates the use or generation

and have a negative impact on t he environment.
of hazardous substances in
Green chemistr y is doing chemistr y t he way nature does chemistr y; using

the design, manufacture and
application of chemical products renewable, biodegradable materials which do not persist in t he environment
and processes. or harm t he environment.
Using t he technologies of green chemistr y provides a number of benets
including:
● reduced wastage
● reduced pollution
● safer products
● reduced use of energy and natural resources
● improved competitiveness of chemical manufacturers.
The twelve principles of green chemistry
There are twelve principles of green chemistr y, which provide a road map
for chemists to follow when designing new materials, products, processes
and systems. The term ‘green chemistr y’ was coined by Paul Anastas in 1991
while working at t he United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
and, toget her wit h John Warner, he developed t he twelve principles. These
twelve principles are stated below wit h a shor t explanation of each.
1 Prevent waste
‘It’s better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste af ter it has been
created.’
Chemical processes should be designed to produce as little hazardous
waste as possible.
2 Maximise atom economy
‘Synthetic methods should be designed to maximise the incorporation of all
mater ials used in the process into the nal product.’
Chemical processes which incor porate most or all of t he star ting
materials into t he nal products should be used. This would t hen result
in few, if any, wasted atoms.
330
Non-metals Green chemistry
3 Design less hazardous chemical syntheses
‘Wherever practicable, synthetic methods should be designed which use and
generate substances that possess little or no toxicit y to human health and the
environment.’
Chemical processes should be designed using reactants which pose t he
least risk to human healt h and t he environment and which produce
harmless by-products.
4 Design safer chemicals and products
‘Chemical products should be designed which perform their desired functions
while minimising their toxicity.’
All new products should be designed to be safer. These products should
still be effective for t heir specic uses, but have minimum toxicity.
5 Use safer solvents and auxiliaries
‘The use of auxiliar y substances should be minimised wherever possible and
they should be made innocuous when used.’
Many chemical processes use auxiliar y substances such as solvents and
separating agents. Many of t hese are hazardous and lead to considerable
waste. The use of t hese substances should be reduced to a minimum,
eliminated totally or t hey should be replaced wit h less hazardous
alternatives.
6 Increase energy efficiency
‘The energy requirements of chemical processes should be minimised and
synthetic methods should be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure
if possible.’
Chemical processes should be designed to use t he minimum amounts
of energy. f possible, processes should be carried out at t he ambient
(surrounding) temperature and pressure to avoid t he need for large
amounts of energy associated wit h using higher temperatures and
pressures.
7 Use renewable feedstocks
‘Raw mater ials or feedstocks should be rene wable rather than depleting
whenever practicable.’
The term feedstock refers to any raw material used in an industrial
process. Whenever possible, chemical processes should use raw
materials which are renewable. These include agricultural products
such as pur pose-grown crops, wood chips, processed solid waste and
waste from ot her processes.
The use of non-renewable raw materials should be reduced to a minimum
since t hey are rapidly r unning out. Non-renewable raw materials include
t hose obtained from fossil fuels, such as petroleum, natural gas and coal,
and t hose which are mined from t he Ear t h, such as ores.
331
8 Reduce derivatives
‘Unnecessar y derivatisation should be minimised or avoided if possible.’
Derivatisation involves temporarily modifying physical and chemical
processes. Since t his requires additional reagents and can generate
waste, derivatisation should be avoided or minimised.
9 Use catalysts
‘Catalytic reagents are super ior to stoichiometr ic reagents.’
Catalysts are not used up in reactions since t hey do not take par t in t he
reaction itself. Stoichiometric reagents take par t in t he reaction so t hey
are used up and t he reaction of ten forms unwanted or hazardous by-
products.
Catalysts should be used in chemical processes for several reasons. The
reaction occurs faster, t he catalyst reduces t he temperature needed for
t he reaction which saves energy, it improves t he conversion of reactants
to products reducing wastage of reagents and it reduces t he production
of by-products.
10 Design for degradation
‘Chemical products should be designed so they break down into innocuous
products that do not persist in the environment.’
Chemical products should be designed so t hat at t he end of t heir
functional life t hey break down into harmless products which do not
persist in t he environment.
11 Analyse in real-time to prevent pollution
‘Analytical methods should be developed to allow for real-time, in-process
monitor ing and control to minimise the formation of hazardous substances.’
The progress of any chemical process should always be monitored to
know when t he reaction is complete and to detect t he formation of any
unwanted or hazardous by-products.
12 Minimise the potential for accidents
‘Choose reagents to be used in chemical processes which minimise the
potential for chemical accidents, including explosions, res and toxic releases
into the atmosphere.’
Reagents should always be chosen to reduce t he risk of chemical
accidents to a minimum.
Green chemistry in action
The best way to understand t he potential of green chemistr y is to see it in
action. Each year, t he US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sponsors
various awards including The Presidential Green Chemistr y Challenge
Awards. The following are a few examples of award-wining innovations
which show how t he effective application of t he principles of green
chemistr y by small businesses and larger cor porations is beginning to solve
our environmental challenges.
332
● irent Energy Systems use a water-based, catalytic method to make
gasoline, diesel and jet fuel from the sugar, starch and cellulose of
plants. The process requires little external energy and can compete
economically with fuels produced from petroleum. Plants are a renewable
resource so their use helps reduce dependence on petroleum.
● Eastman Chemical Company has developed a new method to make
esters for use in cosmetics and personal care products. Their method
uses enzymes to make the esters which saves energy, avoids using strong
acids and organic solvents, minimises the production of undesirable by-
products and takes place at lower temperatures than traditional methods.
● Battelle and its par tners have developed a toner for laser printers
and photocopiers made from soya oil and protein together with
carbohydrates from corn. This toner is much easier to remove from
paper than traditional toners which are made from petroleum-based
star ting materials, allowing the paper to be easily recycled. ts production
also saves considerable amounts of energy and reduces the use of
petroleum.
● Buckman nternational has carefully selected and designed enzymes,
derived from natural sources, to modify the cellulose bres in wood in
order to make paper. Paper made using these modied bres is much
stronger and of higher quality than paper made by traditional methods.
This means that the paper can be made using less wood bre and more
recycled paper, thus conser ving natural resources. The process also
saves signicant amounts of energy and reduces the use of additional
chemicals.
● Seventh Generation produces green cleaning, paper and personal care
products, such as laundr y and dishwasher detergents, paper towels, baby
diapers, body washes and lotions. The company uses biodegradable and
phosphate- and chlorine-free ingredients in its products and recycled
materials in its packaging.
 Figure 20.6.1 Seventh Generation products use
biodegradable and phosphate- and chlorine-free
ingredients
Summary questions
1 Dene ‘green chemistry’.
2 Suggest some benets of using the technologies of green chemistry.
3 Outline six principles of green chemistry.
333
Key concepts
● Non-metals are elements whose atoms usually have a large number of
valence electrons, usually 5, 6, 7 or 8.
● n general, non-metals have low melting points and boiling points, do
not conduct electricity and heat, are dull, weak and brittle in t he solid
state and have low densities.
● Many non-metals are gases at room temperature. Bromine is a liquid and
a few are solids.
● Hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are colourless, tasteless and odourless
gases, chlorine is a yellow green gas and sulfur is a yellow solid.
● Carbon has two allotropes, diamond and graphite.
● Diamond is a transparent, colourless, sparkling solid.
● Graphite is a sof t, aky, opaque, dark grey solid.
● Non-metals form negative anions in chemical reactions wit h metals by
gaining electrons into t heir valence electron shell. As a result t hey form
ionic compounds
● Non-metals share valence electrons when t hey react wit h each ot her
forming covalent compounds .
● Non-metals react wit h oxygen to form non-metal oxides
● Non-metals react wit h metals to form ionic compounds
● All non-metals behave as oxid ising agents when t hey react wit h metals.
● Oxygen and chlorine always act as oxidising agents when t hey react
wit h ot her non-metals or compounds.
● Hydrogen, carbon and sulfur act as reducing agents when t hey react
wit h oxygen.
● Hydrogen and carbon act as reducing agents when t hey react wit h metal
oxides.
● Oxygen can be prepared in t he laborator y by t he decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide in t he presence of a manganese(IV) oxide catalyst.
● Carbon dioxide can be prepared in the laborator y by reacting a carbonate
with an acid, usually calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid.
● Ammonia can be prepared in t he laborator y by reacting an alkali wit h an
ammonium salt, e.g. calcium hydroxide and ammonium chloride.
● Calcium chloride, calcium oxide and concentrated sulfuric acid may be
used to dr y gases made in t he laborator y.
● Dr y oxygen and carbon dioxide are collected by upward displacement of
air, dr y ammonia is collected by downward displacement of air.
● Two impor tant uses of oxygen are in hospitals and for welding and
cutting metals.
● Carbon dioxide is used in re extinguishers, as a refrigerant, to make
carbonated sof t drinks and as an aerosol propellant.
● Non-metals and t heir compounds have a great many uses including
making bres to strengt hen plastics, to strengt hen r ubber used in tyres,
in jeweller y and to make insecticides, matches, fer tilisers, bleaches, glass
and ceramics.
● Non-metals and t heir compounds can have a negative effect on living
organisms and t he environment.
334
● The concentration of t hese harmful non-metals and t heir compounds
wit hin t he environment is increasing due to pollution caused by man’s
activities.
● The most harmful non-metal compounds include sulfur dioxide,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulde, oxides of nitrogen,
chlorouorocarbons, carbon par ticles, nitrate and phosphate ions and
compounds in pesticides.
● Acid rain forms when sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen react wit h
rainwater.
● Carbon dioxide is contributing to the greenhouse effect and global
warming
● Chlorouorocarbons are breaking down t he ozone layer in t he upper
atmosphere allowing more ultraviolet light to reach t he Ear t h’s surface.
● Nitrate and phosphate ions are causing eutrophication
● Pesticides concentrate up food chains, harming t he top consumers.
● Disposal of solid waste containing plastics poses a serious problem.
Waste containing plastics should be recycled
● Green chemistry is t he utilisation of a set of principles t hat reduces or
eliminates t he use or generation of hazardous substances in t he design,
manufacture and application of chemical products and processes.
● Using t he technologies of green chemistr y provides a number of benets
including reduced wastage, reduced pollution, safer products, reduced
use of energy and natural resources and improved competitiveness of
chemical manufacturers.
● There are twelve principles of green chemistr y.
335
Practice exam-style questions Non-metals
9 Acid rain is caused by:

 sulfur dioxide
 nitrogen dioxide
 carbon monoxide
A  only
1 Which of t he following is tr ue of non-metals?
B  and  only
A Most have high densities.
C  and  only
B They are all non-conductors of electricity.
D ,  and 
C They are usually solid at room temperature.
D Most have low melting points.

10 The increase in carbon dioxide levels in t he atmosphere
are predicted to cause all of t he following except:
2 Which of t he following is a list of gaseous diatomic non-
A depletion of t he ozone layer
metals at room temperature?
B changes in global weat her patterns
A chlorine, oxygen, bromine, nitrogen
C melting of polar ice caps
B hydrogen, oxygen, neon, nitrogen
D ooding of low-lying coastal areas
C uorine, oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine
D oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, helium
Structured question
3 Most oxides of non-metals are:

11 a The diagram below shows t he apparatus t hat could
A acidic
be used to prepare a dr y sample of oxygen in t he
B amphoteric
laborator y.
C basic
D neutral
liquid X
4 n which of t he following reactions is t he non-metal
behaving as a reducing agent?
A Zn(s)  S(s) ZnS(s)
B 2K(aq)  Cl (g) 2KCl(aq)   (aq)

2 2
C PbO(s)  H (g) Pb(s)  H O(l)

2 2
D 2Mg(s)  O (g) 2MgO(s)

2
5 Oxygen can be prepared in t he laborator y by t he
dry
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. Manganese(IV)

oxygen
solid Z
oxide is also usually used in t he preparation as:
solid Y
A a source of t he oxygen
B a catalyst
i) dentify t he liquid X and t he solid Y. (2 marks)
C an oxidising agent
ii) State t he role of t he solid Y. (1 mark)
D a reducing agent
iii) Write an equation to show how oxygen is
produced by X and Y. (2 marks)

6 Which of t he following is used as t he dr ying agent in t he
iv) Name ONE compound t hat could be Z and state

preparation of dr y ammonia in t he laborator y?
its role. (2 marks)

A calcium oxide
v) Give ONE reason for collecting t he oxygen by t he

B calcium chloride
met hod shown and name t he met hod. (2 marks)

C calcium carbonate
b Oxygen can react wit h bot h metals and non-metals

D concentrated sulfuric acid
to form oxides.
7 Which of t he following pairs of reactants would be t he i) Write a balanced equation for t he reaction
least suitable to prepare a sample of carbon dioxide in between zinc and oxygen. (2 marks)
t he laborator y? ii) f water, followed by a few drops of blue litmus
A calcium carbonate and dilute nitric acid solution, is added to t he oxide formed when
B magnesium carbonate and dilute sulfuric acid oxygen reacts wit h sulfur, what would you expect
C copper(II) carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid to obser ve? Give a reason for your answer.
D calcium carbonate and dilute sulfuric acid (2 marks)
c The non-metal hydrogen can behave as bot h an
8 Carbon dioxide is used in all of t he following except:

oxidising agent and a reducing agent. Write T WO
A re extinguishers
equations, one to show hydrogen behaving as an
B sof t drinks
oxidising agent and one to show it behaving as a
C hospitals
reducing agent. (2 marks)
D aerosol sprays
Total 15 marks
336
Non-metals Practice exam-style questions
12 a The Four t h Annual Assessment Repor t of t he United
Nations ntergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change published in 2007 predicts t hat overall global
warming is likely to be about 0.2 °C per decade for
t he next two decades. This global warming has been
par tially attributed to t he increase in greenhouse
gases in t he atmosphere.
i) Name t he main greenhouse gas. (1 mark)
ii) Explain how t he greenhouse effect works.
(4 marks)
iii) Discuss t he possible effects of global warming on
t he environment. (3 marks)
b Over t he years studies have shown t hat t here has
been a signicant depletion of t he ozone layer.
This has been linked wit h t he extensive use of
chlorouorocarbons for many years.
Discuss some of t he consequences of t his depletion.
Your answer must include reference to t he function
of t he ozone layer. (3 marks)
c ‘Non-metals and t heir compounds are used
extensively by man.’ By reference to T WO different
non-metals, provide evidence to suppor t t his
statement. (4 marks)
Total 15 marks
337
C21 Water
Water makes up between 60% and 70% of the human

Objectives
body and it covers 71% of the Earth’s surface. Water is

be able to:
a liquid at room temperature and pressure, however,
● describe some of the unique

it exists on Earth in all three states, solid (ice), liquid
properties of water
and gas (water vapour or steam). Water has certain

● explain why the properties
of water can have useful unique properties that make it essential for life on Earth.
and harmful effects on living
These properties help us to understand such things as
systems
how water becomes polluted and why life can exist at

● discuss the consequences of
the solvent properties of water

the bottom of lakes when the top is frozen.
● distinguish between the two
types of water hardness.
C21.1 The unique properties of water
Pure water, i.e. water t hat does not contain any impurities, is a colourless,
tasteless and odourless liquid t hat boils at 100 °C and freezes at 0 °C at
standard pressure. Water molecules are polar, meaning t hat each molecule
has a side t hat has a par tial positive charge and a side t hat has a par tial
negative charge. The two hydrogen atoms in each molecule have par tial
positive charges and t he oxygen atom has a par tial negative charge. This is
partially oxygen
hydrogen
negative
partially
  +
side of
positive
molecule
side of
hydrogen
molecule
 +
 Figure 21.1.1 A polar water molecule
The par tial positive hydrogen atoms and par tial negative oxygen atoms of
O H
 + t he water molecules are attracted to each ot her. This attraction forms what
H

is known as t he hydrogen bond. Hydrogen bonds are usually stronger
 +
hydrogen
t han ot her intermolecular forces which exist between molecules and t his
O H
bonds

 + gives water several unique properties . We will now look at some of t hese
H

O H
 +
proper ties and at t heir signicance to living organisms.
 + O H
H

 +
 +
H
The maximum density of water occurs at 4 °C

 +
O Density is a measure of how compact a substance is. t is dened as t he mass

H
 +
H of a substance divided by its volume, i.e.
 +
mass
________
density  .
 Figure 21.1.2 Hydrogen bonding in

volume
water
f t he volume of a xed mass of a substance decreases, its density increases.
f its volume increases, its density decreases
When most liquids are cooled and become solids t hey contract. The volume
of t he solid is less t han t he volume of t he liquid from which it forms. The
solid is, t herefore, denser t han t he liquid and if it is placed in more of t he
liquid it sinks.
338
Water The unique properties of water
Somet hing slightly different happens in t he case of water. When water is
cooled down to 4 °C it contracts and becomes denser, just like ot her liquids.
However, if it is cooled below 4 °C it star ts to expand and continues to expand
until it freezes at 0 °C. This means t hat t he volume of ice is greater t han t he
volume of t he water from which it forms. Solid ice is, t herefore, less dense
t han t he liquid water from which it formed and it oats on t he liquid as it
forms. This is why ice cubes oat in a cold drink.
1.0000
)
3
0.9995
m c g(
ytisneD
0.9990
0.9985
0.9980
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Temperature (°C)
 Figure 21.1.3 The maximum density of water occurs at 4 °C  Figure 21.1.4 Ice oats in water
When a pond or lake freezes, ice forms at t he surface and t he denser, warmer
water remains below t he ice. This enables aquatic organisms to sur vive under
t he ice.
ice
summer winter
8 °C 0 °C
7 °C 1 °C
6 °C 2 °C
5 °C 3 °C
4 °C 4 °C
 Figure 21.1.5 The temperature of water in a lake in summer and in winter
Water has a high specific heat capacity
n Unit 12.2 you learnt t hat t he specic heat capacity of a substance is
t he amount of heat needed to raise t he temperature of a unit mass of t he
substance, e.g. 1 g, by 1 °C. Because water has a high specic heat capacity, it
requires a lot of heat energy to increase its temperature by 1 °C. This means
t hat water can absorb a lot of heat energy wit hout its temperature changing
ver y much or, in ot her words, when t he temperature of t he surroundings
changes, t he temperature of water does not change ver y much. This is of
signicance to living organisms for two main reasons.
● The bodies of living organisms contain between 60% and 70% water.
Because of t his, living organisms can absorb a lot of heat energy wit hout
t heir body temperature changing ver y much. This means t hey can
sur vive in extremes of temperature.
● As environmental temperatures change, e.g. from winter to summer,
t he temperature of large bodies of water such as lakes and seas does
not change ver y much. This means t hat organisms living in aquatic
environments do not experience extreme uctuations in temperature.
339
The unique properties of water Water
Water has a high heat of vaporisation
The heat of vaporisation is t he amount of heat energy required to change
a liquid to a gas. A lot of heat energy is required to change liquid water to a
gas due to t he hydrogen bonds between t he water molecules. This means
t hat water is not ver y volatile. Because water has a high heat of vaporisation,
when water evaporates from t he surface of a living organism it removes a
large amount of heat energy from t he organism. This makes sweating and
transpiration ver y effective met hods of cooling organisms.
Water has a relatively high melting point and boiling point
The melting point of ice and t he boiling point of water are much higher
t han ot her molecules of a similar size due to t he hydrogen bonds between
t he molecules. Water exists as a liquid between 0 °C and 100 °C, which means
t hat at t he temperatures experienced on Ear t h, most water is in t he liquid
state. Because of t his, lakes, rivers and seas exist and provide an environment
in which aquatic organisms can live.
Water dissolves a large number of substances
Water is sometimes referred to as a ‘ universal solvent ’ because it dissolves
a large number of substances. Because water molecules are polar, water can
dissolve bot h ionic and polar covalent substances.

–
–
+
w
w
w
+ w
+
+
–
–
– w
w
–
+
w
–
+
–
–
w +
w
w + –
+
+
+
w
+
+
+
w
+ –
w
w
–
w
+
–
–
–
+
+
+
–
–
w
–
–
w
w
+ +
+
+
ionic crystal water molecule crystal lattice breaking up ions become surrounded by polar
water molecules forming hydrated ions
(a) Dissolving ionic substances

+
+
E
+
The fact t hat water can dissolve so many substances is of great signicance
E
E
E
w
+
to living organisms.
– +
E
w
w
–
+
–
● Water dissolves chemicals in cells so t hat chemical reactions can take

–
+
E
w
w
–
–
place, e.g. respiration.
+
+
E
E
+
–
w
+
– –
w
● Water dissolves many useful substances so t hat t hey can be absorbed and
E
–
transpor ted around t he bodies of organisms, e.g. food and mineral salts.
+ w –
water molecule ● Water dissolves waste products so t hat t hey can be excreted, e.g. urea.
+
E
ethanol molecule
However, t he solvent proper ties of water can also cause problems
(b) Dissolving covalent substances
● Water can become hard.
 Figure 21.1.6 Water can dissolve both

● Water can become polluted.
ionic (a) and covalent ( b) substances
● Mineral salts can be leached out of t he soil.
Consequences of the solvent properties of water
We will now look at some of t he consequences of t he solvent proper ties of
water in detail.
340
Water The unique properties of water
Water hardness
Hard water is water t hat does not lat her easily wit h soap, whereas sof t
water lat hers easily when soap is added. Water hardness is caused by
dissolved calcium and magnesium salts. When soap is put into hard water
2 2
containing Ca or Mg ions, it for ms unpleasant scum. This can be
shown by t he following equation using t he soap sodium octadecanoate
(C H COONa):
17 35
2 
2C H COONa(aq)  Ca (aq) (C H COO) Ca(s)  2Na (aq)

17 35 17 35 2
soap scum
Soap only lat her s when all of t he calcium and magnesium ions have
been precipit ated out as scum, t herefore, hard water wastes soap. Also
scum for ms a g rey, g reasy layer around sink s and shower s and discolour s
clot hes.
There are two types of water hardness, temporary hardness and permanent
hardness
Temporary water hardness
Temporary hardness of water is hardness t hat can be removed by boiling.
Temporar y hardness is caused by dissolved calcium hydrogencarbonate
(Ca(HCO ) ) and dissolved magnesium hydrogencarbonate (Mg(HCO ) ).

3 2 3 2
t is found in areas rich in limestone, i.e. calcium carbonate (CaCO ).

3
Rainwater contains dissolved carbon dioxide. When t his rainwater
passes t hrough rocks containing calcium carbonate t he dissolved carbon
dioxide reacts wit h t he calcium carbonate forming soluble calcium
hydrogencarbonate. This is shown in t he following equation:
CaCO (s)  H O(l)  CO (g) Ca(HCO ) (aq)

3 2 2 3 2
The soluble calcium hydrogencarbonate t hen dissolves in t he water making
it hard. This process is responsible for forming caves in limestone regions.
Permanent water hardness
Permanent hardness of water is hardness that cannot be removed by boiling.
Permanent hardness is caused by dissolved calcium sulfate (CaSO ) and

4
dissolved magnesium sulfate (MgSO ). Calcium sulfate and magnesium

4
sulfate are only slightly soluble and t hey dissolve in rainwater passing
t hrough rocks containing t hem.
Water pollution
When water dissolves harmful substances in t he environment it becomes
polluted (Units 19.2 and 20.5). The main water pollutants are summarised
in t he list below.
● Heavy metal ions, mainly from industr y.
● Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen which are produced during
combustion dissolve in water to form acid rain.
● Nitrate and phosphate ions present in fer tilisers and detergents.
● Pesticides used in agriculture and t he control of vectors of disease.
● Organic waste from untreated sewage and farmyards.
341
The treatment of water for domestic purposes Water
Leaching
Leaching is t he loss of water soluble substances from t he soil as water passes
t hrough it. When rainwater or irrigation water washes t hrough t he soil, it
dissolves water soluble mineral salts and takes t he salts wit h it into deeper
layers of t he soil. This of ten takes t he salts out of t he reach of plant roots,
making t he soil less fer tile.
Summary questions
1 Explain why water has unique physical properties.
2 Explain why ice oats in water.
3 Explain how each of the following properties of water is useful to living
organisms.
a Water has a high specic heat capacity
b Water has a high heat of vaporisation
4 Discuss:
a the advantages of water having good solvent properties
b the disadvantages of water having good solvent properties.
5 What is water hardness and how is it caused?
Objectives C21.2 The treatment of water for domestic

purposes
be able to:
The water t hat is piped to our homes comes from sources such as reser voirs,
● describe the stages in the
lakes, rivers and aquifers. t is sometimes cloudy, may have an unpleasant

large-scale treatment of water
taste and may contain harmful microorganisms, so it must be treated to

● describe ways in which water
reduce or remove all t he contaminants and make it safe to use. Water, which
can be treated at home
is safe enough to be consumed by humans, is known as drinking water or

● describe how hard water can
potable water
be softened.
Various met hods are used to treat water to make it safe for use.
Did you know?

Large-scale water treatment
?
Large-scale water treatment is used to treat water before it is piped to homes.

In many parts of the world,
t involves t he following stages.

humans have inadequate access
to potable water and use sources
contaminated with pathogens,

Flocculation and sedimentation
toxic chemicals and suspended
Flocculation is t he rst step in t he treatment process. Cer tain chemicals,

solids. Drinking this water or using
e.g. alum, are added to t he water to cause any ne suspended solid par ticles
it in food preparation is a cause of
to clump toget her to form larger par ticles called oc. This oc is t hen allowed
death in these countries.
to settle wit hin t he water supply, a process known as sed imentation.
Filtration
Once t he oc has settled, t he clear water above it is passed t hrough lters
in order to remove any remaining par ticles, including some bacteria and
vir uses. The lters, which are usually beds of gravel, sand and charcoal, have
var ying compositions and pore sizes.
342
Water The treatment of water for domestic purposes
Chlorination
Chlor ination is car r ie d out af t e r filt ra tio n to dest roy any bac ter ia an d
vir uses remainin g in t he wat er s up ply. Th e water is treated w it h c h lo r in e
gas, whic h is high ly toxic to b acter ia and vir u se s. Sinc e c h lo r ine is so
toxic, only ver y s ma ll amount s a re ad d ed (5 par ts per millio n ). One
disadvant age of t h is is t hat it can cau se t he water to have an unple as an t
t aste if too muc h is a dde d. Mon oc h lo roamine (NH Cl) is now being
2
used as an alter n a t ive to c h lor in e sin c e it is more st ab le t h an c h lo r in e so
remains effective fo r lo n ge r pe r io d s an d it lac k s t he distinc tive od our an d
t aste of gaseous c h lo r in e.
Water treatment at home
We can also treat t he water in our homes to ensure it is safe to drink using t he
following met hods.
Filtration
Suspended sediment can be removed from water in homes by using
bre lters made from spun cellulose or rayon bres. Dissolved organic
compounds, odours and unpleasant tastes can be removed by using carbon
lters containing activated charcoal.
Chlorination
Water can be chlor inated in t he home by adding sodium c hlorate(I)
solution (NaClO) or calcium c hlorate(I) t ablets [Ca(ClO) ] to t he water.

2
Sodium c hlorate(I) is found in c hlor ine bleac hes. Ten drops of c hlor ine
bleac h added to 5 dm of water, stir red and lef t for 30 minutes, is suf cient
 Figure 21.2.1 A home water lter
to destroy any microorganisms in t he water, but not leave an unpleasant
taste.
Boiling
Boiling water for 15 minutes is sufcient to kill any microorganisms in t he
water. Af ter boiling, t he water should be cooled before drinking.
Softening hard water
Water softening removes dissolved calcium and magnesium ions. t
t herefore conver ts hard water to sof t water. Wit h t he exception of boiling,
it removes bot h temporar y and permanent hardness. There are ve met hods
of sof tening hard water.
Boiling
Boiling water only removes temporar y hardness. Boiling water causes t he
dissolved calcium hydrogencarbonate and magnesium hydrogencarbonate
to decompose into insoluble calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate,
water and carbon dioxide. The insoluble carbonates precipitate out of t he
water t hus removing t he calcium and magnesium ions.
heat
e.g. Ca(HCO ) (aq) CaCO (s)  H O(l)  CO (g)

3 2 3 2 2
Calcium carbonate is also known as limescale. You of ten see it accumulating
inside kettles and around shower heads.
343
The treatment of water for domestic purposes Water
Addition of sodium carbonate
Sodium carbonate is also known as washing sod a. When added to hard
water it precipitates out t he dissolved calcium and magnesium ions as
insoluble calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate. Adding sodium
carbonate removes bot h temporar y and permanent hardness, as shown in
t he following equations.
Removal of temporar y hardness:
e.g. Ca(HCO ) (aq)  Na CO (aq) CaCO (s)  2NaHCO (aq)

3 2 2 3 3 3
Removal of permanent hardness:
e.g. CaSO (aq)  Na CO (aq) CaCO (s)  Na SO (aq)

4 2 3 3 2 4
These reactions can be represented by t he common ionic equation:
 2
Ca (aq)  CO (aq) CaCO (s)

3 3
Ion-exchange
 Figure 21.2.2 An ion-exchange water
softener. The black cylinders contain
n an ion-exchange water sof tening device, water is slowly passed t hrough
the ion-exchange resin and the grey
an ion-exchange column containing an ion-exchange resin known as
tank contains the sodium chloride
zeolite. Zeolite is a complex compound containing sodium ions. t can be

used during regeneration.
represented by t he formula Na Z. As t he water passes t hrough t he zeolite,

2
t he calcium and magnesium ions displace t he sodium ions and are absorbed
Exam tip into t he zeolite. The calcium and magnesium ions are, t herefore, removed
✔
from t he water and t he sodium ions enter t he water in t heir place. Sodium
It is important that you can write

ions do not cause water to be hard.
equations to show the different
2 
E.g. Ca (aq)  Na Z(s) CaZ(s)  2Na (aq)

2
methods to soften hard water.
ion-
exchange
resin
The calcium and magnesium ions are periodically removed from t he zeolite
by passing a highly concentrated solution of sodium chloride (brine) t hrough
it, a process known as regeneration.
Distillation
During distillation, water is boiled and t he steam produced is condensed to
form pure d istilled water. This leaves any dissolved salts and microorganisms
behind. This met hod can be used to desalinate sea water in areas where water
is in shor t supply. However, it is not an economical met hod since it uses a
lot of energy to heat t he water and a residue of solid builds up in t he heating
vessel. t can be used on a small scale in areas wit h a lot of sunshine where
solar energy is used to heat t he water in a solar still
Reverse osmosis
During reverse osmosis, water is forced through a semi-permeable membrane
under pressure. Only water molecules are forced through the membrane and all
dissolved substances remain behind on the pressurised side. This has the advantage
over other methods of softening water since it removes the ions which cause water
hardness and it also removes other ions and any dissolved organic matter.
Most desalination plants make use of reverse osmosis to desalinate sea
water or brackish water to produce fresh water. Brackish water contains more
dissolved salts t han fresh water, but less t han sea water.
344
Water The treatment of water for domestic purposes
sea water or
Summary questions
many similar units
brackish water
membrane modules
1 Describe what happens at
fresh
pre-treatment
each stage in the large-scale
water
feed
treatment of water.
2 a List three ways that water
high pressure can be treated in a home.

brine disposal
pump
b What, in terms of
 Figure 21.2.3 Reverse osmosis obtains fresh water from sea water palatability, do you think
could be a disadvantage
of using a chlorine bleach
to treat water?
Key concepts
3 Explain how water can be
● Water molecules are polar softened by:
a boiling
● The attraction between t he par tial positive and par tial negative par ts of
b using an ion-exchange
water molecules forms t he hydrogen bond which has a signicant effect
resin
on t he physical proper ties of water, giving it several unique proper ties.
c using sodium carbonate.
● The unique proper ties of water make it extremely valuable in living
Give the relevant equations for

systems.
each of your answers.
● The maximum density of water occurs at 4 °C. When a pond or lake
freezes, ice forms at t he surface and t he denser, warmer water remains 4 What is reverse osmosis and
below t he ice enabling aquatic organisms to sur vive under t he ice. how is it used to obtain fresh
water from sea water?

● Water has a high specic heat capacity . Living organisms and
large bodies of water can absorb a lot of heat energy wit hout t heir
temperatures changing ver y much.
● Water has a high heat of vaporisation . This means water is not ver y
volatile. When water evaporates from t he surface of a living organism it
removes heat energy cooling t he organism.
● Water has relatively high melting and boiling points. At temperatures
experienced on Ear t h most water is in t he liquid state making t he
existence of aquatic environments possible.
● Water dissolves a ver y large number of substances. Water dissolves
chemicals in cells so t hey can react, food and minerals so t hey can be
transpor ted around organisms’ bodies and waste products so t hey can be
excreted.
● Water hardness, water pollution and leaching all result from water’s
solvent proper ties.
● Temporary water hardness is caused by dissolved calcium
hydrogencarbonate and dissolved magnesium hydrogencarbonate.
● Permanent water hardness is caused by dissolved calcium sulfate and
dissolved magnesium sulfate.
● Large-scale treatment of water for domestic pur poses involves
occulation, sedimentation, ltration and chlorination.
● Water can be treated in t he home by ltration, chlorination and boiling.
● Temporar y water hardness can be removed by boiling.
● Temporar y and permanent water hardness can be removed by adding
sodium carbonate to t he water, passing t he water t hrough an ion-
exchange resin, distillation and reverse osmosis.
345
Practice exam-style questions Water
7 a Water possesses a number of unique proper ties which
Multiple-choice questions make it essential for life on Ear t h. Outline THREE of
t hese proper ties and explain how EACH is essential
1 Which of t he following proper ties of water is impor tant
to living organisms. (6 marks)
in t he control of body temperature?
b The presence of cer tain ions in water can cause
A its boiling point
temporar y and permanent hardness.
B its density
i) What is meant by t he term ‘hard water’? (1 mark)
C its heat of vaporisation
ii) Sodium carbonate is used to remove bot h
D its solvent proper ties
temporar y and permanent hardness, while
2 Aquatic organisms can live on t he bottom of a lake in temporar y hardness can also be removed by
winter even t hough t he surface is frozen because: boiling. Write an equation to show t he removal
A water has a relatively low melting point of EACH of t he following:
B t he maximum density of water occurs at 4 °C – permanent hardness using sodium carbonate
C water is not ver y volatile – temporar y hardness by boiling. (4 marks)
D water has a high specic heat capacity iii) Suggest T WO reasons why it is useful to remove
hardness from water. (2 marks)
3 All of t he following result from t he solvent proper ties of
c Briey outline how water is treated before it is piped
water except:
to homes. (2 marks)
A acid rain
Total 15 marks
B water hardness
C chemical reactions in cells
D soil erosion
4 The compound mainly responsible for temporar y
hardness of water is:
A calcium sulfate
B calcium hydrogencarbonate
C calcium carbonate
D calcium chloride
5 Permanent hardness can be removed by:
 adding sodium carbonate to t he water
 passing t he water t hrough an ion-exchange column
 boiling t he water
A  only
B  and  only
C  and  only
D ,  and 
6 Which of t he following lists t he stages involved in t he
large-scale treatment of water in t he correct order?
A occulation, sedimentation, ltration, chlorination
B sedimentation, occulation, ltration, chlorination
C chlorination, occulation, sedimentation, ltration
D occulation, chlorination, sedimentation, ltration
346
C22 Qualitative analysis
Ionic compounds are composed of positive cations

Objectives
and negative anions. Being able to identify the cations

be able to:
and anions present in unknown ionic compounds

is extremely important. This is known as qualitative
cations using sodium
analysis. Simple observations of a compound may

hydroxide solution, aqueous
indicate what it contains, e.g. the copper( II) ion is blue. ammonia and potassium iodide
solution
Positively identifying ions makes use of their reactions
● give results of tests to identify
with other chemical compounds. Being able to identify

cations
● write ionic equations for the

different gases is also very important. This makes use of
reactions occurring in tests to
the chemical properties of the gases.
identify cations.
C22.1 Identification of cations
Cations are positively charged ions. The cation present in a compound can
be identied by carr ying out various tests on t he compound.
Identification of cations using sodium hydroxide
solution
All hydroxides are insoluble except ammonium hydroxide and t hose of
t he alkali metals, i.e. t he metals in Group  of t he periodic table including
sodium and potassium. This means t hat if sodium hydroxide solution is
added to a solution containing any metal ion, except ions of t he alkali
metals, a precipitate will form since t he metal ion reacts wit h t he hydroxide
ion (OH ) forming an insoluble metal hydroxide . This can be summarised
by t he following general ionic equation:
n
M (aq)  nOH (aq) M(OH) (s)

n
The colour of t he precipitate and its solubility in excess sodium hydroxide
solution can give us some idea of t he identity of t he metal cation present in
a solution.
The test is carried out by making a solution of a salt containing t he cation
to be identied in a test tube and adding a few drops of sodium hydroxide
solution. The colour of t he precipitate is noted. Sodium hydroxide solution
is t hen added until it is in excess to see if t he precipitate dissolves. f no
precipitate forms, t hen t he solution is warmed and tested for t he presence
of ammonia by placing a piece of moist red litmus paper across t he mout h
of t he tube.
Table 22.1.1 shows t he colour of t he precipitate formed on adding a few drops
of sodium hydroxide solution to salt solutions containing different cations,
and t he solubility of t he precipitate formed when excess sodium hydroxide
solution is added.
347
Identification of cations Qualitative analysis
 Table 22.1.1 Effect of sodium hydroxide solution on cations
Effect of adding excess sodium
Colour of precipitate after dropwise
Cation Equation for the reaction hydroxide solution on the
addition of sodium hydroxide solution
precipitate
2 2
Ca White Ca (aq)  2OH (aq) Ca(OH) (s) Precipitate is insoluble in excess, therefore
2
it remains.
3 3
Al White Al (aq)  3OH (aq) Al(OH) (s) Precipitate is soluble in excess; it

3
dissolves and forms a colourless solution.
2 2
Zn White Zn (aq)  2OH (aq) Zn(OH) (s) Precipitate is soluble in excess; it

2
2 2
Pb White Pb (aq)  2OH (aq) Pb(OH) (s) Precipitate is soluble in excess; it

2
2 2
Fe Green, turns brown on standing Fe (aq)  2OH (aq) Fe(OH) (s) Precipitate is insoluble in excess, therefore
2
it remains
3 3
Fe Red-brown Fe (aq)  3OH (aq) Fe(OH) (s) Precipitate is insoluble in excess, therefore
3
it remains
2 2
Cu Blue Cu (aq)  2OH (aq) Cu(OH) (s) Precipitate is insoluble in excess, therefore
2
it remains
 
NH No precipitate. Ammonia is evolved on warming, NH (aq)  OH (aq) NH (g)  H O(l)

4 4 3 2
which turns moist red litmus paper blue.
 Figure 22.1.1 A blue precipitate forms when sodium hydroxide solution is added to a
2
solution containing Cu ions
Calcium hydroxide , iron(II) hydroxide , iron(III) hydroxide and
copper(II) hydroxide are basic hydroxides which do not react wit h sodium
hydroxide. When all t he metal ions have been precipitated out and excess
sodium hydroxide solution is added, t hese precipitates remain
Aluminium hydroxide , zinc hydroxide and lead(II) hydroxide are
amphoteric hydroxides which react wit h t he strong alkali, sodium
hydroxide. When all t he metal ions have been precipitated out and excess
sodium hydroxide solution is added, t hese precipitates react wit h t he sodium
hydroxide forming soluble salts t hat dissolve, hence t he precipitate dissolves
and a solution is formed.
Ammonium hydroxide is soluble, t herefore, no precipitate forms on adding
sodium hydroxide to an ammonium salt. Warming t he solution causes t he
ammonium ion and t he hydroxide ion to react and form ammonia gas as
shown in t he equation in Table 22.1.1.
f an ammonium salt is heated directly in a dr y test tube, ammonia gas is also
produced:
e.g. NH Cl(s) NH (g)  HCl(g)

4 3
348
Qualitative analysis Identification of cations
Identification of cations using aqueous ammonia
Exam tip
(ammonium hydroxide solution) ✔
Aqueous ammonia (NH OH) also contains t he hydroxide ion. f t his is added You must be able to write the ionic
4
to a solution containing any metal ion, except ions of t he alkali metals, a equations for all the reactions
occurring in the tests to identify

precipitate of an insoluble metal hydroxide forms. The colour of t he
cations and anions. When writing

precipitate and its solubility in excess ammonium hydroxide solution can also
these equations it is essential that

give us some idea of t he identity of t he metal cation present in a solution.
you remember to put the charges
The met hod used is t he same as t he one used wit h sodium hydroxide solution. on the ions, that you balance the
Table 22.1.2 shows t he colour of t he precipitate formed on adding a few drops equations and that you give the
correct state symbols.

of aqueous ammonia and its solubility in excess aqueous ammonia.
 Table 22.1.2 Effect of aqueous ammonia on cations
Colour of precipitate after dropwise Effect of adding excess aqueous ammonia on
Cation Equation for the reaction
addition of aqueous ammonia the precipitate
2
Ca No precipitate – –
3 3
Al White Al (aq)  3OH (aq) Al(OH) (s) Precipitate is insoluble in excess, therefore it remains.
3
2 2
Zn White Zn (aq)  2OH (aq) Zn(OH) (s) Precipitate is soluble in excess; it dissolves and forms
2
a colourless solution.
2 2
Pb White Pb (aq)  2OH (aq) Pb(OH) (s) Precipitate is insoluble in excess, therefore it remains.
2
2 2
Fe Green, turns brown on standing Fe (aq)  2OH (aq) Fe(OH) (s) Precipitate is insoluble in excess, therefore it remains.
2
3 3
Fe Red-brown Fe (aq)  3OH (aq) Fe(OH) (s) Precipitate is insoluble in excess, therefore it remains.
3
2 2
Cu Blue Cu (aq)  2OH (aq) Cu(OH) (s) Precipitate is soluble in excess; it dissolves and forms
2
a deep blue solution.
Aluminium hydroxide , lead(II) hydroxide , iron(II) hydroxide and
iron(III) hydroxide do not react wit h t he weak alkali, ammonium hydroxide.
When all t he metal ions have been precipitated out and excess ammonium
hydroxide solution is added, t hese precipitates remain
Zinc hydroxide and copper(II) hydroxide react wit h ammonium hydroxide.
When all t he metal ions have been precipitated out and excess ammonium
hydroxide solution is added, t hese precipitates react wit h t he ammonium
hydroxide forming complex soluble salts t hat dissolve, hence t he precipitate
dissolves and a solution is formed.
3
Distinguishing between the Al ion and the
2
Pb ion
Combining t he results of t he tests using sodium hydroxide solution and
aqueous ammonia, t he only cations which cannot be distinguished are t he
3 2
Al ion and t he Pb ion. Bot h ions form a white precipitate wit h sodium
hydroxide solution t hat is soluble in excess and a white precipitate wit h
aqueous ammonia t hat is insoluble in excess. Therefore, it is necessar y to
perform a fur t her test to distinguish between t hese two ions.
The test can be performed by adding a few drops of potassium iodide solution
3
to a solution containing t he metal cation. The Al ion does not produce a
2
precipitate, however, t he Pb ion reacts wit h t he iodide ion ( ) to produce  Figure 22.1.2 A bright yellow
precipitate forms when potassium

a br ight yellow precipitate of lead(II) iodide:
iodide solution is added to a solution
2
2
Pb (aq)  2 (aq) Pb (s) containing Pb ions

2
349
Identification of cations Qualitative analysis
To identify cations
You will be supplied with samples of salts containing calcium, aluminium, zinc, lead( II), iron(II), iron(III), copper(II) and
ammonium ions, sodium hydroxide solution, aqueous ammonia, potassium iodide solution, a piece of red litmus
paper and test tubes.
Method
1 Carefully place a very small spatula of each salt into a separate test tube. Add 2 cm of distilled water to each
tube and shake to dissolve the salt.
2 Label each tube with the symbol of the cation it contains.
3 Add a few drops of sodium hydroxide solution to each tube. Observe the colour of the precipitate.
4 Add excess sodium hydroxide solution to each tube and see if the precipitate dissolves.
5 If no precipitate forms, gently heat the contents of the test tube and test for ammonia gas by placing a piece of
moist red litmus paper across the mouth of the tube.
6 Record your results in a table using the following headings for the columns: cation, colour of the precipitate on
adding sodium hydroxide dropwise, ionic equation for the reaction occurring, solubility of the precipitate on
adding excess sodium hydroxide solution.
7 Explain why the precipitates dissolved when excess sodium hydroxide was added to the test tubes containing
aluminium, zinc and lead( II) ions, but did not dissolve when excess solution was added to the test tubes
containing calcium, iron( II), iron(III) and copper( II) ions.
8 Repeat steps 1 to 6 replacing sodium hydroxide solution with aqueous ammonia.
9 Explain why the precipitates dissolved when excess aqueous ammonia was added to the test tubes containing
zinc and copper( II) ions.
10 Place small spatulas of the salts containing aluminium and lead( II) ions into two separate test tubes. Add 2 cm
of distilled water to each and shake to make solutions.
11 Add a few drops of potassium iodide solution to each and look for a precipitate forming. Record the colour of
the precipitate.
Summary questions
1 When a few drops of sodium hydroxide solution were added to an unknown solution, a blue precipitate formed.
When excess sodium hydroxide solution was added, the precipitate remained.
a Suggest an identity for the cation present in the solution.
b Explain why the precipitate formed.
c Write an ionic equation for the formation of the precipitate.
d Explain why the precipitate remained when excess sodium hydroxide was added.
2 When a few drops of sodium hydroxide solution were added to a solution containing lead( II) ions, a white
precipitate formed. When excess sodium hydroxide solution was added, the precipitate dissolved.
a Explain why the precipitate formed.
b Write an ionic equation for the formation of the precipitate.
c Explain why the precipitate dissolved when excess sodium hydroxide was added.
3 Explain how you could distinguish between a solution containing aluminium ions and one containing zinc ions.
4 Ammonium chloride solution does not form a precipitate when sodium hydroxide solution is added, however, on
heating, ammonia gas is evolved.
a Explain why ammonia is evolved on heating. b Write an ionic equation for the reaction.
350
Qualitative analysis Identification of anions
C22.2 Identification of anions Objectives
Anions are negatively charged ions. The anion present in a compound can
be able to:
be identied by carr ying out various tests on t he compound.
anions
Identification of anions by heating the solid
● give results of the tests to
Carbonate (CO ) and nitrate (NO ) ions can be identied by heating a identify anions
3 3
sample of t he solid in a dr y test tube and testing t he gas evolved. Heating ● write ionic equations for the
causes t he ions to decompose as shown in Table 22.2.1. reactions occurring in the tests
to identify anions.
 Table 22.2.1 Effect of heat on a sample of the solid
Anion Observations on heating Equation for the reaction
CO Carbon dioxide is evolved, which heat

3
2 2
forms a white precipitate in lime CO (s) O (s)  CO (g)

3 2
water.
NO Oxygen is evolved, which relights 2NO (s) 2NO (s)  O (g)

3 3 2 2
of potassium a glowing splint.
or sodium
NO Nitrogen dioxide is evolved, which heat

3
of calcium and is a brown gas. Oxygen is evolved 4NO (s) 2O (s)  4NO (g)  O (g)
3 2 2
below which relights a glowing splint.
Identification of anions using dilute acid
Carbonate and sulte (SO ) ions can be identied by adding dilute nitric
3
(or hydrochloric) acid to a sample of t he solid, heating if necessar y, and
testing t he gas evolved. The anions react wit h t he hydrogen ions (H ) in t he
acid as shown in Table 22.2.2.
 Table 22.2.2 Effect of dilute acid on a sample of the solid
Anion Observations on adding dilute acid Equation for the reaction
2 2 
CO Effervescence occurs. Carbon dioxide CO (s)  2H (aq) H O(l)  CO (g)

3 3 2 2
is evolved, which forms a white
precipitate in lime water.
2 2 
SO Effervescence occurs. Sulfur dioxide is SO (s)  2H (aq) H O(l)  SO (g)

3 3 2 2
evolved on heating, which turns acidified
potassium manganate(VII) solution from
purple to colourless.
acid
effervescence
a white precipitate forms
in the lime water in the
calcium carbonate
presence of carbon dioxide
 Figure 22.2.1 Identication of a carbonate
Identification of anions using concentrated
sulfuric acid
Carbonate, sulte, chloride (Cl ), bromide (Br ) and iodide ( ) ions can be
identied by adding concentrated sulfuric acid to a sample of the solid in a dr y
test tube and testing the gas evolved. The reactions are shown in Table 22.2.3.
351
Identification of anions Qualitative analysis
 Table 22.2.3 Effect of concentrated sulfuric acid on the solid
Anion Observation on adding concentrated sulfuric acid
CO Carbon dioxide is evolved, which forms a white precipitate in lime water

3
SO Sulfur dioxide is evolved, which turns acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution from
3
purple to colourless
Cl Hydrogen chloride is evolved, which forms white fumes with ammonia gas
Br Bromine vapour is evolved, which is red-brown
I Iodine is formed, which is a grey-black solid. The solid sublimes if heated to form a
purple vapour.
Identification of anions using silver nitrate solution
Chloride, bromide and iod ide ions can be identied by making a solution
of t he solid in dilute nitric acid, adding a few drops of silver nitrate solution,
obser ving t he colour of t he precipitate and t hen adding aqueous ammonia
and looking to see if t he precipitate dissolves. The reactions are shown in
Table 22.2.4.
 Table 22.2.4 Effect of silver nitrate solution followed by aqueous ammonia on the solid
Observation on
Observations on adding
Anion Equation for the reaction adding aqueous
silver nitrate solution
ammonia
Cl A white precipitate of Ag (aq)  Cl (aq) AgCl(s) Precipitate dissolves
silver chloride forms, which
turns slightly purple-grey in
sunlight
Br A cream precipitate of Ag (aq)  Br (aq) AgBr(s) Precipitate partially
silver bromide forms, which dissolves
turns slightly green in
sunlight
I A pale yellow precipitate of Ag (aq)  I (aq) AgI(s) Precipitate remains
silver iodide forms
Identification of anions using barium nitrate
(or chloride) solution
The sulfate (SO ) ion can be identied by making a solution of t he solid in

4
distilled water, adding a few drops of barium nitrate (or chloride) solution,
obser ving t he precipitate and t hen adding dilute nitric (or hydrochloric)
acid. This test will also detect carbonate and sulte ions. The reactions are
shown in Table 22.2.5.
 Table 22.2.5 Effect of barium nitrate followed by dilute acid on the solid
Observations on
Observation on
Anion adding barium Equation for the reaction
adding dilute acid
nitrate solution
2 2 2
SO A white precipitate of Ba (aq)  SO (aq) BaSO (s) White precipitate

4 4 4
barium sulfate forms remains
2 2 2
CO A white precipitate Ba (aq)  CO (aq) BaCO (s) Precipitate dissolves

3 3 3
of barium carbonate releasing carbon
forms dioxide
2 2 2
SO A white precipitate of Ba (aq)  SO (aq) BaSO (s) Precipitate dissolves

3 3 3
barium sulfite forms releasing sulfur
dioxide on heating
352
Qualitative analysis Identification of anions
Further test to identify the nitrate ion
To conrm t he presence of t he nitrate ion, concentrated sulfuric acid and a
few copper turnings are added to a sample of t he solid in a test tube and t he
tube is heated. A blue solution is formed and brown nitrogen dioxide gas is
evolved.
To identify anions

 Figure 22.2.2 Testing for the nitrate ion
You will be supplied with samples of four salts labelled A to D (A is
sodium sulfate, B is sodium chloride, C is sodium nitrate and D is sodium
Exam tip
carbonate), test tubes and any other reagents that you have learnt about in
✔
this unit.
You may be given the results of
Method
various tests on an unknown salt
and be asked to identify the ions
1 You are required to carry out appropriate tests to conrm the identity of
present in the salt. Alternatively,
each salt. Use the information in this unit to decide on the tests you will
the names of the ions present
use. You may make use of any of the reagents you have learnt about in
will be given to you and you will
this unit and may carry out more than one test on each salt.
be asked to record the expected
observations when various tests

2 Once you have decided on the tests to use, proceed with these tests to
are performed on the salt.
conrm the identity of each salt.
3 For each salt:
a record the method used for each test you carried out and the results
of the test
b explain the results of each test
c write ionic equations where appropriate.
Summary questions
1 Barium chloride is added to a solution that contains either a sulfate or a sulte and a white precipitate forms.
What additional test should be done to determine if it is a sulfate or a sulte?
2 Describe how you would distinguish between the following pairs of compounds:
a sodium carbonate and sodium sulte
b sodium chloride and sodium iodide
c magnesium nitrate and magnesium carbonate.
3 An unknown salt was heated and brown fumes were produced.
a Which anion was present in the salt?
b What other products would have been produced?
c Write an ionic equation to show the effect of heat on the anion.
4 An unknown salt does not effervesce when dilute nitric acid is added. When barium nitrate solution is added to a
solution of the salt a white precipitate forms that is insoluble in nitric acid.
a What anion is present in the salt?
b Write an ionic equation to show the formation of the white precipitate.
353
Identification of gases Qualitative analysis
Objectives C22.3 Identification of gases
Many gases t hat are produced in chemical reactions in t he laborator y or

be able to:
are used in t he laborator y are colourless. Some of t hem, however, do have
characteristic smells. t is impor tant to know how to test for t he different
various gases
gases as t his can help to identify t he products formed in various reactions.
● give results of the tests to
Table 22.3.1 summarises t he different tests for gases produced in chemical

identify gases
reactions and explains t he chemical principles of t he tests.

● explain the chemical principles
of the tests used to identify
 Table 22.3.1 Identication of gases
gases.
Gas Properties Test for the presence of the gas
Hydrogen (H ) A colourless gas. Place a lighted splint in the gas. A ‘squeaky pop’ sound is
2
Has no smell. heard and the splint is extinguished. The pop is the sound of a
small explosion as the hydrogen reacts explosively with oxygen
in the air to form steam:

Did you know?
?
2H (g)  O (g) 2H O(g)
2 2 2
The explosive reaction which

Oxygen (O ) A colourless gas. Place a glowing splint in the gas. The glowing splint glows
2
occurs when hydrogen combines Has no smell. brighter or re-lights
with oxygen produces so much
Carbon A colourless gas. Bubble the gas into lime water (a solution of calcium
energy that it is used to propel

dioxide (CO ) Has no smell. hydroxide). A white precipitate of calcium carbonate
2
space rockets forms:
Ca(OH) (aq)  CO (g) CaCO (s)  H O(l)

2 2 3 2
The precipitate redissolves on continued bubbling due to the
formation of soluble calcium hydrogencarbonate:
CaCO (s)  CO (g)  H O(l) Ca(HCO ) (aq)

3 2 2 3 2
Ammonia A colourless gas. Hold a piece of moist red litmus paper in the gas. The litmus
(NH ) Has a pungent paper turns blue in colour. Ammonia reacts with water on the
3
sulfur dioxide in
odour. paper forming ammonium hydroxide, which is alkaline.
NH (g)  H O(l) NH OH(aq)

3 2 4
Place a drop of concentrated hydrochloric acid on a glass
rod near the gas. The acid gives off hydrogen chloride fumes,
which react with the ammonia and form white fumes of
acidified potassium ammonium chloride:
manganate(VII) solution
NH (g)  HCl(g) NH Cl(s)

3 4
Hydrogen A colourless gas. Place a drop of concentrated ammonia solution on a glass
the solution changes from
chloride (HCl) Has a sharp acid rod near the gas. The ammonia solution gives off ammonia
purple to colourless
smell. fumes, which react with the hydrogen chloride forming white
 Figure 22.3.1 The test for sulfur fumes of ammonium chloride, as above.
dioxide
Sulfur dioxide A colourless gas. Bubble the gas into acidified potassium manganate(VII)
(SO ) Has a choking solution. The solution turns from purple to colourless. The
2
smell. sulfur dioxide reduces the purple MnO ion to the colourless
4
2
Mn ion.
Did you know?
?
Bubble the gas into acidified potassium dichromate(VI)
solution. The solution turns from orange to green. The sulfur

Silica gel is used to absorb
2 3
dioxide reduces the orange Cr O ion to the green Cr ion.

2 7
moisture in anything from shoe
Chlorine (Cl ) A yellow-green gas. Hold a piece of moist blue litmus paper in the gas. The
boxes to boxes containing 2
Has a sharp odour. litmus turns red and is then bleached white. Chlorine reacts
electronic items. Silica gel beads
Is poisonous. with water on the paper, forming hydrochloric acid (HCl) and
are often impregnated with cobalt(II)
chloric( ) acid (HClO).
chloride, which becomes pink when
Cl (g)  H O(l) HCl(aq)  HClO(aq)

2 2
the gel is saturated with water and
The chloric( ) acid oxidises the coloured litmus to colourless.
is no longer effective. In the past,
weather-predicting novelty items Nitrogen A brown gas. Its brown colour makes it fairly easy to identify. Place a piece
dioxide (NO ) Has a sharp, of moist blue litmus paper in the gas. The paper turns red
2
were coated with cobalt(II) chloride.
irritating odour. but is not bleached. Nitrogen dioxide reacts with the water on
The item was supposed to predict
Is toxic. the paper forming an acidic solution containing nitrous acid
good weather when it turned blue

(HNO ) and nitric acid (HNO ):
2 3
and rain when it turned pink.
2NO (g)  H O(l) HNO (aq)  HNO (aq)

2 2 2 3
354
Qualitative analysis Identification of gases
Gas Properties Test for the presence of the gas
Exam tip
✔
Water vapour A colourless gas. Place a piece of dry cobalt(II) chloride paper in the gas. The
(H O) Has no smell. paper changes from blue to pink. The water vapour causes the
2
If you are asked to describe how to

blue, anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride (CoCl ) to change to pink,
2
test for a particular gas, you must

hydrated cobalt(II) chloride (CoCl .6H O).
2 2
give both the method you would

Bring the gas into contact with anhydrous copper(II) sulfate.
The copper(II) sulfate turns from white to blue. The water use and the result you would
vapour causes the white, anhydrous copper(II) sulfate (CuSO )

4 expect to get.
to change to blue, hydrated copper(II) sulfate (CuSO .5H O).

4 2
To identify gases
You will be supplied with a sample of ammonium carbonate, a sample of magnesium nitrate, some lime water, pieces
of red litmus paper, blue litmus paper and dry cobalt chloride paper, tweezers, a wooden splint and test tubes, one of
which is tted with a cork with a delivery tube running through it.
Method
1 Place a spatula of ammonium carbonate into a dry test tube and place the cork with the delivery tube into the
mouth of the test tube.
Place about 2 cm of lime water into another tube.
2 Heat the test tube gently using a Bunsen ame. While heating, hold a piece of moist red litmus paper across the
end of the delivery tube using tweezers. Observe the change in colour of the paper.
3 While still heating the tube, place a piece of dry cobalt chloride paper across the end of the delivery tube.
Observe the change in colour of the paper.
4 While still heating the tube, bubble the gas into the lime water.
Observe what happens in the lime water.
5 As you are heating, observe what happens to the ammonium carbonate in the test tube.
6 Identify the three gases produced when ammonium carbonate is heated.
ammonium
Hence write an equation for the decomposition of ammonium carbonate.

carbonate
7 Explain why the quantity of ammonium carbonate decreased as it was heated
and possibly disappeared completely.
8 Place a small spatula of magnesium nitrate into another dry test tube.
9 Heat the test tube gently using a Bunsen ame. As soon as a brown gas is seen,
litmus
slowly insert a glowing splint into the tube. Observe what happens to the splint.
paper
10 While still heating, place a piece of moist blue litmus paper into the brown gas.
Observe the change in colour of the paper.
 Figure 22.3.2
11 Identify the two gases produced when magnesium nitrate is heated.
Identication of gases
Given that the solid remaining in the tube is magnesium oxide, write a balanced
produced from the
equation for the reaction. decomposition of
ammonium carbonate
355
Identification of gases Qualitative analysis
Summary questions
1 How would you test for the presence of oxygen gas?
2 A lighted splint is held near the mouth of a test tube and a popping
sound is heard.
a What gas is present in the tube?
b Why did the splint make a popping sound?
c Write a balanced equation for the reaction occurring.
3 An unknown solid was added to some hydrochloric acid in a test tube
and the tube was heated. During heating, a piece of paper with acidied
potassium dichromate( VI) solution on it changed colour from orange to
green.
a What gas was produced?
b Explain why the colour of the paper changed.
4 How would you test for the presence of chlorine gas?
Key concepts
● f sodium hydroxide solution or ammonium hydroxide solution
(aqueous ammonia) are added to a solution containing any metal ion,
except ions of t he alkali metals, a precipitate of an insoluble metal
hydroxide will form.
● The colour of t he precipitate and its solubility in excess sodium
hydroxide or ammonium hydroxide solution can indicate t he identity of
a metal cation present in a solution.
2
● The Ca forms a white precipitate wit h sodium hydroxide which
remains in excess and does not form a precipitate wit h aqueous
ammonia.
3 2
● Al and Pb ions all form white precipitate which are soluble in excess
sodium hydroxide solution and insoluble in excess aqueous ammonia.
2
● The Zn ion forms a white precipitate which is soluble in excess sodium
hydroxide solution and excess aqueous ammonia.
2
● The Fe ion forms a green precipitate which is insoluble in excess sodium
hydroxide solution and excess aqueous ammonia.
3
● The Fe ion forms a red-brown precipitate which is insoluble in excess
sodium hydroxide solution and excess aqueous ammonia.
2
● The Cu ion forms a blue precipitate which is insoluble in excess sodium
hydroxide solution and dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia forming a
deep blue solution.
● The NH ion does not form an insoluble hydroxide but, on heating,

4
ammonia gas is evolved.
3 2
● Al and Pb ions can be distinguished by using potassium iodide
2
solution; Pb ions form a yellow precipitate.
● When a sample of a solid is heated, t he CO ion produces carbon

3
dioxide and t he NO ion produces brown nitrogen dioxide and oxygen

3
● When dilute nitric (or hydrochloric) acid is added to a solid, t he CO

3
ion produces carbon dioxide and t he SO ion produces sulfur dioxide on

3
heating.
356
Qualitative analysis Identification of gases
● When concentrated sulfuric acid is added to a solid, t he CO ion

3
produces carbon dioxide, t he SO ion produces sulfur dioxide, t he Cl

3
ion produces hydrogen chloride, t he Br ion produces red-brown bromine
and t he  ion produces grey-black iodine
● When a solution of a solid is made in nitric acid and silver nitrate
solution is added followed by aqueous ammonia, t he Cl ion forms a
white precipitate which is soluble in aqueous ammonia, t he Br ion
forms a cream precipitate which is par tially soluble and t he  ion forms
a pale yellow precipitate which is insoluble.
● f barium nitrate (or chloride) solution is added to a solution containing
t he SO ion, a white precipitate forms which remains when dilute

4
nitric (or hydrochloric) acid is added.
● f concentrated sulfuric acid and a few copper turnings are added to a
solid containing t he NO ion and heated, a blue solution and brown

3
nitrogen dioxide form.
● Hydrogen causes a lighted splint to be extinguished wit h a squeaky pop
● Oxygen causes a glowing splint to glow br ighter or re-light
● Carbon dioxide forms a white precipitate in lime water.
● Hydrogen chloride forms white fumes wit h ammonia.
● Ammonia causes moist red litmus to turn blue and forms white fumes
wit h hydrogen chloride.
● Sulfur dioxide causes acidied potassium manganate (VII) to turn from
purple to colourless and acidied potassium dichromate(VI) to turn from
orange to green
● Chlorine causes moist blue litmus paper to turn red and t hen white
● Nitrogen dioxide is a brown gas which causes moist blue litmus paper to
turn red
● Water vapour causes dr y cobalt( II) chloride paper to turn from blue to
pink and anhydrous copper(II) sulfate to turn from white to blue
357
Practice exam-style questions Qualitative analysis
7 Which of t he following is a list of colourless, odourless

gases?
A hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur dioxide
B oxygen, water vapour, ammonia
Questions 1 and 2 refer to t he following table.

C carbon dioxide, hydrogen, oxygen
D water vapour, hydrogen, sulfur dioxide
Reaction with Reaction with Reaction with
excess sodium potassium iodide excess aqueous
8 Sulfur dioxide will:
hydroxide solution solution ammonia
 form white fumes wit h ammonia gas
A No precipitate No precipitate No precipitate

 cause acidied potassium dichromate(VI) solution to
change from green to orange

B No precipitate No precipitate White precipitate
 decolourise acidied potassium manganate(VII)
C No precipitate Yellow precipitate White precipitate
solution
D White precipitate No precipitate No precipitate
A  and  only
B  only
Match each of t he ions below to t he letter t hat best describes
C  and  only
its characteristics. Each letter may be used more t han once,
D  and  only
once or not at all.
2
1 Pb ion.
Structured question
2
2 Zn ion.
9 a A student conducts a number of tests on a solution
3 When excess dilute nitric acid is added to salt Z, a green in order to identify t he ions present. Some of t he
solution forms. On adding barium nitrate solution obser vations and inferences made from t he tests
to half of t he solution, a white precipitate forms. are recorded in a copy of t he table below. You are
On adding excess aqueous ammonia to t he ot her half of required to complete t he missing obser vations and
t he solution, a green precipitate forms. Salt Z is: inferences in t he table, including t he identity of
A iron(II) carbonate any ions present and any gases evolved, and ionic
B iron(II) sulfate equations where required.
C copper(II) carbonate
Test Observation Inference
D copper(II) sulfate
A few drops of silver • • Cl ions present
nitrate solution are

4 A metal oxide dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid.
added to a sample of
On addition of sodium hydroxide to t he solution a
the solution
white precipitate formed which remained on adding
excess sodium hydroxide solution. The metal oxide was:
A zinc oxide
A few drops of barium • White precipitate •
B lead(II) oxide
nitrate solution are forms
C calcium oxide added to a sample of

• Precipitate is •
the solution followed

D aluminium oxide insoluble in dilute
by dilute nitric acid

nitric acid
5 A solid X was heated in a dr y test tube and produced a
Sodium hydroxide • Green precipitate •
brown gas. When a glowing splint was inser ted into t he

solution is added to a forms which is

tube it re-lit. X was most likely to be:
sample of the solution insoluble in excess
A potassium bromide until in excess. The sodium hydroxide
mixture is warmed solution

B potassium nitrate
gently and the gas

• Litmus paper turns •
C magnesium bromide
tested with moist red

blue
D magnesium nitrate
litmus paper.
(8 marks)
6 Aqueous silver nitrate followed by aqueous ammonia is
b Anot her student was provided wit h two colourless

added to a solution containing chloride ions. Which of
solutions labelled A and B, respectively. One of t he

t he following obser vations was made?
solutions contained aluminium nitrate and t he ot her

A A white precipitate formed which was soluble in
contained zinc nitrate. n order to identify t he T WO

aqueous ammonia.
solutions, t he following experiment was performed:

B A white precipitate formed which was par tially
To 25.0 cm por tions of EACH solution, aqueous

soluble in aqueous ammonia.
ammonia was gradually added and t he mass of

C A white precipitate formed which was insoluble in
t he precipitate obtained was determined at regular

aqueous ammonia.
inter vals. The results obtained were used to plot t he

D A cream precipitate formed which was soluble in
following graphs:
aqueous ammonia.
358
Qualitative analysis Practice exam-style questions
Solution A Solution B
etatipicerp
etatipicerp
10 a i) dentify substances W to Z in t he following
reaction scheme. (4 marks)
W (white crystalline solid)

fo
fo
ssaM
ssaM
heated
Volume of aqueous Volume of aqueous

X (pale yellow solid) Y (colourless gas)
ammonia added ammonia added
bubbled into
dilute HNO (aq)

3
Ca(OH) (aq)
2
i) dentify solutions A and B. (2 marks)
Z (colourless solution) white precipitate
ii) Would t here be any difference in t he shapes of
few drops of
few drops of
eit her of t he graphs if aqueous sodium hydroxide
KI(aq) added
NaOH(aq) added
had been used as t he precipitating agent? Explain
white precipitate yellow precipitate
your answer. (2 marks)
excess
iii) Write t he ionic equation for t he reaction
NaOH(aq) added
between aluminium ions and aqueous ammonia.
colourless solution
(2 marks)
iv) Describe what you would expect to obser ve if

ii) Write chemical equations for EACH of t he
aqueous sodium hydroxide was added, until in

following reactions:
excess, to a solution containing copper(II) ions.

– t he effect of heat on solid W
(1 mark)
– t he reaction of gas Y wit h calcium hydroxide
Total 15 marks solution. (2 marks)
iii) Write t he ionic equation for t he formation of
t he yellow precipitate on adding a few drops of
potassium iodide solution to solution Z
(2 marks)
iv) On continued bubbling of gas Y into t he calcium
hydroxide solution, t he white precipitate
disappeared and a colourless solution formed.
Explain t he reason for t his obser vation. (2 marks)
b A student was given two white solids labelled T and
U. She was told t hat T was potassium sulte and U
was calcium nitrate. Describe ONE test she could
perform to conrm t he identity of t he anion in T and
ONE test she could perform to conrm t he identity
of t he cation in U. Your answer must include an ionic
equation for ONE of t he tests she used. (5 marks)
Total 15 marks
359
table
periodic
slatem-non
sdiollatem
The
slatem
muicnerwal muilebon muivelednem muimref muinietsnie muinrofilac
muilekreb muiruc muicirema muinotulp muinutpen muinaru muinitcatorp muiroht
301 201 101 001 99 89 79 69 59 49 39 29 19 09
seires muinitcA
rL oN dM mF sE fC kB mC mA uP pN U aP hT
301–09 †
752 452 652 352 452 152 942 742 342 242 732 832 132 232
muitetul muibretty muiluht muibre muimloh muisorpsyd
muibret muinilodag muiporue muiramas muirohb muimydoen muimydoesarp muirec
17 07 96 86 76 66 56 46 36 26 16 06 95 85
seires munahtnaL
uL bY mT rE oH yD bT dG uE mS mP dN rP eC
*
17–85
571 371 961 761 561 261 951 751 251 051 741 441 141 041
muinitca muidar muicnarf
† 98 88 78
cA aR rF
7 doireP
722 622 322
nodar enitatsa muinolop htumsib dael muillaht yrucrem dlog munitalp muidiri muimso muinehr netsgnut mulatnat muinfah munahtnal muirab muiseac
*
68 58 48 38 28 18 08 97 87 77 67 57 47 37 27 75 65 55
nR tA oP iB bP lT gH uA tP rI sO eR W aT fH aL aB sC
6 doireP
222 012 012 902 702 402 102 791 591 291 091 681 481 181 5.871 931 731 331
nonex enidoi muirullet ynomitna nit muidni muimdac revlis muidallap muidohr muinehtur muicenhcet munedbylom muiboin muinocriz muirtty muitnorts muidibur
45 35 25 15 05 94 84 74 64 54 44 34 24 14 04 93 83 73
eX I eT bS nS nI dC gA aP hR uR cT oM bN rZ Y rS bR 5 doireP
131 721 821 221 911 511 211 801 601 301 101 99 69 39 19 98 88 58
notpyrk enimorb muineles cinesra muinamreg muillag cniz reppoc lekcin tlaboc nori esenagnam muimorhc muidanav muinatit muidnacs muiclac muissatop
63 53 43 33 23 13 03 92 82 72 62 52 42 32 22 12 02 91
rK rB eS sA eG aG nZ uC iN oC eF nM rC V iT cS aC K 4 doireP
48 08 97 57 37 07 56 46 95 95 65 55 25 15 84 54 04 93
nogra enirolhc ruflus surohpsohp nocilis muinimula muisengam muidos
slatem noitisnart
81 71 61 51 41 31 21 11
rA lC S P iS lA gM aN 3 doireP
04 5.53 23 13 82 72 42 32
noen eniroulf negyxo negortin nobrac norob muillyreb muihtil
01 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
2 doireP
eN F O N C B eB iL
02 91 61 41 21 11 9 7
muileh negordyh
slatem
htrae
enilakla
snegolah
slatem
ilakla
2 1 rebmun )notorp( cimota
1 doireP
eH H
4 1
ssam cimota evitaler
0 IIV IV V VI III II I
puorG puorG puorG puorG puorG puorG puorG puorG
sesag
elbon
elbat cidoirep ehT
360
Index
A anodes 195 carbon 38, 84–5, 317, 318, 324, 334
accidents 332 anodising 194, 309, 314 in organic compounds 226–7
acid anhydrides 127, 1525 ant hocyanins 134 carbon dating 42
acid hydrolysis 265, 270 antifreezes 251 carbon dioxide 68, 77, 127, 318, 327, 334,
acid rain 327, 335 argon 60, 61, 62, 65 354
acid salts 136, 142–3 arsenic 312 laborator y preparation 321
acids 121–7, 152 ascorbic acid 127, 151 uses 323
classication 126–7 astatine 56 carbon monoxide 132, 300, 318, 326
dilute and concentrated 127 atom bomb 43 carbon par ticles 327
electrolytes 178 atomic mass 101 carbonate ion 351, 351–2, 357
ionisation 122 relative 41 carbonates 123–4, 139, 262, 289–90
in living systems 127–8 atomic number 35, 44 carbonic acid 136
reactions 123–6 atomic symbols 34 carboxylic acids see alkanoic acids
wit h metals 286–7 atoms 34–6, 44 catalysts 89, 207, 209, 216, 223
salt preparation and 139 electronic conguration 36, 37–9, catalytic conver ters 207
strengt h 127, 132–3, 133 48–50 catalytic cracking 252
activation energy 199, 204, 215–16, 217, isotopy 40–1 cat hode 195
223 mass number 36 cations 51, 54, 73, 79, 86, 292
addition polymers 250, 272–4, 280 Avogadro’s constant 102 identication 347–8
addition reactions 248–9, 252 centrifugation 31
alcohols 231, 255–62, 269 B chemical bonding 65–6, 86
esterication 262 barium 34, 51, 53 covalent 66, 76
volatility 256 barium nitrate 352 ionic 69–76
alkalis 128–9, 153 bases 129–30, 139, 152 metallic 66, 79–80, 282
electrolytes 178 batteries, lead–acid 303, 313 organic compounds 227–8
strengt h 133 bauxite 307 chemical equations 89–90, 99
alkanes 230–1, 242–5, 247 ber yllium 34, 51, 54 balancing 90–1
substitution reactions 243–5 beta par ticles 41 ionic compounds 94–5, 99
uses 245 binar y compounds 66–8 chemical formulae 18, 66, 86, 111–12
see also haloalkanes bioaccumulation 313, 329 covalent compounds 79
alkanoic acids 231, 258, 260–2, 270 biodegradability 33 chemical kinetics 198
alkanols see alcohols biogas 245, 252 chemical nomenclature 230
alkenes 231, 246–9, 252 bitumen 240 chemical reactions 96–8
polymerisation 272–3 bleaches 156–7 collision t heor y 199
uses 251 boiling 11, 13, 343 rates see rates of reaction
allotropes 87 boiling point 11, 13, 16, 17, 52 chloride ion 73, 352
allotropy 86–7 Group  55, 57 chlorination 343
alloys 305–6 metals 60, 282 chlorine 56, 60, 61, 62, 317, 325
alpha par ticles 41 non-metals 60, 316 gas 76, 139, 158, 175, 244, 343
alumina 299–300 organic compounds 230, 240, 242, isotopes 41
aluminium 34, 60, 61, 62, 284, 287 256, 261 chlorouorocarbons 327, 335
alloys 305 separating mixtures 25, 26, 27, chlorophyll 29, 311
corrosion 309 239–40 chlorosis 311
extraction 299 water 340 chromatography 28–9
ions 349 bond breaking and formation 213–14 chromium 34, 193
uses 303, 304 branched chains 228 cobalt 34
aluminium chloride 139, 288, 319 brass 305 coefcients 90, 99
aluminium oxide 67, 71, 132, 194, 309 breat halyser test 157, 258 collision t heor y 199
amide functional group 276–7 bromide ion 73 colloids 20, 32
ammonia 5, 116, 130, 325, 348, 354 bromide ions 351–2 combustion, alkanes 243
laborator y preparation 322 bromine 176, 244, 316 compounds 18, 66–8
ammonium chloride 98 butane 239, 242 binar y 66–8
ammonium hydroxide 349 butanol 255 ionic see ionic compounds
ammonium ion 348, 356 organic see organic compounds
ammonium salts 140 C percentage composition 112–13
amphoteric oxides and hydroxides cadmium 312 concentration 119, 198, 202–3
130–2, 132, 153 calcium 34, 51, 53, 284, 287, 294, 312, condensation 11
anaemia 312 348, 356 condensation polymers 275–8, 280
Anastas, Paul 330 calcium carbonate 143, 200, 322, 343 conduction see electrical conduction
anhydrous salts 137 calcium chlorate 325 conductors 176, 195
anions 73, 86 calcium hydrogencarbonate 341 conser vation of matter 114, 119
identication 351–3 calcium sulfate 144, 341 cooling cur ves 12–13
see also ionic compounds calorimeters 218 copper 34, 284, 287, 294, 348
361
Index
copper sulfate 139, 182, 187 electrorening 192 H
corrosion 193–4, 313 electrostatic forces 37 haematite 300, 301
aluminium 309 elements 17–18 haemoglobin 312
iron 310 see also atoms; periodic table haloalkanes 244, 248
covalent bonding 66, 76, 87 empirical formulae 66, 66–7, 72, 111 halogens 55–9, 243–4, 316
covalent compounds 111, 318, 334 end point see neutralisation point hard water 268, 343–4, 345
cracking 240–1 endot hermic reactions 212, 213, 214–15, hear t pacemakers 43
cr ystals 87 223 heat of neutralisation 218–21, 223
giant molecular 83–5 energy prole diagrams 215–17, 223 heat of reaction 217–18, 223
ionic 81 energy shells 44 heat of solution 223
see also ionic compounds ent halpy change 214–15, 2223 heat of vaporisation 340
simple molecular 82 neutralisation 218–21 heating cur ves 12–13
cyclohexane 228 reactions 217–18 heavy metals 312, 314
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), hexene 247
332 Hoffmann’s voltameter 183
enzymes 207, 333 homologous series 230–5, 236
decomposition reactions 96, 99
Epsom salt 143, 144 types 231
dehydration 257
esterication 262 hydration 249
deliquescence 8
esters 263–8, 270 hydrides 319
density 283
hydrolysis 265 hydrocarbons 239–51
derivatisation 332
saponication 265–6 cracking 240–1, 252
desalination 344
et hane 214, 239, 244 sources 239–40
detergents 267–8
et hanoic acid 127, 136, 226, 270 see also alkanes; alkenes
diacids 276
et hanol 226, 256–9, 270 hydrochloric acid 136, 199, 200, 205,
dialcohols 276
sample preparation 259 218–19
diamond 84, 87, 317, 324, 334
et her linkage 278, 280 reactions wit h metals 287
diatomic molecules 316
eutrophication 328, 329, 3335 hydrogen 174, 316, 317, 334
dibasic acids 126
evaporation 11, 26 gas 56, 287, 318, 354
differentially permeable membrane 6
exot hermic reactions 145, 212–13, 223, isotopes 40–1
diffusion 4–5
295 hydrogen bond 338
displacement reactions 57, 59, 96–7, 295,
ent halpy change 214–15 hydrogen chloride 5, 122, 354
307
reversible 215 hydrogen peroxide 167, 207
metals 173–4
see also ent halpy change hydrogen sulde 166, 327
non-metals 175–6
hydrogenation 248, 252
oxidising strengt h and 59
F hydrogencarbonates 123–4
distillation 344
fermentation 258–9, 270 hydronium ion 122
see also fractional distillation
fer tilisers 324 hydrophilicity 267
Döbereiner, Johann 46
ltration 25, 342, 343 hydroxide ion 73, 128, 133, 145, 347
double bonds 227, 246
reworks 53 hydroxides 262, 289, 347
dr y oxygen 321
occulation 342 hydroxyl group 255
ductility 283
uoride ion 73
uorine 56, 316 
E food preser vation 8, 157 ice 338–9, 345
ease of ionisation 50, 60, 294–5 formula unit 70, 72 intermolecular forces 57
effective collision 199, 209 fractional distillation 25, 259 nternational Union of Pure and Applied
electric current 176 freezing 11 Chemistr y (UPAC), 48, 230
electrical conduction 176–9, 303 fr uit 157 iodide ion 73, 351–2
electrolytic 177–8 fr uit juice 152 iodine 42, 316
metals 177, 282 functional groups 228–9, 236 ion-exchange 344
electrochemical series 181 ionic bonding 66, 69, 86, 87, 159
metals 173, 195 G ionic compounds 69–76, 177–8, 283, 292,
non-metals 175, 195 gamma radiation 41 318, 334
electrodes 195 gases 3, 10, 198, 354–6 chemical equations 94–5
electrolysis 180, 195, 307 diffusion 5 cr ystals 81
aqueous solutions 181–3 identication 354–5 state symbols 93–4
industrial applications 191–4 laborator y preparation 321–3 ionic equations 94–5, 99
molten electrolytes 180–1 mole and volume 106–7 ionic precipitation reactions 97, 99
quantitative 188–91 giant molecular cr ystals 83, 87 ionisation 61, 69, 173
electrolytes 178–9, 180–1, 195 global warming 328, 335 acids 122
electrolytic cell 179 glucose 112, 226, 278 ease of 50, 60, 294–5
electronegativity 56, 63 gold 34, 193 iron 34, 284, 285, 287, 312, 348
electronic conguration 44 graphite 84–5, 87, 317, 324 alloys 305
electrons 35, 37 green chemistr y 330, 335 corrosion 157, 310
conguration 36, 37–9, 48–50 twelve principles 330–2 extraction 300–2
mobile 79 greenhouse gases 328, 335 uses 303–4
oxidation–reduction and 157–8 groups 48, 49 iron(III) chloride 139
shell diagrams 38–9 Group  51–4, 63 isotopes 40–1, 44
valence 39, 61, 65, 70–1, 70–2, 282 Group  55–9, 63 radioactive 42–3
electroplating 193 gypsum plaster 144 isotopy 44
362
Index
K wit h oxygen 284–5 oxidation number 159–61, 170
keratin 277 wit h water 285–6 compound naming and 161
kerosene oil 240 reactivity 294–9, 307 redox reactions and 162–4
kinetic energy 3, 10–11, 204–5 uses 302–4 oxidation–reduction reactions see redox
alloys 305–6 reactions
met hane 77, 226, 228, 239 oxides 132–4, 262, 288–91, 319
met hanoic acid 127 acidic 131
lactic acid 127
met hyl orange 145 amphoteric 130–1, 132
Law of Octaves 47
micro-minerals 311, 314 basic 131
leaching 342
Minamata disease 312 neutral 132
lead 303, 304, 312, 348
mixtures 16, 18–19, 25–8 non-metal 318
cations 348, 349
molar concentration 108–10, 117–18 oxidising agents 164–9, 167, 334
limestone 301
molar mass 103–4, 119 non-metals as 319–20
liqueed gas (LNG and LPG), 239
molar volume 106–7 oxidising strengt h 59, 63
liquids 3, 17
mole 102, 104–5, 119 oxygen 77, 316, 317, 354
lit hium 34, 69
mole ratios 148–9 laborator y preparation 321
litmus 134
molecular formulae 111 reactions
lustre 282
molecules 76, 87 metals 285
see also compounds non-metals 318
M monobasic acids 126 uses 323
macro-minerals 311, 314 monochloroamine 343 ozone 328
magnesium 34, 51, 60, 61, 62, 158, 199, Moseley, Henr y 47
287, 311 P
magnesium uoride 71 N paper chromatography 28
magnesium oxide 114–15 natural gas 239 par ticulate t heor y 2–3
magnesium sulfate 144, 341 neutral oxides 132 evidence 3–4
magnetite 300 neutralisation point 145 percentage composition 112–13
malleability 283 temperature change 146 periodic table 46–50, 62, 360
manganate(VII) ion 161 neutralisation reactions 97, 145–7, 153, electronic conguration and 48–9
manganese 34 292 general trends 50
manganese oxide 161, 207 heat 218–19 see also groups; periods
mass number 36 neutrons 35 periodicity 62
matter 32 Newlands, John 47 periods 48
conser vation 113–14 nickel 34, 193 Period 3 60–3
par ticulate t heor y 2–3 nitrate ion 161, 327, 351, 353 pesticides 327, 329, 335
evidence 4–9 nitric acid 132, 136, 325 pests 8
states of 3, 9–10 nitrides 319 petroleum 239
changes 10–11 nitrogen 69, 78, 316, 317, 318, 325 pH scale 133
melanins 157 nitrogen dioxide 127, 161, 327, 354 phenolpht halein 145
melting 11, 13 nitrogen monoxide 161, 318 phosphoric acid 132, 136, 325
melting point 11, 13, 16, 52, 55, 82 noble gases 65 phosphor us 60, 61, 62, 325
carbon 84, 85, 317 non-conductors 176 phosphor us suldes 325
Group  55, 57 non-metals 60, 61, 69, 334 photosynt hesis 311
homologous series 230 displacement reactions 97 physical change 3
metals 60, 80, 282 electrochemical series 175 physical proper ties 9
non-metals 60, 316 physical proper ties 316–17 plastics 251, 279
water 340 uses 324–6 see also polymers
Mendeleev, Dmitri 47, 62 normal salts 136, 153 plutonium-235 43
mercur y 34, 312 nuclear ssion 43 polar molecules 78–9, 261, 269, 340, 345
metallic bonding 66, 79–80, 87, 282 nuclear notation 36–7 pollution 312, 326–7, 332, 341
metalloids 60, 62 nucleons 35, 44 polyalkenes 272–3, 280
metals 34, 60, 61, 69, 291 nucleus 35, 44 polyamides 276–7, 280
acids and 123 natural 277–8
chemical proper ties 283–5 O polyatomic ions 72, 87, 95, 160
compounds organic compounds 226–9 polyesters 276, 280
decomposition 295 alcohols 255–62 polyet hene 226, 272–3
see also carbonates; hydrides; alkanes 230–1, 242–5, 247 polymers 279, 329
hydrogencarbonates; hydroxides; alkanoic acids 231, 258, 260–2 addition 272–4
nitrides; oxides; silicates; suldes alkenes 231, 246–9, 272–3 condensation 275–8
displacement reactions 173–4, 295 bonding and str ucture 227–8 environmental effects 279–80
electrical conduction 177–8 esters 263–8 polypropene 273–4
electrochemical series 173, 173–6 functional groups 228–9 polysaccharides 278, 280
in living organisms 311–12 homologous series 230–5 potassium 34, 38, 39, 312
harmful effects 312–13 naming 233–5, 264 reactivity 173, 284, 287, 294, 295
physical proper ties 282–3 str uctural isomers 232–5 potassium chlorate(V), 22–3
purication 192–3 see also hydrocarbons; polymers potassium dichromate(VI), 258
reactions organometallic compounds 311–12 potassium iodide 167
wit h dilute acids 286–7 osmosis 6–9 potassium manganate(VII), 4, 161
wit h non-metals 319 reverse 344 potassium nitride 72
363
Index
potassium salts 140 separating funnels 25, 28 suldes 319
precipitate 94, 97, 99, 198, 356 shell diagrams 38 sulte ions 351
precipitation 30, 97 silica gel 354 sulfur 60, 62, 317, 324
preferential discharge 181, 195 silicates 326 sulfur dioxide 127, 166, 318, 326, 327, 354
products 89 silicon 60, 61, 62, 326 uses 157, 324
propane 239 silicon dioxide 84, 326 sulfur trioxide 127
propanol 255 silver 34, 193, 284, 287, 295 sulfuric acid 132, 182, 257, 287, 322, 352
propene 248, 273 silver nitrate 352 salt formation 136, 142
proteins 226, 277 simple molecular cr ystals 82, 87 uses 324
protium 40 single bonds 227 suspensions 20, 32
protons 35, 44 single displacement reactions 96, 99 sweat 7
pure substances 16–17, 32 soap 266 synt hesis reactions 96, 99
sodium 34, 60, 61, 62, 159, 257, 284, 287,
Q 294, 295, 312 T
qualitative analysis sodium benzoate 144 technetium-99 42
anions 351–3 sodium carbonate 143, 324, 344 temperature 204–5
cations 347–50 sodium chlorate(I), 325 tetrachloromet hane 244
gases 354–5 sodium chloride 8, 17, 56, 70–1, 81, 144, tetraet hyl lead 207
182 t hermal cracking 241, 252
R sodium hydrogencarbonate 143, 324 tin 34
radioactivity 41–2, 44 sodium hydroxide 142, 218, 347–9, 356 titration 140–1, 145, 148, 153, 220
uses 42–3 sodium iodide 175 tracers 42
radiot herapy 42 sodium nitrate 144 triads 46
radium 51 sodium salts 140 tribasic acids 126
rate cur ves 207–8, 209 sodium sulte 157 trichloromet hane 244
rate of reaction see reaction rates sodium t hiosulfate 205 Trinidad and Tobago 241
reactants 89 solder 306, 307
reaction rates 209 solid waste 313, 329 U
catalysts and 207 solids 3 unbranched chains 228
collision t heor y 199 cr ystals 81–5 universal indicator 134
concentration and 202–4 reaction rates 206 upward displacement 322
par ticle size and 206 solubility 22–4
rate cur ves 207–8 str ucture and proper ties 80–8 
temperature and 204–5 solubility 22–3, 22–5, 32 vacuum distillation 30
recycling 313, 314, 329 alcohols 256 valence electrons 39, 61, 65, 70–2, 282
redox reactions 97–8, 99, 156, 157–8, 170 cur ves 22, 32 valence number 66–8, 78, 86
oxidation number and 159, 162, 162–4 ionic compounds 93–4 vitamin C 127, 151
reducing agents 164–7, 170, 173, 292 solution, concentration 119, 198, 202–3 volumetric analysis 148–50, 153
reduction 156, 158, 170, 307 solutions 19, 22–4, 32 vulcanisation 324
rener y gas 240 concentration 119
relative atomic mass see atomic mass, heat of 221 W
relative molar concentration 108–10 washing soda 344
renewable materials 331 saturated 20 water 6, 77
residue 25 solvents 19, 22–4, 245 boiling point 340
reverse osmosis 344, 345 green 331 of cr ystallisation 137
reversible reactions 90, 98, 99, 215 water as 340 as electrolyte 179
rickets 312 soya oil 333 hardness 268, 341, 345
rings 228 space rockets 354 heat of vaporisation 340
r um 260 specic heat capacity 217, 223, 339–40, heating and cooling cur ves 13
r usting 157, 310, 314 345 ionisation of acids in 122
spectator ions 94, 99 melting point 340
S standard solutions 108–9, 119 metal reactions wit h 285–6
salts 135–6, 153 starch 278 pollution 341
acid 136, 142–3 states of matter 3–4 proper ties 338–9
dangers 144–5 steel 305, 307 reactions, Group  metals 53
electrolytes 178 strong acids 132–3 solvent proper ties 340–1
insoluble 137–8 str uctural formulae 66, 78 treatment 342–4
preparation 137–43 str uctural isomers 232, 236, 242 vapour 340, 355
normal 136, 153 alcohols 255–6 weak acids 132
soluble 138–41 alkenes 246–7 winemaking 259–60
uses 143–4 subatomic par ticles 35
water of cr ystallisation 137 sublimation 11, 12 Z
saponication 265–6 substitution reactions 243–4, 250, 252 zeolite 344
saturated solutions 20, 32 sucrose 30–1 zinc 34, 158, 284, 287, 312, 356
semi-metals 60 sugar cane 30–1 zinc oxide 132
364
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Chemistry
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Chemistry for CSEC 2nd Edition is part of the Nelson Thornes CSEC Science
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Chemistry

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First published by Nelson Thornes Ltd in 2014

This edition published by Oxford University Press in 2014

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Cover photograph: iStockphoto

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Introduction 1 A5.5 Str ucture and proper ties of solids 80

Section A Principles of chemistry 2

A6 Chemical equations and reactions 89

A1.1 The par ticulate nature of matter 2

A6.1 Writing and balancing chemical

A1.2 Evidence for t he par ticulate

A6.2 Types of chemical reactions 96

A1.3 The t hree states of matter 9

Practice exam-style questions 100

Practice exam-style questions 15

A7 The mole concept 101

A2 Mixtures and their separation 16

A7.1 The mole and mass 101

A2.1 Elements, compounds and mixtures 16

A7.2 The mole and gas volumes 106

A2.2 Solutions, suspensions and colloids 19

A7.3 The mole and concentration of

A2.4 Separating mixtures 25

A7.4 The mole and chemical formulae 111

A2.5 Extraction of sucrose from

A7.5 The mole and chemical reactions 113

Key concepts 119

Practice exam-style questions 120

Practice exam-style questions 33

A8 Acids, bases and salts 121

A8.1 Proper ties and reactions of acids 121

A3.1 The str ucture of atoms 34

A8.2 Proper ties and reactions of bases 128

A3.2 The electronic configuration of