Module- I

Secretary
MEP/Q0201

MPTA EDUCATION LTD

The world believes that India, the country of a billion, as the next upcoming power.With half the
population still struggling to be skilled, this dream seemed far. This reality had to be changed
and Government of India accepted this challenge head on.
A famous quote once said “It is possible to fly without motors, but not without knowledge and
skills”. Skills form the backbone of all mission and a country can only growth if its Skill- force
has the best of technical, industrial and soft skills. In 2015, Ministry of Skill Development and
Entrepreneurship launched the Skill India Program which has offered the best platform for the
Indian youth to polish their technical skills. Skill India is the force behind the vocational training
initiatives growing across India, producing a generation of highly skilled and employable Indian
youth.
Globally apprenticeship training has been established as the best way to create a pool of skilled
work force. Germany has three million apprentices; China has 20 million apprentices. India also
has enormous potential to improve the availability of skilled manpower for various industry
segments through apprenticeship. The Central Government has been taking several initiatives
through which it aims of adding 5 million employable youth to the workforce by 2019-20.
The Central government is aware of the enormity of the challenge and has therefore launched a
program through AICTE (All India Council for Technical Education). It is already popularly
known as NEEM (National Employment Enhancement Mission). The objective is to develop a
competent workforce which could take the country ahead in the industrial world. World popular
concept of “On the job practical training” is the basis of this program targeting enhancement of
employability among individuals.
 Table of Contents

Sr. Page
Topics
No. no.
1 Introduction

2 Industrial Safety

2.1 Basic Knowledge of Industrial Safety

2.2 Basic Knowledge of Various Types of PPE & their
Usage
2.3 Basic Knowledge of Risk Associated With Each
Occupation in the Organization
2.4 Knowledge of Personal Hygiene & Cleanliness
2.5 Safety Health And Environment Related Practices,
Standards Procedure, Policies
2.6 Safety Procedure Mentioned In Equipment Manual And
Panel For Potential Risk of Equipment
2.7 Fire-Fighting Procedure And Responsibility

2.8 First Aid Procedure

2.9 What is CPR

3 Engineering Drawing

3.1 Basics of Engineering Drawing

3.2 Reading of Engineering Drawing

3.3 Geometric Dimensioning And Tolerancing (GD&T)

4 Productivity

4.1 Major Losses

4.2 TPM

4.3 TQM

5 Japanese Management Techniques

5.1. 5S

5.2. Kaizen

5.3. Poka-Yoke

5.4. Jit (Just In Time)

6 Communication Skills

6.1 Purpose of Communication

 6.2 Types of Communication

6.2.1 Meaning of Written Communication

6.2.2 Importance of Written Communication

6.2.3 How To Improve Written Communication Skills

6.2.4 Meaning of Oral Communication

6.2.5 Skills Required For Oral Presentation

6.3 Common Etiquettes

6.3.1 Workplace Etiquettes

6.3.2 Telephone Etiquettes

7 Basic Units & their Conversions

7.1 Classification of Units

7.2 S. I. Units
7.3 Inter-Relationship Between Metric And British System
of Units
8 Work with superiors and colleagues

8.1 Role of Various Work Levels

8.2 Operational and functional management:

8.3 Relationship between the Worker and Supervisor,

Specialist and Managers

8.4 Elements of Work with superiors and colleagues

8.4.1 Effective Communication

8.4.2 Work in a Team

8.4.3 Assistance from other

8.4.4 Providing assistance to others

8.4.5 What is the importance of teamwork in an

organization

8.4.6 What is the purpose of teams in Organizations

 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

What is Qualification Pack?

A qualification Pack is a document which mentions and consolidates the qualifications required
for a Job Role Holder. Every QP has a shelf life to enable the document relevant to industry.
This book consists of following topics,
Industrial Safety covers
• Basic knowledge of Industrial Safety
• Basic knowledge of various types of PPEs & their usage
• Basic knowledge of risk associated with each occupation in the organization:
• Knowledge of personal hygiene & clean working environment:
• Safety health and environment related practices, standards procedure, policies
• Safety procedure mentioned in equipment manual and panel for potential risk of equipment
• Fire-fighting procedure and responsibility
• First aid procedure
Engineering Drawing covers
• Basics of Engineering Drawing
• Reading of Engineering Drawing
• GD & T

Productivity Covers
• Major Losses
• TPM
• TQM

Japanese Management Techniques Covers

• 5S
• Kaizen
• Poka-Yoke
• JIT (Just in Time)
Communication Skills
• Types of Communication
• Common Etiquette

Basic Units and their Conversions

• Classification of Units
• Relation between Metric and British system of Units

Work with superiors and colleagues

• Role of various work level
• Relationship between the Worker and Supervisor, Specialist and Managers

Brief of MPTA
Since inception in 2005, MPTA is dedicated towards cause of employability training and skill
enhancement of the unemployed or underemployed youth. It is of the Market Leaders in
providing "On the Job Training (OJT)" opportunity to the deprived. Having strong Execution
Capabilities, Nationwide Reach, dedicated Course Development Team we strive to achieve a fine
balance between the expectations of an Organization and a potential Job Seeker.
MPTA has association with more than 500 Organizations across all Sectors for providing On Job
Training and is instrumental in shaping the future of 10,000 Students every year. We strive to
uplift the talent and capability of rural and deprived youth.

Mission of MPTA:
To provide Value and Skill Based Education leading to:
  Employability Skills
 Career Growth for Working Professionals
 Globally and Nationally Recognized Certifications
 Continuous Interface between Educational Institutions and Industries
 Continuous Up gradation of Curriculum
 On Job Training

Role of MPTA:
 Mobilizes candidates from all over the country to join the NEEM program
 Pre-screens and selects students for suitability of program
 Enroll the students with NEESA –NEEM Accredited program
 Facilitate students’ efforts to cope up with new industrial culture.
 Facilitate students to find and access necessities of life during their first-time-away-from-
home experience.
 Disburse stipend through banks and discharge other regulatory responsibilities of
students.
 Delivery of academic inputs of the program.
 Help students appreciate the need of Discipline and imbibe the same.
 Conduct regular review with students as well as representatives of the industry to ensure
the best outcome of the program for students as well as industry.

Introduction to OJT Sector

The knowledge of a student gained from the college professors are not enough when only
learned by pure imagination. That is why an OJT (On-the-Job Training) is created. This serves
as a way that gives students a chance to apply the lessons learned from the school. It also aids
the students to achieve relevant knowledge and skills through the actual experience in working
in the field of their profession. Thus, the workplace and the field serve as a new venue of
learning for the student. On-the-job training is valuable where realism is essential. Students are
required to complete such hours of training. It is a particularly good way of developing technical
skills and expertise. During on-the-job training, a supervisor guides the trainee through tasks
and processes for them to know how to perform the obligation and to what standard. Typically,
the supervisor observes the trainees while they perform their duties. After observation, the
observer provides the trainees with feedback on their performance.

There are different departments in the Industry

1. Store
2. Design and Development
3. Research & Development
4. Testing and Validation
5. Production Planning and Control (PPC)
6. Production/ Manufacturing
7. Production Engineering/Manufacturing Engineering
8. Quality Control
9. Assembly
10. Packaging & Dispatch
11. Maintenance
12. Logistics
13. Account
14. Purchase
15. HR (Human Resource)
16. IT

National Skills Qualifications Framework (NSQF)

NSQF is a competency-based framework that organizes all qualifications according to a series of
levels of Knowledge, Skills and Aptitude (suitability)
  Level 2- Entry level i.e. Assistant or Helper
 Level 3- Junior Operator / Technician or Apprentice
 Level 4- Senior Operator or Master Technician
 Level 5- Supervisor

What is NOS (National Occupational Standards)

NOS is a single function in the job
It describe what individuals need to do, know and understand in order to carry out a particular
job role or function

What is PC (Performance Criteria)

These are the activities done by the trainee to perform a task
Example
Operator- Conventional Surface Grinding Machines
 PC1. comply with health and safety, environmental and other relevant regulations
and guidelines at work
 PC2. adhere to procedures and guidelines for personal protective equipment (PPE)

Knowledge and Understanding (K)

Knowledge required by the trainee to perform activities (PC) to achieve the goal of function
It is divided into two elements
1. Organizational Context (KA)
2. Technical Knowledge (KB)

1. Organizational Context (KA)

It includes Knowledge of the Company or Organization and its processes
Example -
 KA1. relevant legislation, standards, policies, and procedures followed in the company

2. Technical Knowledge (KB)

Technical Knowledge is the specific knowledge needed to accomplish or achieve specific
designated responsibilities
Example -
 KB1. safety mechanisms on the machine, and the procedure for checking that they
function correctly

Skills (S)
Skills required by trainee to perform activities to achieve goal of function (NOS)
It is divided into two elements
1. Core Skills/ Generic Skills (SA)
2. Professional Skills (SB)

1. Core Skills / Generic Skills (SA)

Reading Skills
 SA1. read and interpret information correctly from various job specification documents

Writing Skills
 SA2. fill up appropriate technical forms, process charts, activity logs as per
organizational format in English and/or local language

Oral Communication (listening and Speaking Skills)

 SA8. convey and share technical information clearly using appropriate language
 2. Professional Skills (SB)
Plan and Organize
 SB1. plan, prioritize and sequence work operations as per job requirement

Customer Centricity
 SB4. exercise restraint while expressing dissent and during conflict situations

Problem Solving
 SB11. identify problems with work planning, procedures, output and behavior and their
implications

Analytical Thinking
 SB19. undertake and express new ideas and initiatives to others

Critical Thinking
 SB23. participate in on-the-job and other learning, training and development
interventions and assessments
 CHAPTER 2
INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

• Basic knowledge of Industrial Safety

Basic knowledge of ‘Industrial Safety’, Hazards caused due to Accidents, Fire, and Natural
Calamities etc.
• Basic knowledge of various types of PPEs & their usage
Importance of PPE their types & usage. Guidelines to understand effective use of PPE.
• Basic knowledge of risk associated with each occupation in the organization:
Risks associated with machines & situations in Industries. Understand types of risks and how to
overcome them. Basic knowledge about risks will make employee aware and safety conscious.
• Knowledge of personal hygiene & cleanliness:
Importance of personal hygiene to workers & process by which an individual can contribute
toward creating a highly safe & clean working environment.
• Safety health and environment related practices, standards procedure, policies
Environmental health and safety (EHS) points

• Safety procedure mentioned in equipment manual and panel for potential risk of
equipment Basic Safety Requirements
• Fire-fighting procedure and responsibility
Everyone should know their responsibilities before an emergency occurs
• First aid procedure
First aid is medical attention that is typically administered immediately after an injury or illness
occurs.
 What is CPR
CPR procedure

2.1 Basic knowledge of Industrial Safety

Studying the subject of safety helps people to work safe and miss accidents. Its employer’s
responsibility to provide safe work environment for workers, similarly its workers responsibility
to use safety equipment while in Industry.
Introduction to Industrial Hazards:

The best way to protect yourself is to learn to recognize and prevent hazards in your
workplace.

Health and safety hazards exist in every workplace. Some are easily identified and corrected,
while others create extremely dangerous situations that could be a threat to your life or long-
term health. The best way to protect yourself is to learn to recognize and prevent hazards in
your workplace.
Employers have a responsibility to protect workers against health and safety hazards at work, &
its workers responsibility to understand and follow all safety procedures while at work, ensure
optimum usage of safety PPEs.

Hazard
Hazard is situation that Poses level of threats to life, health,
property and environment. A hazard is something that can
cause harm, e.g. electricity, chemicals, working up a ladder,
noise, a keyboard, stress, etc.
Risk
When we use risk in relation to occupational safety and health the most commonly used
definition is ‘risk is the likelihood that a person may be harmed or suffers adverse health effects
if exposed to a hazard’. A risk is the chance, high or low, that any hazard will actually cause
somebody harm. The terms Hazard and Risk are often used interchangeably but this simple
example explains the difference between the two.If there was a spill of water in a workplace,
then that water would present a slipping hazard to persons passing through it. If access to that
area was prevented by a physical barrier, then the hazard would remain though the risk would
be minimized.
There are four main types of workplace hazards:

Physical hazards are the most common hazards and are present in most workplaces at some
time. Examples include: frayed electrical cords, unguarded machinery, exposed moving parts,
constant loud noise, vibrations, working from ladders, scaffolding or heights, spills, tripping
hazards.

Ergonomic hazards occur when the type of work you do, your body position and/or your
working conditions put a strain on your body. They are difficult to identify because you don’t
immediately recognize the harm they are doing to your health. Examples include: poor lighting,
improperly adjusted workstations and chairs, frequent lifting, repetitive or awkward
movements.

Chemical hazards are present when you are exposed to any chemical preparation (solid, liquid
or gas) in the workplace. Examples include: cleaning products and solvents, vapors and fumes,
carbon monoxide or other gases, gasoline or other flammable materials.

Biological hazards come from working with people, animals or infectious plant material.
Examples include: blood or other bodily fluids, bacteria and viruses, insect bites, animal and
bird dropping.

Possible causes of risk, hazard or accident in the workplace and why risk and/or
accidents are possible:
No matter how attentive and conscientious you are about observing health and safety rules on
the job, the potential for workplace injuries is ever-present. Not only can these injuries put
employees at risk of hospitalization or even death.

Below listed are unsafe practices that might cause accidents at workplace. Workers are
instructed to read, understand and help themselves and others work safely.

Unsafe Work Practices

Fatigue
If someone is pushed -- or pushes herself -- beyond reasonable limits to stay on top of
workload, the results often are physical and mental exhaustion. This translates to impaired
judgment, slower reflexes in operating machinery or motor vehicles, a delayed response to
emergency situations and inattention to details and instructions.

Stress
Job security, finances, health issues and anxiety about personal relationships all factor into the
stress equation. When an employee's mind is too distracted by real or perceived threats, he is
not only more likely to make mistakes that could cause injury but also invites an increased risk
of a heart attack, stroke or hypertension.
Slips
Office kitchens and break rooms are common places for slips to occur because of the number of
liquids that get splashed there and are subsequently not cleaned up. Linoleum, hardwood and
tile flooring surfaces are particularly hazardous after they have been mopped or waxed. Another
consideration is the type of footwear worn by employees.

Trips
Items left sitting out in a high-traffic corridor, extension cords that are not properly taped down
and carpeting that has come lose all are contributors to tripping employees and sometimes
causing more than just stubbed toes. Poorly lit hallways and stairs are danger spots, too,
because they obscure the ability to see what is underfoot.

Toppling Objects
If tall pieces of furniture such as bookcases and filing components are not securely anchored, an
earthquake could cause them to pitch forward and dislodge their contents, putting nearby
workers in peril. Workplace injuries also can be caused by heavy objects such as supplies and
file boxes that are stacked on high shelves and are shifted precariously to the edge each time
they are put back or the structure gets bumped.

Hazardous Materials
Protective clothing, eye wear and gloves are mandatory for employees whose jobs require them
to be around hazardous materials, chemicals and toxic waste. Slip-ups in these rules can result
in burns, explosions, respiratory diseases, blindness and skin infections.

Repetitive Motion
Carpal tunnel syndrome is a common occurrence for workers engaged in repetitive motion
activities that put pressure on the median nerve, causing numbness and pain in the fingers,
wrists and hands. Typists, key data operators and beauty salon employees are at particular risk
for developing this excruciating condition.

Lifting
Many back injuries and pulled muscles that occur in the workplace are the result of picking up
something that is too heavy, not bending the legs, not asking a partner to assist or trying to lift
or hold a heavy object above the shoulders.

Workplace Violence
Despite increased security measures and limiting office access to individuals who have a
legitimate reason to be on the premises, innocent victims are often involved when estranged
spouses, disgruntled former employees or even total strangers with a vendetta show up with an
intent to commit harm. Managers and workers must likewise stay sensitive to suspicious mail or
packages, phone threats and evidence of any security violations.

Collisions
Opening a door too quickly or turning a corner too fast are the frequent setups for unintended
collisions with co-workers. While it may not be with enough force to knock one or the other
unconscious, the potential for injury escalates if there are hot liquids, sharp implements or
heavy objects involved. Leaving file drawers pulled all the way out is as dangerous at shin level
as chin level, especially if a co-worker won't see it until the point of impact.

Safe working practices while working at various hazardous sites:

Hazardous sites are those where above mentioned four types of Hazards present i.e. physical,
chemical are, and biological and ergonomics Hazard
Suggestions on reducing exposure to hazardous Sites in the workplace include:
• Where possible, perform the task without using hazardous substance/sites
• Where possible, substitute hazardous substances with less hazardous alternatives (for
example, use a detergent in place of a chlorinated solvent for cleaning)
• Isolate hazardous substances in separate storage areas/Isolate Hazardous Sites
• Purge or ventilate storage areas separately from the rest of the workplace
• Thoroughly train employees in handling and safety procedures
• provide personal protection equipment such as respirators, gloves and goggles while working
at various hazardous site
• Regularly monitor the workplace with appropriate equipment to track the degree of
hazardous substance in the air or environment
• Regularly consult with employees to maintain and improve existing safety and handling
practices.

Summary
• The main types of workplace hazards are Physical, Ergonomical, and Chemical & Biological.
• Repetitive Motion, lifting with improper form, Workplace violence, Collisions are few of the
unsafe work practices.
• Workers should use PPEs like respirators, gloves & goggles whenever necessary and
important.

2.2 Basic Knowledge of various types of PPEs & their usage

PPE is essential when it is not practical to eliminate or reduce the hazard using other methods.
Safety at Work: Every day, employees perform their roles making use of an assortment of
work equipment. Whether they use simple hand tools or operate complex automated
machinery, the health and safety risks must be taken into consideration and properly managed.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is necessary in many working environments to protect us
from hazards of machines and tools while using at workplace. It is important to note that
although suitable PPE might be worn, it doesn’t eliminate the hazard. PPE needs to be properly
selected, fitted, cleaned and maintained and its use clearly monitored to make sure that it is
effectively minimizing the dangers posed by the hazard. If the PPE isn’t effective, it will provide
little or no protection. PPE is essential when it is not practical to eliminate or reduce the hazard
using other methods.

PPE REASON FOR USE

Helmets Worn to protect our head from falling objects

Hats To keep direct sunlight from our face and eyes

Hoods Provide protection from hazardous chemicals or fumes

Protect us from exposure to noise-induced hearing loss in

Ear Plugs
noisy work environments

Sunglasses Reduce the effects of ultra violet radiation and glare

Safety Protect our eyes from flying objects, dust, chemical

Glasses splashes or flashes from welding equipment

Protect our hands from cuts and abrasions or from the

Gloves
effects of chemicals or water

Limit our exposure to dangerous substances or airborne

Masks
contaminants
 Safety Provide protection for our feet from falling objects and/or
Shoes chemicals

Safety procedures while using hazardous tool or equipment: Unguarded moving parts of
machines/equipment and the sudden or uncontrolled release of their power systems can result
in serious injuries. Personnel working with machines must be aware of the risks involved and
follow safe work practices.
Causes of accidents while working with machinery
• Loose clothing, hair, jewelry being caught in moving parts.
• Materials ejected from the machine when it is operational.
• Inadvertent starting of the machine.
• Slipping and falling into an unguarded nip.
• Contact with sharp edges, e.g., cutting blade.
• Making adjustments while the machine is operational.
• Unauthorized operation of machines.
• Lack of preventive maintenance.

Safety precautions while working with machinery

• Ensure that the guards are in position and in good working condition before operating.
• Know the location of emergency stop switch.
• Do not wear loose clothing or jewelry that can be caught in the rotating parts.
• Confine long hair.
• Keep work area clean. Floors must be level and have a non-slip surface.
• There must be enough space around the machine to do the job safely.
• Machines must not be left unattended. Switch off the machine before leaving.
• Use of PPE wherever necessary prevented by a physical barrier then the hazard would
remain though the risk would be minimized.

Summary
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is necessary in many working environments to protect
us from hazards of machines and tools while using at workplace.
• Hazards may cause burns, injury, or death, it is important to wear proper PPE at all times.
• Unguarded moving parts of machines/equipment and the sudden or uncontrolled release of
their power.

2.3 Basic Knowledge of Risk Associated with Occupations

Risks at Work Place:

A risk is the chance, high or low, that any hazard will actually cause somebody harm. The terms
Hazard and Risk are often used interchangeably but this simple example explains the difference
between the two. When we use risk in relation to occupational safety and health the most
commonly used definition is ‘risk is the likelihood that a person may be harmed or suffers
adverse health effects if exposed to a hazard’. If there was a spill of water in a workplace, then
that water would present a slipping hazard to persons passing through it. If access to that area
was prevented by a physical barrier, then the hazard would remain though the risk would be
minimized.

Risks associated with Occupation in Organization:

Hazardous sites are those where four types of Risks are present i.e.
1. Physical
2. Chemical
3. Biological
4. Ergonomics Risk
Suggestions on reducing exposure to hazardous Sites in the workplace include:
• Where possible, perform the task without using hazardous substance/sites
• Where possible, substitute hazardous substances with less hazardous alternatives (for
example, use a detergent in place of a chlorinated solvent for cleaning)
• Isolate hazardous substances in separate storage areas/Isolate Hazardous Sites
• Purge or ventilate storage areas separately from the rest of the workplace
• Thoroughly train employees in handling and safety procedures
• provide personal protection equipment such as respirators, gloves and goggles while
working at various hazardous site
• Regularly monitor the workplace with appropriate equipment to track the degree of
hazardous substance in the air or environment
• Regularly consult with employees to maintain and improve existing safety and handling
practices.

Various dangers associated with the use of Electrical Equipment:

Places of work generally have power nominally supplied at 230 volts (single phase) and 400
volts (3 phase) although some larger workplaces will receive electricity at a higher supply
voltage. The information below relates to workplaces using 230 and 400 volt supplies.

The main hazards with electricity are:

1. Contact with live parts causing shock and burns
2. Faults which could cause fires;
3. Fire or explosion where electricity could be the source of ignition in a potentially flammable or
explosive atmosphere, e.g. in a spray paint booth.

The risk of injury from electricity is strongly linked to where and how it is used and there is
greater risk in wet and/or damp conditions.
Basics of Contact with Electricity:
It is the level of voltage the body is exposed to and the resistance to flow of electrical current
offered by the body that determines the impact of exposure to electricity. The following factors
determine the severity of the effect electric shock has on your body
1. The level of voltage
2. The amount of body resistance you have to the current flow
3. The path the current takes through your body
4. The length of time the current flows through your body
If a worker has come into contact with electricity the worker may not be able to remove
themselves from the electrical source. The human body is a good conductor of electricity. If you
touch a person while they are in contact with the electrical source, the electricity will flow
through your body causing electrical shock. Firstly, attempt to turn off the source of the
electricity (disconnect). If the electrical source cannot readily and safely be turned off, use a
non-conducting object, such as a fiber glass object or a wooden pole, to remove the person
from the electrical source.
Safe Work Practices:
Extension cables and other flexible leads which are particularly prone to damage to plugs and
sockets and to their connections are visually checked, maintained and where necessary replaced
before using portable equipment. The ends of flexible cables should always have the outer
sheath of the cable firmly clamped to stop the wires (particularly the earth) pulling out of the
terminals
1. Use the correct cable connectors or couplers to join lengths of cables together and do not
allow taped joints.
2. Electrical installations are installed and maintained by a competent person and checked
regularly.
3. Socket Outlets are not overloaded by the use of adaptors
4. Electrically powered equipment provided is suitable for use
5. Fixed electrical equipment should have a clearly identified switch to cut off power in an
emergency
6. That portable equipment labeled as being double insulated has had the live and neutral
connected properly to the plug by a competent person unless the plug is of a mounded type.

Categories of safety signs:

Safety signs are divided into categories according to the type of message they are intended to
convey. Each category is assigned a specific format and set of colors. To work safe one must
know all signs used for safety at workplace. This helps worker to make better decisions and
check if they are in right condition to enter the workplace or any prohibited zone. In industry
sign language is the mean of communication. An ideal worker will keep himself updated with
new signs installed in his workplace.
Prohibition Signs:

These signs should he used to convey “Do Not” type commands for example, to indicate that
smoking is not allowed or that, where a particular material reacts dangerously with water or
water should not be used to extinguish a fire. In the workplace they should be used to reinforce
instructions prohibiting dangerous activities.
Such instructions, however, should also form part of the employees training.Signs prohibiting an
activity consist of a circular red band and single diagonal cross bar descending from left to
right at an angle of 45 degrees. The background should be white with the pictogram indicating
the nature of the command in black.

Warning Signs:

These signs should be used to make people aware of a nearby danger. For example, a
flammable liquid store or a laboratory where radioactive substances are in use should have an
appropriate warning sign near the entrance. These signs are required by the Health and Safety
(Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations 1996 and in specific cases by the Dangerous Substances
(Notification and Marking of Sites) Regulations 1990.
Signs warning of a particular hazard consist of a black band in the shape of an equilateral
triangle. The background within the band should be yellow with the pictogram indicating the
type of hazard in black positioned centrally on the sign.
Mandatory Signs:
These signs should he used to indicate actions that must be carried out in order to comply with
statutory requirements. For example, self-closing fire doors that must be kept closed to comply
with the fire risk assessment should be labeled with “FIRE DOOR KEEP SHUT” signs.
An area of a construction site where hard hats shouldbe worn should also have appropriate
signs at the entry points. It should he noted that the Health and Safety (Safety Signs and
Signals) Regulations 1996 do not apply to mandatory fire instructions but do apply to health
and safety mandatory signs where pictograms are required. The minimum regulatory
requirement is for the sign to include an appropriate pictogram.

Safe Condition Signs:

These signs should he used to indicate escape routes, emergency exits, first aid equipment,
emergency showers and the like. Safe condition signs consist of a green rectangle or square
with the pictogram or text in white positioned centrally.

Exit Signs:

In order to comply with the requirements of the Building Regulations, every doorway or other
exit providing access to a means of escape, other than exits in ordinary use, should be provided
with an exit sign.
Summary:
• Hazards at work may include noisy machinery, a moving forklift, chemicals, and electricity,
working at heights, a repetitive job, bullying and violence at the workplace.
• Fire, Electrical Hazards. Accidental Falls and Falling Objects are basic hazards at workplace.
• In industry sign language is the mean of communication. An ideal worker will keep himself
updated with new signs installed in his workplace.

2.4 Knowledge of Personal Hygiene & Cleanliness

Cleanliness:

Poor housekeeping can frequently contribute to accidents by hiding hazards that cause
injuries
A clean workplace means more than just having a sparkling, fresh building. A clean workplace
also ensures the safety and health of employees and visitors. In 2012 alone, nearly 3 million
nonfatal workplace injuries and illnesses were reported by private industry employers.
Workplace injuries can be prevented by taking action to ensure a clean, safe work environment.
Here are some reasons why a clean workplace also means a safe workplace:
• Clean, dry floors to prevent slips and falls.
Maintaining clean, dry floors is essential for the prevention of slips and falls in the workplace.
Different categories of floor cleaners serve different purposes. For example, alkaline cleaners
are good for cleaning restaurant floors while acidic cleaners remove rust, scale, and oxides from
floors. However, some products may contain chemicals that can be detrimental to your flooring,
so be sure to talk with a cleaning professional about what is best for your facility. In addition,
keep your floors dry by using absorbent materials, such as floor mats, in functional locations to
remove moisture and soil from the bottom of shoes.

• Disinfectants prevent the spread of germs and illness, including the flu.
Germs can easily spread throughout a workplace, particularly during flu season—but disinfecting
surfaces and objects with EPA-registered, hospital-grade disinfectants can stop germs in their
tracks. Check out our blog post for more ways your facility can beat the flu season.

• Proper air filtration lowers employee exposure to hazardous substances.

You may not see them, but dusts and vapors are hazardous substances that can create an
unsafe environment for employees. Building ventilation is one important factor in reducing
airborne transmission of respiratory infections and maintaining the health and productivity of
workers. Regularly cleaning or replacing HVAC system filters prevents them from becoming
saturated, which could lead to potential microbial growth and odor concerns. Vacuum cleaners
fitted with HEPA filters may also capture fine particles. Maintaining humidity around 30 to 50
percent through the use of a dehumidifier is also important in eliminating air pollutants and
promoting clean air in the workplace.

• Clean light fixtures improve lighting efficiency.

Dirty light fixtures can reduce essential light levels, making it difficult and unsafe for employees
to complete their daily tasks. Clean light fixtures significantly improve lighting efficiency in the
workplace. Well-lit stairways and aisles are also important in preventing accidents and
maintaining a safe work environment.

• Green cleaning products are safer for both your employees and the environment
Not all cleaning products are the same, and some are held to a higher standard than others.
Products with third-party certifications, such as Green Seal or GREENGUARD, must meet
specific standards and guidelines, which ensures they’re safer for both people and the
environment. Also make sure you maintain and review Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for
proper handling and storage of the products used in your facility.

• Proper disposal of waste and recyclable materials keeps work areas clutter-free
Allowing trash to pile up not only produces clutter, but it also presents a breeding ground for
pests that pose a threat to your work environment. Placing “no-touch” wastebaskets in key
locations throughout your facility ensures materials are disposed of and reduces the spread of
germs. Recycling materials using clearly labeled waste receptacles also makes for a more
sustainable environment. By ensuring above points of cleanliness at workplace, a fitter should
aware about hazards can cause from tools & equipment’s present at workplace like while use of
power tools, trailing leads or hoses, damaged or badly maintained tools and equipment; using
files with damaged or poor fitting handles; using machine tools; handling of oils and grease;
misuses of tools; not following laid-down maintenance procedures.

Purpose of workplace 5S / Housekeeping:

Poor 5S can be a cause of accidents, such as:
• Tripping over loose objects on floors, stairs and platforms
• Being hit by falling object
• Slipping on greasy, wet or dirty surfaces
• Striking against projecting, poorly stacked items or misplaced material
• Cutting, puncturing, or tearing the skin of hands or other parts of the body on projecting
nails, wire or steel strapping.
To avoid these hazards, a workplace must "maintain" order throughout a workday. Although
this effort requires a great deal of management and planning, the benefits are many.
Effective housekeeping can eliminate some workplace hazards and help get a job done safely
and properly. Poor housekeeping can frequently contribute to accidents by hiding hazards that
cause injuries. If the sight of paper, debris, clutter and spills is accepted as normal, then other
more serious health and safety hazards may be taken for granted.
Housekeeping is not just cleanliness. It includes keeping work areas neat and orderly;
maintaining halls and floors free of slip and trip hazards; and removing of waste materials (e.g.,
paper, cardboard) and other fire hazards from work areas. It also requires paying attention to
important details such as the layout of the whole workplace, aisle marking, the adequacy of
storage facilities, and maintenance. Good housekeeping is also a basic part of accident and fire
prevention.
Effective housekeeping is an ongoing operation: it is not a hit-and-miss cleanup done
occasionally. Periodic "panic" cleanups are costly and ineffective in reducing accidents.

Benefits of good housekeeping practices:

Effective housekeeping results in the following points,
• Reduced handling to ease the flow of materials
• Fewer tripping and slipping accidents in clutter-free and spill-free work areas
• Lower worker exposures to hazardous substances (e.g. Dusts, vapours)
• Better control of tools and materials, including inventory and supplies
• More efficient equipment cleanup and maintenance
• Better hygienic conditions leading to improved health
• More effective use of space
• Reduced property damage by improving preventive maintenance
• Less janitorial work
• Improved morale, improved productivity (tools and materials will be easy to find)

Personal Hygiene:
Good housekeeping is a very important way to prevent exposure to toxic materials. A clean and
orderly workplace is safer for everyone.
1. Have appropriate spill control equipment and procedures. Clean up any spills and build-ups
of toxic materials promptly and safely using this equipment and procedures. Additional guidance
may be available on the MSDS or from the supplier/manufacturer.
2. Avoid dry sweeping of solid materials. Use a pre-wetting technique or vacuum equipped with
high efficiency filter(s) instead.
3. Properly dispose of unlabeled or contaminated chemicals.
4. Ensure that all waste containers are compatible with the toxic material and that the
containers are properly labeled and stored.
5. Personal cleanliness when working with toxic materials provides protection not only for you
but protects others as well (such as coworkers and family members).
6. Wash hands before eating, drinking, smoking or going to the toilet.
7. Remove contaminated clothing and leather shoes or boots. Wash contaminated items
immediately and thoroughly in water before rewearing or discarding.
8. Store food and tobacco products in "clean" (uncontaminated) areas.
9. Avoid touching yourself (e.g. scratching your nose or rubbing your eyes) with contaminated
hands.
10. Do not chew gum when working with toxic materials.
11. Wash thoroughly at the end of the workday even though you have done everything
mentioned above.

Summary:
• Maintaining clean, dry floors is essential for the prevention of slips and falls in the workplace,
Germs can easily spread throughout a workplace, particularly during flu season, regularly
cleaning or replacing HVAC system filters prevents them from becoming saturated, which could
lead to potential microbial growth and odor concerns, Dirty light fixtures can reduce essential
light levels, making it difficult and unsafe for employees to complete their daily tasks.
• Above points are crucial Industrial safety & Hygiene points.
• A workplace must "maintain" order throughout a workday to avoid hazards.
• Housekeeping is not just cleanliness. It includes keeping work areas neat and orderly;
maintaining halls and floors free of slip and trip hazards; and removing of waste materials
Poor housekeeping can frequently contribute to accidents by hiding hazards that cause injuries

Type Shape Color Pictogram

PROHIBITION SIGNS Circular RED with a white

These signs prohibit actions background red band
detrimental to safety No and crossbar.
Smoking

WARNING SIGNS
YELLOW with black
These signs give warning of Triangular
symbol or text
potential risks Triangular
MANDATORY SIGNS
Signs that require actions or BLUE with symbol or
Circular
activities that will contribute text in white
towards safety

SAFE CONDITION SIGNS

These signs indicate exit routes GREEN with white
Rectangular
in the event of a fire or symbol or text
emergency

FIRE EQUIPMENT SIGNS

These signs are used to Rectangular Red with white symbols
indicate the location of fire or Circle or text
equipment

Green, Red, Yellow,

Supplementary Information
Rectangular with White or Black
Signs
Text

2.5 Safety health and environment related practices, standards procedure, policies
Environmental health and safety (EHS) points
• Inspections
• Housekeeping
• Electrical
• Material Storage and Handling
• Chemicals/Gases
• Flammable and Combustible Liquids
• Environment
• Clothing and Protective Equipment

Inspection
• Shop Coordinators should perform quarterly shop inspections and document results. This
self-inspection checklist may be used to help identify hazardous conditions. Hazardous
conditions must be corrected immediately.
• EHS (Environmental health and safety) will audit machine shops at least annually
Housekeeping
• Floors, machines, and other surfaces must be kept free of dirt and debris. If floor surfaces
are wet or slippery or become wet during work activities, they should be protected with a non-
slip coating or covering.
• Wood and metal chips, sawdust, and other debris must be routinely cleaned if collection
systems are not in place and operating

Electrical
• Where machinery is hard-wired into the electrical system, an accessible and labeled
disconnect (if not obvious) shall be provided.
• Where machinery is cord-and-plug connected to the power supply, proper grounding shall be
maintained.
• Exposed energized electrical hazards, such as missing knockouts, covers, damaged cords,
etc., shall be corrected immediately.
• Proper lockout/tag out procedures shall be followed for all servicing and maintenance of
machinery and equipment.
Material Storage and Handling
• Stock materials must be stored in such a manner as to prevent falling, slipping, or rolling.
• Material should not be stored on the floor, and may not be stored where they will impede
egress from the area.
• Use shelves or cabinets, as appropriate, to store materials.

Chemicals/Gases
• Chemicals must be stored in cabinets approved for that use, as appropriate.
• Do not store incompatible chemicals together.
• Material Safety Data Sheets for all chemicals used must be maintained in the shop area.
• Compressed gas cylinders must be stored, used, and handled in accordance with safe work
practices

Flammable and Combustible Liquids

Flammable and combustible liquids include, but are not limited to, materials such as gasoline,
oils, some paints, lacquers, thinners, cleaners, and solvents. To determine if a material or
product is flammable or combustible, review the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) or read the
manufacturers label on the product

Environment
• The shop area must have adequate lighting to perform the work safely.
• Sufficient ventilation is required for welding and cutting areas.
• Noise control or hearing protection may be necessary.
• Harmful dusts, mists, and fumes shall be properly controlled or employees shall be protected.

Clothing and Protective Equipment

• No long sleeve shirts
• No loose shirt tails (tuck into pants)
• No neck ties, scarves, or hood strings
• No loose jewelry (i.e. necklaces, bracelets, watches, rings, etc.)
• No gloves (recommended for material handling only; not during machinery use)
• No open-toed shoes (i.e. sandals, flip flops)
• Long pants recommended
• Hearing protection is highly recommended and may be required in some instances
• Hair below the collar of your shirt must be secured (tied back and tucked in shirt or covered
by a hat)
• Long beards must be covered
• Safety glasses must be worn at all times.
• Face shields (required when using grinders)
• Other machine-specific clothing/equipment as recommended by the manufacturer
Benefits
• Clean and safe work Place
• Reduction in lost time injury frequency
• Reduction in medical treatment injury frequency (beyond first aid care)
• Reduction in sick days used
• Lower workers’ compensation costs
• Lower medical benefits payments
• High morale of employee

2.6 Safety procedure mentioned in equipment manual and panel for potential risk of
equipment
Basic Safety Requirements
• Personal Hygiene
Be fit for the job, through good healthy habits, proper meals, sufficient rest, and cleanliness.
• Know Your Job and Responsibilities
Always be conscious of the safety of others, as well as your own. If you see a hazard, correct it
if possible, even if it's not in your department. Those hazards you cannot immediately correct,
notify your supervisor so the hazard can be corrected.
• Clothing
Wear proper, acceptable clothing for the job. If you're not sure of what clothing is acceptable,
ask your supervisor. Rings and jewelry should not be worn on, around or near moving
machinery. Long hair must be kept tied back or confined under a cap or hat to prevent long hair
from entanglements with machinery or equipment.
• Protective Clothing or Equipment
Although routine tasks performed by employees may not require personal protective equipment,
there may be times on the job, in the facilities or off site, where personal protective
clothing/equipment is necessary for special hazards. When this personal protection is provided,
each employee has an obligation to use this personal protective clothing or equipment, as
prescribed by management.
• Housekeeping
A place for everything and everything in its place. Keep equipment, tools, materials and work
areas clean and orderly. Particular attention must be paid to electrical and cables/wires and
other tripping hazards. If debris, leaks or other potential hazards are identified, it's up to each
individual who notices such hazards to correct them, or if this is not possible, to notify
supervision or management so the hazard may be corrected. All hazardous materials must be
properly stored, according to their requirements.
• Machine Guarding
Any machine that has exposed hazardous parts must be properly guarded. Should any machine
or equipment have guards removed, or require guarding, that equipment will not be used until
it has been properly guarded. Employees are not to use equipment or machinery that is not
adequately guarded. Should equipment or machinery be locked or tagged out, with words such
as: "Danger Do Not Start Machine", this indicates that the machine is being repaired, serviced
or otherwise out of service and must not be started or tampered with while the lock or tag is in
place. Only the person installing the lock or tag is authorized to remove the lock or tag.
• Movement
Walk - never run. Use handrails on stairs. Be cautious when approaching swinging doors,
corners or congested areas. Particular attention should be devoted to the prevention of slips and
falls, particularly when carrying materials, equipment or tools. Most slips and falls are the result
of not watching where a person is walking or inattention to footing.
• Safe Lifting
Each employee has been, or will be trained in the safe lifting method and each employee must
exercise these techniques and methods when lifting anything. If at any time, an employee
believes an object is too heavy or awkward to be lifted by one person, then get help or move
the object by mechanical lifting means. Each employee should maintain adequate fitness to
keep the back healthy, thereby reducing the exposure to back injuries.
• Fire and Emergency Preparedness
Know what to do, what action to take and where to go in the event of an emergency. In the
event of a fire, life safety is of paramount importance. If you have been trained and can safely
extinguish a fire, use portable fire extinguishers or hoses, but only if there is no danger to your
life. In the event of a fire, always call the fire department, even if the fire can be extinguished.
It's best to have the fire department notified, in case the fire gets out of control. In the event of
an earthquake, tornado or similar emergency, the best advice is to DUCK, COVER AND HOLD.
Duck under a desk or sturdy workbench, cover to protect your head, eyes and other body parts
from falling equipment or broken glass. Never run out of the building, since power lines are
located in the proximity of our facilities. Flying glass from windows could be another hazard.
Follow emergency procedures and use common sense to protect yourself and property.
• Accident/Injuries/Illnesses
Report all work-related accidents, injuries or illnesses to management when they occur. First aid
facilities are available and when required, competent medical assistance will be provided.
Worker compensation insurance will cover all medical costs for injuries that are work related.
Report all accidents, injuries and illnesses when they occur, even if you don't think medical
treatment is required.

2.7 Fire-Fighting Procedure and Responsibility

• EVERYONE HAS RESPONSIBILITIES
Every member of the industry has a responsibility to be prepared for emergencies

WHAT EVERYONE SHOULD KNOW:

It is your responsibility to know, before an emergency occurs:

1. The location of the nearest emergency escape route/fire exit.
2. The location of the nearest fire alarm pulls station.
3. The location of the nearest fire extinguisher.
4. The location of the staging area (evacuation assembly point) for your building.
5. The industry emergency telephone number
6. The EVACUATION PROCEDURE and FIRE PROCEDURE
WHAT EVERYONE SHOULD DO:

1 Keep hallways, stairways and fire exits clear.

2 Report blocked hallways, stairways or fire exits to Physical Plant (during normal working
hours or to Campus Security at other times.

• EVACUATION PROCEDURE: IF THE FIRE ALARM SOUNDS:

1.PROCEED IMMEDIATELY TO THE NEAREST FIRE EXIT! Proceed calmly but rapidly. Close doors
as you go if you are the last person out.
2. Do not wait for more information or to ascertain the cause of the evacuation.
3. Do Not Use Elevators
4. Follow the instructions of the Fire Wardens (orange vests) or Campus Security officers.
5. Go to the designated staging area (evacuation assembly point) for your building.
6. Do Not Re-enter the Building until the Fire Wardens, Campus Security or the Fire
Department gives clearance.
7. NEVER ENTER A BUILDING WHEN THE FIRE ALARM IS SOUNDING

IF YOU DISCOVER A FIRE:

1. Alert others to the danger as you leave. Close the door to the room or area involved.
2. PULL THE NEAREST FIRE ALARM
3. Leave the building, following the EVACUATION PROCEDURE.
4. As soon as you can do so safely, report details of the emergency.
5. Go to the designated staging area (evacuation assembly point) for the building. Tell the
manager details of the Fire. Stay in case the Fire Department has additional questions

 Fire Safety:
What is a Hazard?
When we refer to hazards in relation to occupational safety and health the most commonly used
definition is ‘A Hazard is a potential source of harm or adverse health effect on a person or
persons’.
The terms Hazard and Risk are often used interchangeably but this simple example explains the
difference between the two.
If there was a spill of water in a room, then that water would present a slipping hazard to
persons passing through it. If access to that area was prevented by a physical barrier, then the
hazard would remain though the risk would be minimized.
What is Risk?
When we refer to risk in relation to occupational safety and health the most commonly used
definition is ‘risk is the likelihood that a person may be harmed or suffers adverse health effects
if exposed to a hazard.’

Fire:

Fire is a rapid chemical reaction of oxidant with fuel

accompanied by the release of energy, indicated by
incandescence or flame.

Combustion Characteristics
For a fire to happen, the following elements are essential
• Oxidizer to sustain combustion.
• Heat to reach ignition temperature.
• Fuel or combustible material. This results in a chemical chain reaction which starts a fire.
Removing any of these elements will extinguish the fire.

Ignition:
• Ignition is the process of initiating self-sustained combustion.
• The ignition temperature of a substance is the minimum temperature to which it must be
heated for it to ignite.

Sources of Ignition
Ignition can occur by
• Electrically powered equipment- Arcing, damaged wiring, over heating of cables due to excess
loads, loose electrical connections, heat from electric bulbs etc.
• Open flame
• Hot surfaces
• Sparks from welding operations
• Chemical reaction between incompatible chemicals
• Smoking
• Batteries

Classification of Fires: Most fires that occur will fall into one or more of the following classes:
 Class A: Fires involving ordinary combustible materials, such as paper, wood, and textile
fibers. Cooling, blanketing, or wetting extinguishing agents are used for extinguishing such
fires.
 Class B: Fires involving flammable liquids such as gasoline, thinners, oil-based paints and
greases. Extinguishers for this type of fire include carbon dioxide, dry chemical and
halogenated agent types.
 Class C: Fires involving energized electrical equipment. The most common type of
extinguisher for this class is carbon dioxide extinguisher.
 Class D: Fires involving combustible metals such as magnesium, sodium, potassium,
titanium, and aluminum. Special dry powder*extinguishing agents are required for this class
of fire, and must be tailored to the specific hazardous metal.
 Class K: Fires involving commercial cooking appliances with vegetable oils, animal oils, or
fats at high temperatures. A wet potassium acetate, low pH-based agent is used for this
class of fire. This is also called as class F fire.
Fire Extinguishers
The colour coding of fire extinguishers is as follows:
 Water – Red
 Foam – Cream
 Dry Powder – Blue
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) – Black
 Halon – Green

Types of extinguishers
Water extinguishers
Water extinguishers are one of the most cost-effective ways to fight Class A fires, those fuelled
by solid materials such as paper, wood and textiles. There are four different types of water
extinguishers: water jet, water spray, water with additives and water mist or fog.
• Water jet extinguishers work by spraying a jet of water at the burning materials, cooling them
and preventing re-ignition. They should not be used on live electrical equipment.
• Water spray extinguishers use a very fine spray of water droplets; each droplet is surrounded
by air which is non-conductive. Most water spray fire extinguishers carry a 35 kV dielectric test
approval which means they have been tested on a 35,000 Volt electrical source at one meter.
• Water extinguishers with additives are water extinguishers with foaming chemicals added. The
water loses its natural surface tension meaning that it can soak into the burning materials more
effectively. Adding the chemicals to the water means that a smaller extinguisher can produce
the same fire rating as a larger, water only, extinguisher.
• Water mist, or fog, extinguishers apply water in the form of mist, or fog, the droplets are
much smaller than those from the water spray extinguisher. The smaller the droplet, the larger
its surface area in relation to its size, the quicker the droplet evaporates which absorbs the heat
energy faster. The downside is the smaller the droplet the less it weighs and therefore the less
powerful the cloud of water.
All water extinguishers have a red label.

Foam extinguishers
Foam fire extinguishers can be used on Class A and B fires. They are most suited to
extinguishing liquid fires such as petrol or diesel and are more versatile than water jet
extinguishers because they can also be used on solids such as wood and paper. The foam
extinguishes liquid fires by sealing the surface of the liquid, preventing flammable vapour
reaching the air and starving the fire of fuel. They are not suitable for use on free flowing liquid
fires.
Foam extinguishers have a cream label.

Powder extinguishers
Powder extinguishers are a good multi-purpose fire extinguisher because they can be used on
Class A, B and C fires. They can also be used on fires involving electrical equipment however,
they do not cool the fire so it can reignite. Powder extinguishers can also create a loss of
visibility and may create breathing problems. They are not generally recommended for use
inside buildings unless there is absolutely no alternative.
Powder extinguishers have a blue label.

Carbon dioxide extinguishers (CO2)

CO2 extinguishers are ideal for places with a lot of electrical equipment such as offices or server
rooms because they are safe to use on fires involving electrical apparatus. Carbon dioxide
extinguishers do not leave any residue, unlike a foam extinguisher. They can also be used on
Class B fires, those involving flammable liquids such paraffin or petrol. CO2 extinguishers work
by smothering the fire and cutting off the supply of air. Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers (CO2)
have a black label.

Wet chemical extinguishers

Wet chemical extinguishers are suitable for use on Class F fires involving cooking oils and fats,
such as lard, olive oil, sunflower oil, maize oil and butter. They are extremely effective, when
used correctly. The wet chemical rapidly knocks the flames out, cools the burning oil and
chemically reacts to form a soap-like solution, sealing the surface and preventing re-ignition.
Although they are primarily designed for use on Class F fires, cooking oils and deep fat fryers.
They can also be used on Class A fires (wood, paper and fabrics) and Class B fires (flammable
liquids). Wet chemical extinguishers have a yellow label.

Fire blankets
Fire blankets are primarily for use on hot oil fires such as frying pans or small deep fat fryers.
They can also be used on someone whose clothing has caught fire. They work by smothering
the fire, stopping access to the oxygen fueling it and extinguishing it.

Using a Fire Extinguisher:

To extinguish a fire with a portable extinguisher, you must have immediate access to the
extinguisher, know how to actuate the unit, and how to apply the extinguishing agent
effectively. Prior to fighting any fire with a portable fire extinguisher you must perform a risk
assessment that evaluates the fire size, the atmosphere in the vicinity of the fire and the fire
evacuation path. Let us now understand the various steps followed for using a fire extinguisher.
To remember the sequence of the steps, you may learn it as ‘PASS’ i.e., Pull, Aim, Squeeze and
Sweep

Step 1: Pull the pin or ring of the extinguisher. This will allow you to squeeze the handle in
order to discharge the extinguishing agent i.e., water, carbon dioxide, foam, etc.
Step 2: Aim- Aim the nozzle at the base of the fire, but maintain a distance of at least 6 feet
away from the fire.
Step 3: Squeeze or Press the handle together. This will release the extinguishing agent.
Step 4: Sweep the nozzle from side to side, aiming at the base of the fire. Continue until the
fire is extinguished.

Emergency Response:
In case of a fire
• Actuate the manual fire alarm call point.
• Alert personnel nearby so that they can come to your help/inform security section.

• While moving out of the building always use stairways.

• Do not use lifts, they may fail mid-way trapping people inside.
• Determine what is burning.
• Use the right type of extinguisher for fighting the fire. Use the fire extinguisher only if you
have attended practical training.
• Always position yourself with an exit or means of escape behind you before you attempt to
use an extinguisher to put out a fire.
• If the person who notices the fire feels that it cannot be tackled by extinguishers, he can
directly inform the fire station without delay.
• On hearing the alarm evacuate the building and assemble at the designated assembly point.
• As you evacuate close the doors of the rooms (do not lock) as this will slow down the spread
of smoke and fire.

Precautions:
• Keep fire doors of the staircase closed. If kept open, heat and smoke will enter the staircase
during fire and prevent escape of occupants.

• Do not obstruct emergency equipment. Fire extinguishers must be easily accessible.

• Materials must not be stored in front of exits or along stairways blocking them.
• Know the exits in the laboratory and in the building.
• Display emergency contact numbers near the telephone.

Fire Emergency Procedures

The level of danger to people if fire does break out depends on many different factors. It is not
possible to construct a model procedure for action in the event of fire that would be suitable for
all premises. However, the following plan of action shows the points that should normally be
covered. This emergency plan can be adapted accordingly to suit different premises or risks.
1. Raising the alarm. All employees should be familiar with the procedures for operating the
alarm. The alarm may be raised automatically via a fire detector system or manually by
operation of a manual call point or by other means. The emergency plan should cover how the
alarm is raised and the subsequent actions. It should be ensured that delays in response are
minimized.
2. Calling the fire service. The duty of informing the fire service immediately an alarm is
sounded must be specifically allocated to a designated person or people.
3. Stopping of machinery, isolation of power supplies. These tasks should be carried out
by previously designated people to ensure the safety of all those concerned.
4. Evacuating premises. Everyone must be able to escape from danger. Employees who do
not have specific designated duties should start to leave the building as soon as the alarm
sounds, unless instructions have been given to the contrary (e.g. as may be the case ifphased
evacuationis employed). Everyone should leave in a calm, orderly manner, by the most direct
route avoiding the use of lifts. Their evacuation should not be delayed by stopping to collect
belongings. Depending on the circumstances of the building, fire marshals may have been
nominated to ensure each area is evacuated.
5. Assembly points. Anassembly pointshould be pre-determined and everyone made aware of
its location. These points should be in a safe place, preferably under cover.
6. Roll call. One person in each department or area of the building should have the duty of
maintaining a roll call so that a quick check of employees in that area can be made. The fire
service should be informed on arrival if anyone is not accounted for. However, in circumstances
where it is not possible to clarify the whereabouts of staff during the working day (e.g. if staff
are constantly exiting and returning to the premises), a roll-call system may be ineffective. Any
emergency arrangements should take this fact into account.
7. Fire-fighting. Sufficient numbers of people throughout the building(s) should be trained in
the use of fire extinguishers. Where possible and where so authorized in advance, a member of
staff designated for firefighting purposes should attack the fire with a suitable extinguisher. It
must be stressed that if there is any doubt about their ability to extinguish the fire safely, it
should not be tackled but left for the fire service to deal with.
8. Responsibilities in the event of fire. In workplaces employing large numbers of
employees, it may be appropriate to nominate certain employees to carry out specific tasks in
the event of fire. For example, these tasks might include:
• acting as floor marshals, ensuring that the floor is completely evacuated during a fire
evacuation and reporting this fact to a previously established control point
• ensuring that security of the building is maintained
• Ensuring that disabled people receive any assistance required.
9. Information and training. For an efficient fire routine, it is essential that every person has
received adequate instructions and fully understands them. Instruction must leave no room for
doubt as to the action to be taken. It should be as brief as practicable and expressed clearly in
simple language.

Evacuation Procedures
An evacuation involves warning and informing people, identifying safe areas, accounting for
people and, if necessary, providing assistance for people to reach the safe areas. Often, all this
must be done at very short notice and in adverse conditions.
For many organizations, the process of evacuation can be quite straightforward, with all
relevant personnel knowing how to evacuate safely by undertaking appropriate training and
regular practice. However, the process of moving people out of a dangerous situation to a place
of safety can be complex and difficult, particularly in environments where there may be
vulnerable people.
Owing to differences in building design, construction, fire escape design, usage and occupancy,
each building will represent unique problems in emergency evacuation and these factors will
also determine whether evacuation should be phased or simultaneous.
Variables (such as modern working practices, the use of the premises and how people respond
to a real incident) can increase risks of uncontrolled dispersals and make accounting for
everyone a challenge.
It is important that the responsible person develops and exercises an appropriate evacuation
strategy as part of the overall fire risk management regime. A number of factors need to be
considered when developing an evacuation procedure.
• Occupant numbers and types: an evacuation can involve anything from one person up to
hundreds, and include vulnerable people such as the very young, very old or those with
mobility problems. Those who are unfamiliar with the premises, e.g. visitors, contractors or
temporary staff, may respond differently to those who are more familiar with the
procedures.
• Location: the location of the property could impact on the procedures to be adopted and
where to evacuate to, e.g. in urban areas, locating a suitable place of safety/assembly point
can be difficult and may require having to move some distance from the building and the
crossing of busy, main roads.
• Property type: the type of property and the activities within it will influence evacuation
procedures, e.g. in high-rise or large premises, it may be necessary to adopt phased
evacuation. The type of property will also influence the type and number of people who
could be involved in the evacuation.
• Duration: how long relevant people have to be evacuated for will be variable. However, the
welfare of more vulnerable people may have to be taken into account and it may be
necessary to consider alternative arrangements in terms of accommodation and shelter.

Evacuation: Factors to Consider

Consideration has to be given as to how the evacuation will be accomplished.
Issues to be addressed include:
▪ where to evacuate to: the place of safety/assembly point
▪ who will control the evacuation?
▪ how the instruction to evacuate can be communicated effectively and in a timely manner
▪ what instructions need to be given in order for people to respond effectively
▪ the arrangements required for assisting those who may be vulnerable or have mobility
problems
▪ the special arrangements that need to be made for the welfare of evacuees, particularly
those who are vulnerable or may have suffered injury during the incident/evacuation
▪ What arrangements, if any, have been made to record who has been evacuated and where
they have gone to.

Types of Evacuation
A key aspect of developing an emergency plan is the evacuation strategy for the premise, which
in essence is the evacuation procedure. The evacuation strategy should not rely on external
assistance and should be chosen to take into account the risk profile of the building and the
allowable travel time. There are two basic categories of evacuation procedure:

▪ Total evacuation of the occupants to a place of ultimate safety, by

i. Simultaneous evacuation where it would be unreasonable to expect the occupants to remain
in an affected area for a prolonged time when there is a fire. Simultaneous evacuation can be a
‘single-staged evacuation’ where an instantaneous warning from all fire alarm sounders for an
immediate evacuation occurs or ‘two-staged evacuation’ where there is an investigation period
(or grace period) before the fire alarm sounders are activated.
ii. Phased evacuation is a common approach adopted in high-rise where the first people to be
evacuated are all those on the storey most immediately affected by the fire, and those on other
floors with impaired ability to evacuate, unless their Personal
Emergency Evacuation Plan (PEEP) has determined otherwise. The remaining floors are then
evacuated, usually two floors at a time, at phased intervals.
 Progressive evacuation is where occupants, are initially evacuated to a place of relative
safety within the building where they can remain or, if necessary, complete the evacuation to
ultimate safety as part of a managed system. This can be:
i. Progressive horizontal evacuation of people into an adjoining fire compartment on the same
level, from which they can later evacuate to a place of ultimate safety.
ii. Zoned evacuation adopted in large retail developments, where a Zoned Evacuation Is
Achieved by Moving the Occupants Away from the affected zone to an adjacent zone.

What to Do If Someone Is Being Electrocuted

Every work site needs a plan to help employees be prepared should an emergency situation
arise. In a work site where there is a risk of electrical shock, the emergency action plan should
consider the appropriate reaction to an electrical shock to make sure the victim gets to help as
quickly as possible without endangering the life and health of would-be rescuers. Below, we’ll
discuss what to do if someone is being electrocuted.

Approach
Call emergency services. If a co-worker or supervisor who is trained in electrical work is nearby,
marshal their assistance immediately. The approach to where a co-worker has succumbed to
electrical shock should be made cautiously to help ensure the current that incapacitated the
victim doesn’t harm you too.

Examine
A quick look at the accident scene will reveal whether the victim remains in contact with
whatever shocked him. Avoid any nearby exposed conductors, and don’t touch the victim until
the electrical circuits that power the area have been de-energized. De-Energize
If the only source of power to the victim’s locale is a power cord or extension cord to portable
equipment, simply disconnecting it at the power source may be sufficient. However, a trip to the
breaker box to open the circuit may be necessary

Insulate
In the event that de-energization is impossible, you may have to remove the victim from a live
conductor. While this is never desirable, hazards can be controlled by using something that
won’t conduct electricity to move the victim and donning insulating gloves and overshoes before
attempting rescue if they are available.

Rescue
Rescues are safest when the power is off and you are standing on insulating material. Don’t
ever touch an electrocution victim unless you know the source of electricity that incapacitated
them is powered down. If there is a risk of a neck injury or similar contingency, do not move
the victim at all. Make sure the victim’s airways are clear of obstruction. Next, check for
breathing and a pulse, then provide CPR if necessary (provided you have been CPR trained).
You Will Want to Share as Much Important Information with First
Responders as possible when they arrive: Voltage, location of contact, etc.

Remember
Never try to provide first aid beyond your level of training, and stay with the victim until help
arrives.
Rescuing an electrocution victim at elevation or in the presence of high voltages is likely to
require specialized training and tools to do safely. Don’t attempt any rescue if you are not
confident you can do so safely. Working safely around electricity demands good planning and
careful judgement. When you use smart rescue techniques in an emergency, the person whose
life you save is you.

2.8 First aid procedure:

What to Do
If your co-worker is severely burned, call Ambulance right away. While you wait for help,
begin these treatments:
• Remove clothing from the burned areas, except clothing stuck to the skin.
• Run cool (not cold) water over the burn until the pain eases.
• Lightly apply a gauze bandage.
• If your child is awake and alert, offer ibuprofen or acetaminophen for pain.
• Do not put any ointments, butter, or other remedies on the burn — these can make
the burn worse.
• Do not break any blisters that have formed. Seek Emergency Medical Care

If:
• The burned area is large (cover the area with a clean, soft cloth or towel).
• The burns came from a fire, an electrical wire or socket, or chemicals.
• The burn is on the face, hands, feet, joints, or genitals.
• The burn looks infected (with swelling, pus, or increasing redness or red streaking of the skin
near the wound).

Think Prevention!
• Be careful when using candles, space heaters, and curling irons.
• Keep children away from radiators.
• Be alert around hot drinks.
• Check the temperature of bath water before putting a child in the tub.
• Check smoke alarm batteries at least once a month.
• Keep a fire extinguisher in the kitchen.
• Do not allow young children to play in the kitchen while someone is cooking.

Dressing:
Dressings are used to cover wounds, prevent contamination and control bleeding.
In providing first aid we commonly used self-adhesive dressings or gauze dressings:
• Adhesive dressings are used mainly for small wounds. They come in many different sizes,
including specific types for placement on fingertips.
• Gauze dressings are thick, cotton pads used to cover larger wounds. They are held in place
with tape or by wrapping with a gauze strip (bandage).
Dressings must be sterile and absorbent to deter the growth of bacteria, and should be left in
place until the wound heals, unless it needs to be regularly cleaned.

Figure 1. Adhesive and gauze dressing

Bandage:
The three major types of bandages are: roller bandages, tubular bandages and triangular
bandages. They are necessary for:
• covering wounds,
• applying pressure controlling bleeding, or

Supporting a strain or sprain.

There is a specific bandage made for each of these tasks.
Roller bandages are long strips of material. Basically there are two types of roller bandages:
• An elastic roller bandage is used to apply support to a strain or sprain and is wrapped
around the joint or limb many times. It should be applied firmly, but not tightly enough to
reduce circulation.
• Cotton or linen roller bandages are used to cover gauze dressings. They come in many
different widths and are held in place with tape, clips or pins. They can also be used for wound
compression if necessary, as they are typically sterile.

Figure 2. Roller bandage

Tubular bandages are used on fingers and toes because those areas are difficult to bandage
with gauze. They can also be used to keep dressings in place on parts of the body with lots of
movement, such as the elbow or knee.

Figure 3. Tubular bandages

Triangular bandages are made of cotton or disposable paper. They have a variety of uses:
• When opened up, they make slings to support, elevate or immobilize upper limbs. This may
be necessary with a broken bone or a strain, or to protect a limb after an operation.
• Folded narrowly, a triangular bandage becomes a cold compress that can help reduce
swelling.
They are used also for applying pressure to a wound to control bleeding.

Figure 4. Triangular bandages

2.9 What Is CPR?

Cardio means "of theheart" and pulmonary means "of thelungs."
Resuscitation is a medical word that means "to revive" — or bring back to life. Sometimes CPR
can help a person who has stopped breathing, and whose heart may have stopped beating, to
stay alive.
People who handle emergencies — such as police officers, firefighters, paramedics, doctors, and
nurses — are all trained to do CPR. Many other teens and adults — like lifeguards, teachers,
childcare workers, and maybe even your mom or dad — know how to do CPR, too.
The person giving CPR — called a rescuer — follows 3 main steps, which are known as C-A-B:
1. C: do chest compressions
2. A: check the airway
3. B: do rescue breathing
Chest Compressions
Someone giving CPR (the rescuer) will probably use both hands, one placed over the other, to
press on the person's chest many times in a row to move blood out of the heart that has
stopped beating.
These are called chest compressions and they help move oxygen-carrying blood to the body's
vital organs — especially the all-important brain. A person who goes too long without oxygen
reaching the brain will die.
In between each compression, the hands are lifted off the chest to let the chest go back to
where it was. This allows blood to flow back toward the heart. In this way, the rescuer can keep
the person alive by continuing to supply blood and oxygen to the brain and the rest of the body,
until emergency help — like the paramedics — arrives to take the person to a hospital.

Checking the Airways

After 30 compressions have been completed, the rescuer checks the airway to see if the person
is breathing.

Rescue Breathing
If the person is not breathing, TWO rescue breaths are given. This is called artificial respiration
mouth-to-mouth rescue breathing, or mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.
To do this, a rescuer puts his or her mouth over the other person's open mouth and blows,
forcing air into the lungs. (Ideally, the rescuer will use a special mask so that their mouths don't
actually have to touch.) Rescue breathing helps to move oxygen, which everyone needs to live,
down into the lungs of the person who isn't breathing. Chest compressions should start again
right after the two breaths are given.
Instead of doing mouth-to-mouth rescue breathing, professional rescuers — such as paramedics
— will provide artificial breathing for someone by using a mask with a special hand pump
connected to an oxygen tank. Doctors in the emergency department will put a tube into the
person's windpipe to pump oxygen directly through the tube and into the lungs.

When Should Someone Use CPR?

The steps in CPR (compressions, airway, and breathing) should be used whenever someone is
not breathing and when the heart is not beating.
Someone can stop breathing and/or have cardiac arrest from:
• heart attacks
• strokes (when the blood flow to a part of the brain suddenly stops)
• choking on something that blocks the entire airway
• near-drowning incidents (when someone is underwater for too long and stops breathing)
• a very bad neck, head, or back injury
• severe electrical shocks (like from touching a power line)
• being very sick from a serious infection
• too much bleeding
• severeallergicreactions
• swallowing a drug or chemical
If an emergency happens or someone becomes very sick while you're around, do your best to
stay calm. First, try to get the person to respond by gently shaking his or her shoulder and
asking, "Are you OK?" If there is no response and you are certified in CPR, you can begin CPR.
If you're alone, shout for help or call emergency number yourself.

Who Should Know CPR?

Certain people need to know how to perform CPR to do their jobs. Medical professionals — from
nurses and doctors to paramedics and emergency medicine technicians — must know CPR.
Lifeguards, childcare workers, school coaches, and trainers usually have to learn CPR. Many
parents know how to perform CPR on kids in case of emergency. Other adults who have family
members with medical conditions such as heart disease sometimes know CPR, too.
Many people — maybe you — might want to learn how to do CPR just in case they need to use
it someday. You can never tell when a medical emergency will happen and it feels good to know
that you could help. Talk with your mom or dad if you'd like to learn how to do it. Knowing CPR
can be a real lifesaver!

EXERCISE
1. What are the 4 types of safety signs?
2. What are the 4 types of PPE?
3. Explain where the following equipment used?
a) Helmet
b) Safety Glasses
c) Gloves
d) Safety Shoes
4. Does and don’ts of fire safety?
5. What is basic first aid?
 CHAPTER 3
ENGINEERING DRAWING
• Basics of Engineering Drawing:
• Reading of Engineering Drawing:
• Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T):

3.1 Basics of Engineering Drawing

A drawing is a graphic representation of an object, or a part of it, and is the result of creative
thought by an engineer or technician. When one person sketches a rough map in giving
direction to another, this is graphic communication. Graphic communication involves using
visual materials to relate ideas. Drawings, photographs, slides, transparencies, and sketches are
all forms of graphic communication. Any medium that uses a graphic image to aid in conveying
a message, instructions, or an idea is involved in graphic communication.
Drawing:
A drawing is a graphic representation of an object, or a part of it, and is the result of creative
thought by an engineer or technician. When one person sketches a rough map in giving
direction to another, this is graphic communication. Graphic communication involves using
visual materials to relate ideas. Drawings, photographs, slides, transparencies, and sketches are
all forms of graphic communication. Any medium that uses a graphic image to aid in conveying
a message, instructions, or an idea is involved in graphic communication. One of the most
widely used forms of graphic communication is the drawing. Technically, it can be defined as “a
graphic representation of an idea, a concept or an entity which actually or potentially exists in
life. Drawing is one of the oldest forms of communicating, dating back even farther than verbal
communication. The drawing itself is a way of communicating all necessary information about
an abstract, such as an idea or concept or a graphic representation of some real entity, such as
a machine part, house or tools. There are two basic types of drawings: Artistic and Technical
drawings.

Technical Drawings:
The technical drawing, on the other hand, is not subtle, or abstract. It does not require an
understanding of its creator, only an understanding of technical drawings. A technical drawing is
a means of clearly and concisely communicating all of the information necessary to transform
an idea or a concept in to reality. Therefore, a technical drawing often contains more than just a
graphic representation of its subject. It also contains dimensions, notes and specifications.
Purpose of Technical Drawings:
To appreciate the need for technical drawings, one must understand the design process. The
design process is an orderly, systematic procedure used in accomplishing a needed design. Any
product that is to be manufactured, fabricated, assembled, constructed, built, or subjected to
any other types of conversion process must first be designed. For example, a house must be
designed before it can be built.

Application of Technical Drawing:

Technical drawings are used in many different applications. They are needed in any setting,
which involves design, and in any subsequent forms of conversion process. The most common
applications of technical drawings can be found in the fields of manufacturing, engineering and
construction. For instance, Surveyors, civil engineers, sanitarians use technical drawings to
document such works as the layout of a new subdivisions, or the marking of the boundaries for
a piece of property. Contractors and construction personnel use technical drawings as their blue
prints in converting architectural and engineering designs in to reality.

PROJECTION:
All forms of engineering and technical work require that a two dimensional surface (paper) be
used to communicate ideas and the physical description of a variety of shapes. Here projections
have been divided in to two basic categories; pictorial and multi view. This simple division
separates single view projections (oblique, perspective and isometric) from multi view
projections (orthographic). Theoretically, projections can be classified as convergent and
parallel, or divided in to three systems of projection: perspective, oblique, and orthographic.
Division of types based on whether the drawing is a one view or multi view projection
sufficiently separate projection types in to those used for engineering working drawings
(orthographic) and those used for display (architectural rendering, technical illustrations etc.) In
short, one of the best ways to communicate one's ideas is through some form of picture or
drawing. This is especially true for the engineer. The purpose of this chapter is to give you the
basics of engineering sketching and drawing. Before we get started on any technical drawings,
let's get a good look at this strange block from several angles.
Isometric Drawing:

The representation of the object in figure is called an isometric drawing. This is one of a family
of three-dimensional views called pictorial drawings. In an isometric drawing, the object's
vertical lines are drawn vertically, and the horizontal lines in the width and depth planes are
shown at 30 degrees to the horizontal. When drawn under these guidelines, the lines parallel to
these three axes are at their true (scale) lengths.Orthographic Projections
Imagine that you have an object suspended by transparent threads inside a glass box, as in
figure.

Then draw the object on each of three faces as seen from that direction. Unfold the box and you
have the three views. We call this an "orthographic" or "multi view" drawing.
Basically, Orthographic projection could be defined as any single projection made by dropping
perpendiculars to a plane. In short, orthographic projection is the method of representing the
exact shape of an object by dropping perpendiculars from two or more sides of the object to
planes, generally at right angles to each other; collectively, the views on these planes describe
the object completely. Descriptive geometry is basically the use of orthographic projection in
order to solve for advanced technical data involving the spatial relationship of points, lines,
planes, and solid shapes. The most common means of understanding these types of
orthographic projection is The Glass Box method.

3.2 Reading Engineering Drawing:

The key to reading the drawings, elaborate or vague, is to follow a simple process that relies on
the many similarities of most drawing. Before progressing, have a drawing handy while going
through below process:

1. Always start with reading the details in the title block. This information is regarded as the
context in which the drawing should be perceived.
The details should give you the following information:
• General tolerances
• Projection details
• Scale used in the drawing
• Status of the drawing (Preliminary, Approved, etc.)
• Name of the component or assembly
• Contact details of the drawing owner
• Mass
• Units used in the drawing
• Sheet number and number of sheets
2. The next step is to read the notes in the drawing (outside the title block). Any information in
the notes that conflict with the title block should be considered as the correct information hence
the notes will in all instances, supersede the title block information.
3. Read the Bill of Material (BOM). The bill of materials is a list of the components and the
quantity that makes up the general assembly. The BOM is usually tabulated on the first page.
4. Make sure you have at hand all the relevant pages for the assembly drawings. Drawings
could be part of series and hence the entire series should be present in order to be able to
translate the information.
5. Understand the difference between the visible lines, hidden lines and phantom lines.
• Visible lines indicate an edge is visible in relevant view
• Hidden lines indicate the edge is behind a face
• Phantom lines indicate edges of structure that are relevant but not included in the drawing or
phantom lines could also mean a tangent line (where a curve starts or ends)

• Center lines indicate the geometric center of the assembly

1. Understand the projections, sections and details. View the drawing itself disregarding the
dimensions and try to visualize how and what the assembly looks like in 3D. Most new drawings
will have an isometric view to assist. Use the sections and details as a start point and one will
soon realize that the details and sections have been created to highlight important components
or features.
2. Using the BOM try to find the components in the drawing in order to understand the role the
component plays.
3. Look at the notes that have a leader (arrow) to the assembly, this information is usually vital
to the assembly and its functionality.
4. If in doubt, ask. Drawings are essentially a transmittal of instructions and if you don’t
understand the instructions then it is likely that they may have been vague in order to prompt
an inquiry with the owner of the drawing. This is common practice in highly elaborate
assemblies that are not a mass produced.
5. Use the dimensions in the drawing to be able to grasp the size of the component/Assembly
and even use a tape measure or ruler to gauge the size.

How to interpret first and third angle drawings

First angle
In First Angle Projection we place our object in the First Quadrant (see above figure). This
means that the Vertical Plane is behind the object and the Horizontal Plane is underneath the
object.
First angle projection is a method of creating a 2D drawing of a 3D object. It is mainly used in
Europe and Asia and has not been officially used in Australia for many years. In Australia, third
angle projection is the preferred method of orthographic projection.
Note the symbol for first angle orthographic projection. This is important information for the
person interpreting the drawing because if you examine the diagram below you will note that in
first angle orthographic projection:
• The view from the front is in the middle
• The view from the left is on the right
• The view from the right is on the left
• The view from the top is on the bottom
• The view from the bottom is on the top
• The view from the rear is on the far right

Third Angle:

In Third Angle Projection the Object is placed in the Third Quadrant. This means that the
Vertical Plane is in front of the object and the Horizontal Plane is above the object. In Australia
third angle projection is the preferred method for orthographic projection drawing
Note the symbol for third angle projection. This is important information for the person
interpreting the drawing because in third angle projection:
 The view from the front is in the middle
 The view from the left is on the left
 The view from the right is on the right
 The view from the top is on the top
 The view from the bottom is on the bottom
 The view from the rear is on the far right.

Difference between First angle and Third Angle Projection:

2.3 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T)
Introduction to GD&T:
In manufacturing, quality is paramount, costs must be controlled and the processes must
minimize waste and use resources wisely. To reduce cost many component parts are currently
being sourced from suppliers all over the world. The need for accuracy in part design and
manufacture is greater now than ever before. It is imperative that the design intent and
functionality of the part be clearly communicated between the design engineer and the
manufacturing plant. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T) is a precise language of
engineering symbols that clearly communicate the design intent of the part. The result is an
improvement in communication and part quality. The GD&T methodology is currently used in
Automotive, Heavy
Equipment, Aviation and several other industries. The standard used in the United States for
defining GD&T methodology is ASME Y14.5-2009.
What is GD&T
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T) is a language of symbols used to describe a
part’s nominal geometry and the allowable tolerance for variation. When applied properly the
design engineer can concisely define a features location, size, shape and orientation on the part.
GD&T is intended as an addition to the coordinate dimensioning system, not as a complete
replacement. The GD&T methodology takes into consideration the function of a part and how
that part functions with related parts. Therefore, for proper application of GD&T you must have
a thorough understanding of the function of the part within an assembly. GD&T has established
standards used throughout the world.

GD&T Symbols
Symbols Speaks Louder Than Words. Some GD&T Symbols as per Both Standards are Given
Below,

All around Symbol –

Indicating that a tolerance applies to surfaces all around the part.
All Over Specification [Y14.8 - 2009 R2014 (sections 3.14.1 & 3.14.2)] –

In addition to a general profile of a surface tolerance there is the option of specifying that the
tolerance applies all over on the field of the drawing. It is important to realize that this
specification, whether in a general note or on the field of the drawing, applies UNLESS
OTHERWISE SPECIFIED.
All Around This Side of Parting Line [Y14.8 - 2009 R2014 (sections 3.14.1 & 3.14.2)] –

To apply a requirement to all features all around one side of a parting line, the graphical symbol
for all around this side of parting line is indicated on the leader line.

All Over This Side of Parting Line [ ASME Y14.8-2009 Section 3.14.2] –

To apply a requirement to all features all over one side of a parting line, the graphical symbol
for all over this side of parting line is indicated on the leader line.
Angularity –

The condition of a surface, axis, or center plane, which is at a specified angle from a datum
plane or axis.
Arc Length –

Indicating that a dimension is an arc length measured on a curved outline. The symbol is placed
above the dimension.
Basic Dimension –

Used to describe the exact size, profile, orientation or location of a feature. A basic dimension is
always associated with a feature control frame or datum target. (Theoretically exact dimension
in ISO)
Between –

To indicate that a profile tolerance applies to several contiguous features, letters may designate
where the profile tolerance begins and ends. These letters are referenced using the between
symbol (since 1994) or the word between on drawings made to earlier versions of the Standard.
Concentricity –
Describes a condition in which two or more features, in any combination, have a common axis.
Conical Taper –

It is used to indicate taper for conical tapers. This symbol is always shown with the vertical leg
to the left.
Continuous Feature [ASME Y14.5-2009 Section 2.7.5] –

The note CONTINUOUS FEATURE or the continuous feature symbol is used to identify a group of
two or more features of size where there is a requirement that they be treated geometrically as
a single feature of size. Although the definition only mentions features of size, there is an
example of CF being applied to a pair of planar features.

Controlled Radius –

Creates a tolerance zone defined by two arcs (the minimum and maximum radii) that are
tangent to the adjacent surfaces. Where a controlled radius is specified, the part contour within
the crescent-shaped tolerance zone must be a fair curve without flats or reversals. Additionally,
radii taken at all points on the part contour shall neither be smaller than the specified minimum
limit nor larger than the maximum limit.

Counter bore/Spot face –

Is used to indicate a counter bore or a spot face. The symbol precedes the dimension of the
counter bore or spot face, with no space.
Countersink –

Is used to indicate a countersink. The symbol precedes the dimensions of the countersink with
no space.
Cylindricity –

Describes a condition of a surface of revolution in which all points of a surface are equidistant
from a common axis.
Datum Feature –

Is the actual component feature used to establish a datum?

Datum Target –
Is a specified point, line, or area on a part that is used to establish the Datum?
Reference Plane for manufacturing and inspection operations
Depth/Deep –

Is used to indicate that a dimension applies to the depth of a feature. This symbol precedes the
depth value with no space in between.
Diameter –

Indicates a circular feature when used on the field of a drawing or indicates that the tolerance is
diametrical when used in a feature control frame.
Dimension Origin –

Signifies that the dimension originates from the plane established by the shorter surface and
dimensional limits apply to the other surface.
Feature Control Frame –

Is a rectangular box containing the geometric characteristics symbol, and the form, run out or
location tolerance? If necessary, datum references and modifiers applicable to the feature or the
datum’s are also contained in the box.

Flatness –

Is the condition of a surface having all elements in one plane?

Free State Variations –

Is a term used to describe distortion of a part after removal of forces applied during
manufacture?
Least Material Condition (LMC) –

Implies that condition of a part feature of size wherein it contains the least (minimum) amount
of material, examples, largest hole size and smallest shaft size. It is opposite to maximum
material condition.
Independency Symbol [ASME Y14.5-2009 Section 2.7.3] –

The Independency symbol is applied to the size dimension in order to invoke the principle of
independency to regular features of size and override Rule #1. Maximum Material Condition
(MMC)-
Is that condition of a part feature wherein it contains the maximum amount of material within
the stated limits of size? That is: minimum hole size and maximum shaft size.
Movable Datum Targets [ASME Y14.5-2009 Section 4.24.6] –

The movable datum target symbol may be used to indicate movement of the datum target
datum feature simulator.
Number of Places –

The X is used along with a value to indicate the number of times a dimension or feature is
repeated on the drawing.
Parallelism –

Is the condition of a surface, line, or axis, which is equidistant at all points from a datum plane
or axis?
Parting Lines [ASME Y14.8-2009 Section 3.14] –

Are depicted on casting/forging/molded part drawings as a phantom line extending beyond the
part in applicable views, with the parting line symbol added.
Perpendicularity –

Is the condition of a surface, axis, or line, which is 90 deg.? From a datum plane or a datum
axis.
Position Tolerance –

Defines a zone within which the axis or center plane of a feature is permitted to vary from true
(theoretically exact) position.
Profile of a Line –

Is the condition permitting a uniform amount of profile variation, ether unilaterally or bilaterally,
along a line element of a feature?
Profile of a Surface –

Is the condition permitting a uniform amount of profile variation, ether unilaterally or bilaterally,
on a surface?
Projected Tolerance Zone –
Applies to a hole in which a pin, stud, screw, etc., is to be inserted. It controls the
perpendicularity of the hole to the extent of the projection from the hole and as it relates to the
mating part clearance. The projected tolerance zone extends above the surface of the part to
the functional length of the pin, stud, and screw relative to its assembly with the mating part.
Radius –

Creates a zone defined by two arcs (the minimum and maximum radii). The part surface must
lie within this zone.
Reference Dimension –

A dimension usually without tolerance, used for information purposes only. It does not govern
production or inspection operations. (Auxiliary dimension in ISO) Regardless Of Feature Size
(RFS) - the condition where the tolerance of form, runout or location must be met irrespective
of where the feature lies within its size tolerance.
Roundness –

Describes the condition on a surface of revolution (cylinder, cone, sphere) where all points of
the surface intersected by any plane.
Runout –

Is the composite deviation from the desired form of a part surface of revolution through on full
rotation (3600) of the part on a datum axis?
Slope –

Is used to indicate slope for flat tapers. This symbol is always shown with the vertical leg to the
left.
Spherical Diameter –

Shall precede the tolerance value where the specified tolerance value represents spherical zone.
Also, a positional tolerance may be used to control the location of a spherical feature relative to
other features of a part. The symbol for spherical diameter precedes the size dimension of the
feature and the positional tolerance value, to indicate a spherical tolerance zone.
Spherical Radius –

Precedes the value of a dimension or tolerance.

Spotface [ASME Y14.5-2009 Section 1.8.14] –

Counterbore and spotface previously used the same symbol. A spotface now looks like the
counterbore symbol with the addition of the letters SF.
Square –

Is used to indicate that a single dimension applies to a square shape. The symbol precedes the
dimension with no space between.
Statistical Tolerance –

Is the assigning of tolerances to related components of an assembly on the basis of sound

statistics (such as the assembly tolerance is equal to the square root of the sum of the squares
of the individual tolerances)? By applying statistical tolerancing, tolerances of individual
components may be increased or clearances between mating parts may be reduced.
The increased tolerance or improved fit may reduce manufacturing cost or improve the
product's performance, but shall only be employed where the appropriate statistical process
control will be used. Therefore, consideration should be given to specifying the required Cp and
/or Cpk or other process performance indices.
Straightness –

A condition where an element of a surface or an axis is a straight line.

Symmetry –

Is a condition in which a feature (or features) is symmetrically disposed about the center plane
of a datum feature?

Tangent Plane –

Indicating a tangent plane is shown. The symbol is placed in the feature control frame following
the stated tolerance.
Target Point –

Indicates where the datum target point is dimensionally located on the direct view of the
surface.
Total Runout –

Is the simultaneous composite control of all elements of a surface at all circular and profile
measuring positions as the part is rotated through 360?
Datum Translation Symbol [ASME Y14.5-2009 Section 3.3.26]–

This symbol indicates that a datum feature simulator is not fixed at its basic location and shall
be free to translate.
Unilateral and Unequally Disposed Profile Tolerance [ASME Y14.5-2009 Section
8.3.1.2] –
To indicate that a profile of a surface tolerance is not symmetrical about the true profile, this
symbol is used. The first value in the feature control frame is the total width of the profile
tolerance. The value following the symbol is the amount of the tolerance that is in the direction
that would allow additional material to be added to the true profile.

EXERCISE
1. What is drawing and Technical Drawing? Give examples of Technical Drawing?
2. Differentiate First angle and Third Angle Projection
3. Write down the name of following symbol

4. Draw the symbol of following

1. Between
2. Concentricity
3. Conical Taper
4. Controlled Radius
5. Counter bore/Spot face
6. Countersink
7. Cylindricity
8. Diameter
9. Parallelism
10. Perpendicularity

5. Explain following terms

1. Feature Control Frame
2. Spherical Diameter
3. Total Runout
4. Position Tolerance
 CHAPTER 4
PRODUCTIVITY

• Major Losses
• TPM
• TQM

4.1 Major Losses:

To help identify all losses in a process system (man/machine/material), and thus, eliminate
them, they have been divided into 16 categories, and can be grouped accordingly, as shown
below, with orange representing the equipment related losses, blue representing the losses
relating to manpower and yellow representing the losses relating to resource consumption.

Equipment Losses

1. Breakdown loss: (unit time e.g. hours)

The equipment breaks down causing the function of the line or process to stop. Often this is
considered as a sporadic failure, typically caused by equipment component failure.
Examples: Bearing failure due to wear, electrical fault, snapped belt.
2. Set up & adjustment loss: (unit time e.g. hours)
This loss occurs during a changeover between products. Set up time is defined as the amount of
time taken to change a process over from the last part of a production run to the first good,
repeatable part of the next production run. Adjustment within the set up time is often hidden,
and involves tweaking settings until optimal run conditions are achieved.
Examples: Changing products, changing packaging, adjusting the feed rate.
3. Cutting blade replacement loss: (unit time e.g. hours)
The time loss incurred swapping any consumable tooling item when it has become
worn/ineffective or damaged.
Examples: Time spent replacing saw blades, cutting/grinding tools, and lathe tools.
4. Start-up loss: (unit time e.g. hours)
The loss incurred whilst starting up equipment, to get to steady state operating conditions, after
planned or unplanned shutdown.
Examples: Time spent warming/cooling equipment to operating temperature,
compressor/hydraulic power pack run-up time.
5. Minor stoppage & idling loss: (unit time e.g. hours)
These are typically small stoppages not logged as breakdowns and issues causing the machine
to pause or idle for short periods. They are often chronic losses, regularly repeated, often not
recorded and usually less than 1-minute duration.
Examples: Waiting for a machine to index, emptying a mould during press operation, a sensor
fault or product blockage.
6. Speed reduction loss: (unit rate e.g. tonnes per hour)
This loss occurs from operating at a speed less than the design speed.
Examples: Line speed reduced due to quality issues or mechanical problems, gaps in the
product on conveyors.
7. Defect & rework loss: (unit to match rate e.g. tonnes)
This is the loss of defective product i.e. Not Right First Time which requires rework, repair or
scrap.
Examples: Out of spec product, low weight product requiring top-up, poor surface finish,
incorrect labelling.
8. Shutdown loss: (unit time e.g. hours)
The loss incurred by deliberately shutting down the equipment within the production plan.
Examples: Routine maintenance, periodic overhaul, cleaning, statutory inspections.

Manpower Losses:

1. Management Loss: (Unit = Time & Rupees)

These are waiting time losses generated by management problems. Examples: Failure to
provide materials, spare parts, manpower resource, utilities, work instructions.
2. Motion Loss: (Unit = Time & Rupees)
Losses are created due to unnecessary/excessive operator movement and transportation, as a
result of poor layout and work Organisation.
Examples: Walking loss, wasted motion e.g. unnecessary reaching and lifting
3. Line Organisation Loss: (Unit = Time & Rupees)
This loss results from a shortage of operators on the line and operators having to work on more
equipment than was originally planned.
Examples: No additional cover or contingency for break times, training and time spent off the
line
4. Distribution Loss: (Unit = Time & Rupees)
This loss is the wasted time that is experienced in the incorrect or inefficient delivery of raw
materials, packaging or products to and from the factory or the production line.
Example: Incorrect delivery of materials from supplier to store, late deliveries, excessive
handling of deliveries (double handling)
5. Measurement and Adjustment Loss: (Unit = Time & Rupees)
This loss is caused by the frequent measurement and adjustment to prevent the recurrence of
problems.
Example: Excessive inspection integrated in the process as a result of poor quality and failure to
find root cause. Adjustment loss is experienced when adjusting equipment back to the standard
after routine cleaning and periodic consumable changes (e.g. labels, film, and ink).

Yield, Energy & Tooling Loss:

6. Yield Losses: (Unit = Rupees)

This is the total loss between the input of raw material and the output of finished goods.
Examples: over-pack, giveaway, mass balances
7. Energy: (Unit = Rupees)
Energy loss is the input energy which cannot be used effectively for processing Examples: Start-
up losses, Idling losses.
8. Die, Tool and Jig Losses: (Unit =Rupees)
This is the cost of the physical consumption of the spare parts or the
refurbishment/maintenance of items that are used on the line.
Examples: Cost of spares, cost of replacement and maintenance to tooling, dies and jigs.
4.2 TPM:

Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is a system of maintaining and improving the integrity of
production and quality systems through the machines, equipment, processes, and employees
that add business value to an organization.
TPM focuses on keeping all equipment in top working condition to avoid breakdowns and delays
in manufacturing processes.

OBJECTIVE OF TPM:
One of the main objectives of TPM is to increase the productivity of a factory and its equipment
with a modest investment in maintenance. In order for TPM to be effective, the full support of
the total workforce is required. This should result in accomplishing the goal of TPM: "Enhance
the volume of the production, employee morale and job satisfaction."
The main objective of TPM is to increase the Overall Equipment
Effectiveness (OEE) of plant equipment. TPM addresses the causes for accelerated deterioration
while creating the correct environment between operators and equipment to create ownership.
OEE has three factors which are multiplied to give one measure called OEE

Performance x Availability x Quality = OEE

Each factor has two associated losses making 6 in total, these 6 losses are as follows:
Performance = (1) running at reduced speed - (2) Minor Stops Availability = (3) Breakdowns
- (4) Product changeover
Quality = (5) Start-up rejects - (6) Running rejects
The objective finally is to identify then prioritize and eliminate the causes of the losses. This is
done by self-managing teams that solve problem. Employing consultants to create this culture
is common practice.

TPM – Total Productive Maintenance Pillars:

TPM 5S Foundation
5S is considered the foundation of the lean TPM program because without it the initiative will
founder under the weight of disorganization, indiscipline and inefficiency.
It is important because it results in a clean, visually organized workplace that is self-
maintaining. 5S consists of five basic steps:
• Sorting all the items in the workplace and removing everything that is not necessary and
does not contribute to the creation of value for the customer
• Setting in Order everything that remains in an organized manner such that find items and
raw materials is easy. This reduces waiting and searching time in the process enhancing the
flow of value throughout the value chain
• Shining (Cleaning) is a way of making any abnormalities visible as well ensuring that
quality of the final product is of a high standard. It has been observed that a clean and
organized workplace has a positive effect on worker morale, not to mention that it also ingrains
a sense discipline – all of which has an impact on overall productivity
• Standardizing ensures that the improvements made are documented for posterity as well
as serving as a basis for further improvements and training
• Sustaining the improvements through scheduled audits is a way of stabilizing the system by
ensuring the agreed standards are being followed. Audits also serve as a measure of the
Effectiveness of the established standards – feedback that can be used to determine whether
the standards need further revision or improvement.
The 5S program sets the pace for the introduction of Total Productive Maintenance and must be
fully mature before any attempts are made to implement other aspects of the system.
As a stand-alone component, 5S is very effective in improving the organizational metrics and
has been shown to increase aspects such as productivity and quality.
For example, if the workplace is clean and organized, tools used in maintenance are easily
located – this has a positive effect on machine uptime.

TPM Pillar 1: Autonomous Maintenance (Jishu Hozen)

Jishu Hozen or Autonomous Maintenance places the responsibility of basic maintenance
activities on the hands of the operators and leaves the maintenance staff with more time to
attend to more complex maintenance tasks. Maintenance activities that are carried out by shop
floor workers include basic cleaning of machines, lubricating, oiling, and tightening of nuts and
bolts, inspection, diagnosis of potential problems and other actions that increase the productive
life of machines or equipment. By carrying out these maintenance activities, the workers
become more responsible towards their work and downtime is reduced because there is no need
of waiting for maintenance staff as they can correct simple problems that may occur from time
to time Maintenance staff on the other hand will be more concerned with issues that require a
higher technical ability such as replacement and servicing of Scheduled or planned maintenance
which means production will not be interrupted unnecessarily.
Autonomous maintenance has benefits to both the workers and the organization as a whole:
• Operators become more responsible and concerned about the condition of equipment they
use on a daily basis
• Skill levels of workers increase as they gain an understanding of the general working of
equipment thus achieving the multi-skilling objective of a lean organization
• Machines operate at their optimal level because basic maintenance such as cleaning and
lubrication is carried out more regularly
• Problems are identified and corrected before they go out of control leading to major
breakdown of equipment.
• Engineering staff are freed-up to carry out higher-level maintenance activities on sensitive
and critical equipment thus reducing the overall system downtime
By carrying out the simple activities in this TPM pillar, capital investments are drastically
reduced because the organization has reliable equipment and does not have to replace
machines as often. This is because the lifespan of machines is drastically increased as forced
deterioration is checked through constant monitoring and maintenance.

TPM Pillar 2: Planned Maintenance

Planned maintenance is the scheduling of maintenance activities based on observed behavior of
machines such as failure rates and breakdowns. By scheduling these activities around such
metrics, the cycle of breakdowns and failure is broken thus contributing to a longer service life
of machines.

Pillar 3: Quality Maintenance

This TPM pillar addresses the issue of quality by ensuring equipment is able to detect and
prevent errors during production. By detecting errors, processes become reliable enough to
produce the right specification the first time.

Pillar 4: Focused Improvement (Kobetsu Kaizen)

In this pillar, cross-functional teams are assembled with the main working on problematic
equipment and coming up with improvement suggestions.
The use of cross-functional teams is important so as to have a large and varied number of
employees involved so as to bring in different experience as well as viewpoints to the table.
These teams are better placed to come up with solutions to the issues that arise concerning
crucial machines. The kaizen projects for maintenance also serve as training sessions on the
total productive maintenance tool which results in the organization having a large pool of skilled
personnel.
Pillar 5: Early Equipment Maintenance
The fifth TPM pillar of Early Management uses the experience gathered from previous
maintenance improvement activities to ensure that new machinery reaches its optimal
performance much early than usual.
Working with a myriad of stake-holders including suppliers, the company is able to hit the
ground running with highly reliable and productive equipment.

Pillar 6: Education and Training

This pillar is concerned with filling the knowledge gap that exists in an organization when it
comes to total productive maintenance.
Lack of knowledge in the tools can stand in the way of proper implementation leading to
mediocre results at best and failure at worst.
Without proper training, tools such as TPM can be misunderstood by the staff which can result
in disastrous results for the company.

Pillar 7: Health, Safety & Environment

That workers must be able to perform their functions in a safe environment devoid of health
risks cannot be gainsaid.
The health, safety and environment pillar of total productive maintenance ensures that all
workers are provided with an environment that is safe and that all conditions that are harmful
to their well-being are eliminated.

Pillar 8: TPM in Office Functions

Taking TPM to the administrative functions is the next logical step in the total productive
maintenance program so as to have the whole organization speaking from the same page.
As these are supportive functions, making them understand and apply the principles of lean in
their own operations makes it easy for them to provide efficient service to the main value-
creating processes
4.3 TQM:

Total Quality Management (TQM) describes a management approach to longterm success

through customer satisfaction. In a TQM effort, all members of an organization participate in
improving processes, products, services, and the culture in which they work.

Total Quality Management Principles: The 8 Primary Elements of TQM

Total quality management can be summarized as a management system for a customer-focused

organization that involves all employees in continual improvement. It uses strategy, data, and
effective communications to integrate the quality discipline into the culture and activities of the
organization. Many of these concepts are present in modern Quality Management Systems, the
successor to TQM. Here are the 8 principles of total quality management:
Customer-focused:
The customer ultimately determines the level of quality. No matter what an organization does to
foster quality improvement—training employees, integrating quality into the design process,
upgrading computers or software, or buying new measuring tools—the customer determines
whether the efforts were worthwhile.

Total employee involvement:

All employees participate in working toward common goals. Total employee commitment can
only be obtained after fear has been driven from the workplace, when empowerment has
occurred, and management has provided the proper environment. High-performance work
systems integrate continuous improvement efforts with normal business operations.
Self- managed work teams are one form of empowerment.

Process-centered:
A fundamental part of TQM is a focus on process thinking. A process is a series of steps that
take inputs from suppliers (internal or external) and transforms them into outputs that are
delivered to customers (again, either internal or external). The steps required to carry out the
process are defined, and performance measures are continuously monitored in order to detect
unexpected variation.

Integrated system:
Although an organization may consist of many different functional specialties often organized
into vertically structured departments, it is the horizontal processes interconnecting these
functions that are the focus of TQM.
Micro-processes add up to larger processes, and all processes aggregate into the business
processes required for defining and implementing strategy. Everyone must understand the
vision, mission, and guiding principles as well as the quality policies, objectives, and critical
processes of the organization. Business performance must be monitored and communicated
continuously.
An integrated business system may be modeled after the Baldrige National Quality Program
criteria and/or incorporate the ISO 9000 standards. Every organization has a unique work
culture, and it is virtually impossible to achieve excellence in its products and services unless a
good quality culture has been fostered. Thus, an integrated system connects business
improvement elements in an attempt to continually improve and exceed the expectations of
customers, employees, and other stakeholders.
Strategic and systematic approach:
A critical part of the management of quality is the strategic and systematic approach to
achieving an organization’s vision, mission, and goals. This process, called strategic planning or
strategic management, includes the formulation of a strategic plan that integrates quality as a
core component.

Continual improvement:
A major thrust of TQM is continual process improvement. Continual improvement drives an
organization to be both analytical and creative in finding ways to become more competitive and
more effective at meeting stakeholder expectations.

Fact-based decision making:

In order to know how well an organization is performing, data on performance measures are
necessary. TQM requires that an organization continually collect and analyze data in order to
improve decision making accuracy, achieve consensus, and allow prediction based on past
history.

Communications:
During times of organizational change, as well as part of day-to-day operation, effective
communications plays a large part in maintaining morale and in motivating employees at all
levels. Communications involve strategies, method, and timeliness.

The advantages of total quality management (TQM) include:

Cost reduction
When applied consistently over time, TQM can reduce costs throughout an organization,
especially in the areas of scrap, rework, field service, and warranty cost reduction. Since these
cost reductions flow straight through to bottom-line profits without any additional costs being
incurred, there can be a startling increase in profitability.

Customer satisfaction
Since the company has better products and services, and its interactions with customers are
relatively error-free, there should be fewer customer complaints. Fewer complaints may also
mean that the resources devoted to customer service can be reduced. A higher level of
customer satisfaction may also lead to increased market share, as existing customers act on the
company's behalf to bring in more customers.
Defect reduction
TQM has a strong emphasis on improving quality within a process, rather than inspecting quality
into a process. This not only reduces the time needed to fix errors, but makes it less necessary
to employ a team of quality assurance personnel.

Morale
The on-going and proven success of TQM, and in particular the participation of employees in
that success can lead to a noticeable improvement in employee morale, which in turn reduces
employee turnover, and therefore reduces the cost of hiring and training new employees.
However, TQM also requires a significant training period for those employees involved in it.
Since the training can take people away from their regular work, this can actually have a
negative short-term effect on costs. Also, since TQM tends to result in a continuing series of
incremental changes, it can generate an adverse reaction from those employees who prefer the
current system, or who feel that they may lose their jobs because of it.
TQM works best in an environment where it is strongly supported by management, it is
implemented by employee teams, and there is a continual focus on process improvement that
prevents errors from occurring.

EXERCISE

1. Fill the missing information to complete the pillars of TPM

2. What is the difference between TPM and TQM?

3. Explain what TQM is. Name elements of TQM.
4. Write advantages of TQM.
5. Write the formula for OEE and explain the three factors that account for OEE.
6. Classify the following types of losses into equipment related losses, manpower losses
and losses relating to resource consumption:
a) Defect and rework
b) Line organization loss
c) Breakdown
d) Energy loss
e) Set up and adjustment
f) Minor Stoppage and idling
g) Yield loss
h) Measuring and adjustment loss
i) Cutting blade replacement
j) Die, jig and tool loss
 CHAPTER 5
JAPANESE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

5.1. 5S
5.2. Kaizen
5.3. Poka-Yoke
5.4. JIT(Just in Time)

5.1 5S

5S Introduction
Basic knowledge of 5S procedures, Skills to identify useful & non useful items, Advantages of
5S.

5S at workplace
Knowledge on how to sort and store various types of tools, equipment, material etc., 5S
Practice, Benefits of 5S Method, understand impact of waste, identify method to clean,
knowledge of labels, signs & colors used as indicators, Importance of standardization in
processes, visual controls, symbols, graphs etc.

8.15S Introduction
5S is a system for organizing spaces so work can be performed efficiently, effectively, and
safely. This system focuses on putting everything where it belongs and keeping the workplace
clean, which makes it easier for people to do their jobs without wasting time or risking injury.

A messy, cluttered space can lead to mistakes, slowdowns in production, and

even accidents, all of which interrupt operations and negatively impact a
company
The Origins of 5S
5S began as part of the Toyota Production System (TPS), the manufacturing method begun by
leaders at the Toyota Motor Company in the early and mid20th century. This system, often
referred to as Lean manufacturing in the West, aims to increase the company value of products
or services for customers. This is often accomplished by finding and eliminating waste from
production processes.
Lean manufacturing involves the use of many tools such as 5S, kaizen, kanban, jidoka,
heijunka, and poka-yoke. 5S is considered a foundational part of the Toyota Production System
because until the workplace is in a clean, organized state, achieving consistently good results is
difficult. A messy, cluttered space can lead to mistakes, slowdowns in production, and even
accidents, all of which interrupt operations and negatively impact a company.

5S Methodology:
5S is a workplace organization method that uses a list of five Japanese words: seiri, seiton,
seiso, seiketsu, and shitsuke. These have been translated as "Sort", "Set in Order", "Shine",
"Standardize" and "Sustain"
5S was developed in Japan and was identified as one of the techniques that enabled Just in
Time manufacturing.
One of the most powerful Lean Manufacturing Tools and a cornerstone of any successful
implementation is that of 5S, but what is 5S and its 5 Steps of Seiri, Seiton, Seiso, Seiketsu and
Shitsuke?
Summary

Japanese English
Seiri Sort
Seiton Set in Order
Seiso Shine
Seiketsu Standardize
Shitsuke Sustain

 5S is a workplace organization method that uses a list of five Japanese words: seiri,
seiton, seiso, seiketsu, and shitsuke. These have been translated as "Sort", "Set in
Order", "Shine", "Standardize" and "Sustain"

The steps of 5S:

5S is not only a system for housekeeping; it is an integrated approach for productivity
improvement. 5S is a whole a culture which increases production, improves quality, reduces
cost, makes delivery on time, improves safety and improves morale.

5S Steps: The Japanese developed this simple and easily understandable words religiously
practiced the philosophy of 5S at every aspect of their life and have made it a worldwide
recognizable system.

Too often in LSS the 5S philosophy is confined to one classroom training session or, at best,
used as a one-time implementation methodology that then dies its own death due to
negligence. 5S is not a list of action items that has to be reviewed at some interval of time.
Instead, it has to be practiced as a daily activity, which requires concentration, dedication and
devotion for sustaining it and ultimately making it a company-wide culture.
Step 1: Seiri, or Sort

Aim:
Only to have in the area what is required for the process

What?
To sort through the work area and remove any non-essential items
Why?
Having non-essential items in the workplace will reduce efficiency
There are five 5S phases: They can be translated to from the Japanese as "sort", "set in order",
"shine", "standardize", and "sustain". Other translations are possible
How?
Seiri is sorting through the contents of the workplace and removing unnecessary items. This is
an action to identify and eliminate all unnecessary items from the workplace. Actions items:
1. Look around the workplace along with colleagues to discover and identify items which are not
needed and not necessary to complete work.
2. Develop criteria for disposal for not-needed items.

3. Take “before” photographs wherever it is required.

4. An effective method for recording progress is to tag the items not needed. This visual control
of the not-needed items is often called red tagging.
5. While red tagging, ask these questions:
• Is this item needed?
• If it is needed, is it needed in this quantity?
• If it is needed, how frequently is it used?
• If it is needed, should it be located here?
• Who is ultimately responsible for the item? (Verify from that person.) Is there any other
not-needed items cluttering the workplace?
• Are there tools or material left on the floor?
6. Find a holding area to put red tagged items.
7. If it is difficult to decide whether an item is necessary or not, put a different tag and
segregate it in the holding area.
8. Classify the items by frequency of use.
9. Items or equipment used hour by hour or day by day should be kept within arm’s reach of
the point of use.
10. Items or equipment used once a week or once a month should be kept within the work area.
11. Items or equipment used less frequently should be stored in a more distant location.

12. Unneeded or unnecessary items should be stored in the holding area.

13. Individual departments should each have a holding area.
14. A holding area should be clearly visible and clearly marked to assure visual control of items.
15. Display pictures of items and place it on a public board visible to all.
16. Responsibility for the holding area should be assigned to some at the beginning of sorting
activity.
17. The items in holding area should be kept for three or four months. If the items are not
needed for work, then the items can be disposed. It is always necessary to verify plans to
dispose of items with anyone who had been using these items in the past or are presently using
the same or similar type of items.
18. Items should be moved to a company-level holding area before final disposal of the items.
19. The facility manager or an authorized person has to evaluate the items.
20. Disposal should be done in either of the following ways.
(Move to other department/section where the items are required.)
(Sell to someone outside the company.) Discard and haul away.
21. Dispose all items which are broken or have no value.
22. Take “after” photographs wherever it is required.

Step 2: Seiton, or Systematize

Aim
‘Shine’ is a form of inspection that identifies the current condition of equipment and records any
problems
To prevent dirt and contamination from reoccurring by eliminating the sources of dirt and by
making cleaning an everyday work activity.
What?
Clean every essential item from top down, recording (and ideally immediately fixing) sources of
contamination and problems as they are identified.
Why?
Improved safety (e.g. less oil on the floor reduces the risk of slipping.
There is less chance of affecting product quality by contamination

Identifies abnormal conditions

Dirty machines normally have a tendency to break down more often. Machine breakdowns
result in low uptime and can result in missing customer deliveries
How?
Seiton is putting the necessary items in their place and providing easy access. This is an action
to put every necessary item in good order, and focuses on efficient and effective storage
methods.
Clean the workplace (e.g. machines, pipes, walkways) while all of the essential items are being
sorted. Large items should be cleaned ‘from top down’
Clean the essential items in the ‘Sort’ area and put them back in the work area in the optimum
position that reduces ‘Waste’
Identify any problems with a Red Tag and record on a Red Tag Log, as explained on the next
slides Action items:
1. Make sure that all unnecessary items are eliminated from the workplace.
2. Taking into account of the work flow, decide which things to put where.
3. Take “before” photographs wherever necessary.
4. Also decide with colleagues about which things to put where from the point of view of
efficient operations.
5. This should be done as per the frequency of use of items. More frequently used items should
be kept near the workplace (see Nos. 9, 10 and 11 under Seiri).
6. Workers should answer these questions:
• What do I need to do my job?
• Where should I locate this item?
• How many of this item do I really need?
7. Make a plan based on the principles and locate things accordingly.
8. Use 5Whys to decide where each item belongs.
9. Locate needed items so they can be retrieved in 30 to 60 seconds with minimum steps.
10. Make sure to inform everybody at the workplace about positioning of the items.
11. Make a clear list of items with their locations and put it on lockers or cabinets.
12. Label each locker/drawer/cupboard to show what is kept inside.
13. Outline locations of equipment, supplies, common areas and safety zones with lines:
Divider lines define aisle ways and work stations.
Marker lines show position of equipment.
Range lines indicate range of operation of doors or equipment.
Limit lines show height limits related to items stored in the workplace.
Tiger marks draw attention to safety hazards.
Arrows show direction.
14. Identify all needed items with labels.
15. Take “after” photographs.
16. Complete evaluation using 5S levels of implementation with the facility manager or the
authorized person in the organization.

Step 3: Seiso, or Sweep

Aim:
To simplify the process of using items or completing tasks What?
All necessary items should be arranged so that they are at hand, easy to use, and labelled to
make their storage sites easily and simply understood by everyone Why?
Simplifying processes minimises waste

This makes everything easy to find, use and return

How?
Seiso involves cleaning everything, keeping it clean daily, and using cleaning to inspect the
workplace and equipment for defects. This is an action to clean the workplace daily.

Actions items:

1. Take “before” photographs.

2. Adopt cleaning as a daily activity and as a part of inspection. Clean the workplace before
starting of the job and before closing the job.
3. Put aside 10 or 15 minutes for the same activity per day.
4. Cleaning indirectly helps to check or inspect each and every part and place.
Hence, it should be a habit.
5. Find ways to prevent dirt and contamination.
6. Clean both inside and outside on daily basis.
7. Identify and tag every item that causes contamination.
8. Use 5Whys or cause-and-effect methods to find the root causes of such contamination and
take appropriate corrective and preventive action.
9. Keep a log of all places/areas to be improved. Table 1 shows a format for a log for cleaning
improvements.
10. 5S “owner” check-sheets should be maintained on daily basis. An example of a check sheet
is illustrated in Table 2. (The word owner here is used as a replacement for the title of operator.
An operator merely operates the machine or process, and might think cleaning is below them.
An owner cares for the machine and area in which he or she works.) 11. Develop a plan, activity
chart and distribute responsibility.
12. Take “after” photographs.
13. In addition to 10 to 15 minutes for Seiso every day, owners should have a weekly 5S time,
or monthly 5S day.
14. Complete evaluation using 5S levels of implementation with the facility manager or the
authorized persons in the organization

No. Checks Frequency Initials of Person

Responsible
1 Red tagging contaminated Daily
items
2 Remove residue from Daily
valves
3 Check oil level Every Tuesday

4 Apply grease to transfer Every Thursday

side
Check Supervised by Bill Smith Daily

Step 4: Seiketsu, or Standardize

Seiketsu involves creating visual controls and guidelines for keeping the workplace organized,
orderly and clean. This is a condition where a high standard of good housekeeping is
maintained. The first three steps, or S’s, are often executed by order. Seiketsu helps to turn it
into natural, standard behavior.

Actions items:
1. Take “before” photographs.
2. Check that the first three S’s are implemented properly.
3. All team activity documents/check lists should be publicly displayed on a 5S board.
4. Establish the routines and standard practices for regularly and systematically repeating the
first three S’s.
5. Create procedures and forms for regularly evaluating the status of the first three S’s.
6. Standardize red tag procedures and holding area rules (see Seiri).
7. Standardize procedures for creating shadow boards, position lines, and labeling of all items
(see Seiton).

8. Standardize cleaning schedules using the “5S Owner Check Sheets” (see Seiso).
9. Standardize “single-point lessons” for documenting and communicating 5S procedures and
improvements in workplace and equipment.
10. Create a maintenance system for housekeeping. Make a schedule for cleaning of the
workplace. A common approach is to ask a crossfunctional team to do it.
11. Inter-departmental competition is an effective means of sustaining and enhancing interest in
5S.
12. Assign responsibility to individuals for a work area and machinery.
13. Regular inspection/audit and evaluation by a special team (including senior management
persons) to be continued.
14. Instead of criticizing poor cases, praise and commend good practices or good performers.
15. Take “after” photographs and post them on the 5S board(s).
16. Complete evaluation using 5S levels of implementation with the facility manager or the
authorized persons in the organization.

Step 5: Shitsuke, or Self-Discipline

Aim:
We all contribute to both sustaining the current state and the rate of improvement What?
We need a culture that supports improving the 5S condition throughout company Why?
It will provide a safer, organised, productive and efficient workplace where employees take
pride in their work environment.
Shitsuke involves training and discipline to ensure that everyone follows the 5S standards. This
is a condition where all members practice the first four S’s spontaneously and willingly as a way
of life. Accordingly, it becomes the culture in the organization.

How?
Actions items:
1. Everyone in the workplace should treat it they would their own home.
2. Periodic facility management involvement is required to check that the first four S’s are
implemented perfectly.
3. Employees must make it a part of their daily work and not an action forced upon them.
4. Dedication, commitment, devotion and sincerity are needed in implementation of 5S on daily
basis.
5. Senior management should initiate a celebration for the total 5S implementation, and be an
active part in the total process in initiating and carrying forward the program.
6. Senior management should do a periodic review of the status of 5S.
7. Inspections of first three S’s should be done and the results displayed on 5S board regularly.
8. Single point lessons should be used to communicate the standards for how 5S work should
be done.
9. Root cause problem-solving process should be in place where root causes are eliminated and
improvement actions include prevention.
10. Owners conduct 5S Kaizen activities and document results. Owners (operators) complete
daily check sheets to control factors that accelerate deterioration of equipment, and to keep
clean workplaces that help build pride.

When fully implemented, the 5S process increases morale, creates positive impressions on
customers, and increase efficiency and organization. Not only will employees feel better about
where they work, the effect on continuous improvement can lead to less waste, better quality
and faster lead times. 5S is not only a system for housekeeping, it is an integrated approach for
productivity improvement. 5S is a whole a culture which increases production, improves quality,
reduces cost, makes delivery on time, improves safety and improves morale. 5S also is not a
list of action items, but is an integrated concept of actions, condition and culture. To get the
greatest success, the nature and implication of each “S” need to be understood by each
employee and should be regularly practiced.

Benefits of 5S:
• There an understanding of how the area is to be maintained.
• Area does not include any unneeded materials or items near machines.
• Hygienic washrooms for both operators and staff.
• Walkways clearly marked
• The trees/plants in the area maintained and beautify the environment.
• The buildings in the area properly maintained and cleaned.
• Regular 5s inspections are carried out in the area, to maintain the quality.
• Safety rules & exit signs clearly displayed in all area to operators and visitors as well.
• Employees wearing appropriate work wear during the work time in the premises.
• Clean Workplace
• Efficient Workplace
• Safe Workplace
• Enhance Productivity
• Good Visual Management
• Standardized working.

Summary:
1. Sort: Clear out all unnecessary items
2. Shine: Keep it clean, visible and safe
3. Simplify: Organise – A place for everything and everything in its place
4. Standardize: Establish standards for Sort, Shine and Simplify
5. Sustain: Seek out further improvements
5.2 KAIZEN

One of the most notable features of kaizen is that big results come from many small
changes accumulated over time. However this has been misunderstood to mean that
kaizen equals small changes

Kaizen, is the Japanese word for "improvement". In business, kaizen refers to activities that
continuously improve all functions and involve all employees.
Today kaizen is recognized worldwide as an important pillar of an organization’s long-term
competitive strategy. Kaizen is continuous improvement that is based on certain guiding
principles:

1. Good processes bring good results

2. Go see for yourself to grasp the current situation
3. Speak with data, manage by facts
4. Take action to contain and correct root causes of problems
5. Work as a team
6. Kaizen is everybody’s business

The most basic premise of kaizen philosophy is to institute incremental improvements over
time. It calls for an ongoing, collaborative process of gradual enhancements to optimize
productivity, efficiency, and/or quality.
1. Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service, with the aim to
become competitive and to stay in business and to provide jobs.
2. Adopt the new philosophy.
3. Eliminate the need for inspection on a mass basis by building quality into the product in the
first place.
4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag. Instead, minimize total cost.
5. Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service to improve quality and
productivity and thus constantly decrease costs.
6. Institute training on the job.
7. Institute leadership. The aim of supervision should be to help people and machines and
gadgets to do a better job.
8. Drive out fear so that everyone may work effectively for the company.
9. Break down barriers between departments. People in research, design, sales and production
must work as a team to foresee problems of production and use of the product or service.
10. Eliminate asking for zero defects and new levels of productivity. Such exhortations only
create adversarial relationships as the bulk of the causes of low quality and low productivity
belong to the system and thus lie beyond the power of the work force.
11. Remove barriers that rob the hourly worker of his right to pride of workmanship.
12. Remove barriers that rob people in management and in engineering of their right to pride of
workmanship.
13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement.
14. Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the transformation. The transformation
is everybody's job.

How Do You Implement Kaizen?

It's important to note that kaizen is a way of thinking, not a project to complete. To implement
it, all employees should receive training on the concept of kaizen and should have some
guidelines in terms of what they need to do before implementing a change. For example, it may
be fine for an office worker to change his or her handling of paperwork without any discussion.
A change in the production process, though, may impact multiple teams and should be
discussed with all impacted parties before implementation. In addition, most production steps
will be subject to safety regulations and will have detailed documentation on accurate
performance, and these need to be in place before a change is made.

It's also important that management is trained and be behind the effort. Kaizen will result in
many more suggestions for improvements and changes and will take away from a rigid focus on
moving items quickly through the existing production process. Management must be ready to
accept some time away from current work to focus on changes with longer-range impact.

The 10 Basic Kaizen Principles

1. Throw out all your old fixed ideas on how to do things.
2. No blame—treat others as you want to be treated.
3. Think positive—don’t say can’t.
4. Don’t wait for perfection. 50% improvement now is fine.
5. Correct mistakes as soon as they are found.
6. Don’t substitute money for thinking—creativity before capital.
7. Keep asking why until you get to the root cause.
8. Better the wisdom of 5 people that then the expertise of 1.
9. Base decisions on data not opinions.
10. Improvement is not made from a conference room.

No matter how attentive and conscientious you are about observing health and safety rules on
the job, the potential for workplace injuries is everpresent. Not only can these injuries put
employees at risk of hospitalization -- or even death.
Below listed are unsafe practices that might cause accidents at workplace. Workers are
instructed to read, understand and help themselves and others work safely.

Fig: Stages of Kaizen

Kaizen helps you reduce wastes, there are 9 types of wastes in industry.
Kaizen will help people reduce the waste and make workers work effectively.

Listed below are types of waste,

1. Overproduction
2. Delays (waiting time)
3. Transportation
4. Process
5. Inventories
6. Motions
7. Defective products
8. Untapped resources
9. Misused resources BENEFITS FROM KAIZEN Kaizen reduces waste.

Kaizen improves: Space utilization. Product quality. Use of capita.

Communications. Production capacity. Employee retention.
Kaizen provides immediate results.

Summary

• Kaizen strategy is the single most important concept in Japanese management - the key to
successful Japanese companies such as Toyota. Kaizen, which simply means continuous
improvement, is the foundation for all Lean improvements. Kaizen events are opportunities to
make focused changes in the workplace
• Repetitive Motion, lifting with improper form, Workplace violence, Collisions are few of the
unsafe work practices.
• Workers should use PPEs like respirators, gloves & goggles whenever necessary and
important.
5.3 Poka-Yoke:

What is Poka-Yoke?
Poka-yoke, ‘mistake-proofing’ in Japanese, prevents avoidable mistakes from occurring. This
applies to any environment, be it in manufacturing, hospitals or even in the home.
• Meaning
• Origin and application
• Examples in the automotive industry
• Error-proofing examples in manufacturing
• Mistake-proofing examples in daily life
• Other examples

Definition and Meaning:

This is a Japanese word that means mistake proofing of equipment or processes to make them
safe and reliable. These are simple, yet effective design features that make it almost impossible
for errors to occur. In fact, the original term was PokaYoke or "fool-proof". Due to the
inappropriateness of the term, "mistake-proofing" became the preferred term.
The aim of mistake-proofing is to remove the need for people to think about the products or
processes they are using. This is because the products have a design that makes it impossible
to use them in the wrong way.
When someone uses the product the wrong way, it does not function and it becomes obvious to
the user that they are doing the wrong thing. The simple yet effective design features make it
difficult for errors to occur during usage of the product. Error proofing, as understood and
practiced today, is an outgrowth of the quality movement, specifically the zero defects initiative.
A team-based plant floor improvement strategy, it focuses on production processes and
operations. Error proofing aims to prevent errors and deviations from standards of all kinds that
can impact quality, safety, manufacturing costs, and customer satisfaction.

Another tool useful in error proofing is Failure Mode Effects Analysis (FMEA): A design-
oriented FMEA is an analytical technique used by product or process designers as a means to
ensure that, to the extent possible, potential failure modes and their associated causes have
been considered and addressed. The design must be improved based on the results of the FMEA
study. All the potential design issues and possible error proofing should be identified during the
development of Design Failure Mode Effects Analysis (DFMEA) and integrated into design.
All the manufacturing/process issues are prioritized to help identify opportunities for the
greatest impact upon the customer and return on investment. The most common tool used to
identify/prioritize the issues is Process Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (PFMEA). The Process
FMEA method is used in a cross-functional team approach to answer all process-related
questions, and to quantify the results in the form of a Risk Priority Number (RPN). The PFMEA
tool helps the team to ask the key questions necessary to identify and implement the proper
error-proofing techniques to improve processes.
Error-proofing techniques include Design for Manufacturability (DFM), a set of techniques
leading to designs that cannot be incorrectly manufactured or assembled. DFM can also be used
to simplify the design, and therefore reduce its production cost. A Poka-Yoke system will use
setup devices or inspection techniques that ensure setup is done correctly—that is, produces
100% good parts from the first piece on. The design stage remains the best opportunity to
impact quality and cost.

Let's summarize: Why implement an error-proofing system?

• Competitive advantage: In a global market the cost of quality is part of a company's
competitive advantage. It costs far less to prevent defects from occurring in the first place than
to catch them later through inspection, and then find that you must rework or repair them.
• Knowledgeable workers: When every employee understands the principles of error proofing,
work teams can see more easily how defects are generated, and can then act effectively to
eliminate them. They can participate in the design and improvement of parts-processing and
assembly operations to prevent defects from occurring. These methods can also be employed in
the company's offices to eliminate errors in paper processes and administration.
• Predictability: If our machines (manual or robotic) include error-proofing devices, then we are
assured that the end product will be defect-free. This outcome eliminates inspection and rework
operations, as well as scrap, all of which increase manufacturing costs.
• Reduced variation: Error-proofing devices also ensure that all sub-assemblies and completed
assemblies are exactly the same. There will be little chance of part-to-part variation if machines
are designed or modified to prevent errors and their resulting defects.
Human error is natural. But sometimes, when errors can be traced back to the operator's
interaction with the process, there is a tendency to blame the operator. We encourage the
operator to try harder NOT to make mistakes, but the root cause of the error is usually failure
on the part of people who design machinery, layouts, or operating procedures to account for the
possibility of human errors or omissions. Error proofing can correct this situation.
There are important facts to realize about human error. It's important to incorporate error
proofing into the work environment. Understanding human limits is essential.
These limits include:
• Vision: People vary in ability to distinguish details, colors, or adjust vision to lighting.
• Hearing: Individual upper and lower thresholds of hearing change when background noise is
added.
• Repetition Ability: Muscular efficiency and mental tracking decrease as rate of repetition
increases.

Origin and Application:

The concept developed out of the need to achieve quality in production processes. It was Shigeo
Shingo, one of the pioneers of the Toyota Production System, who proposed the concept. He
was a quality guru who proposed the idea of ‘Zero Defects’ as a quality paradigm.
The thinking was that a process should be able to detect and prevent errors from occurring.
This would lead to a final product of high quality.
Many people lose their lives or get maimed through vehicular accidents each year. Safety of
users of automobiles is of paramount importance and many measures have been taken to make
them safe. The following are examples of mistake-proofing in the automotive industry:
Radar and video cameras in new vehicle models are able to tell the distance and speed of
other road users. This helps them prevent collisions in case of sudden stops. The device here is
more of a warning and preventive measure but it does not strictly fit into the concept of
behaviour modification. The driver may choose to ignore the warning which will lead to an
accident. The device does not stop the accident from happening in the first place.
Automatic breaking system stops the vehicle in case the driver fails to brake when an
obstacle suddenly appears on the road. If the system above is used with this device, it will be a
better preventive measure as the system will note that a warning has been ignored. The
sensors will then kick in and stop the vehicle - a key component of poka yoke is at play here.
Lane-keeping assist alerts the driver that he is about to deviate from his lane. If the driver is
not responsive, the vehicle intervenes and returns to the correct lane on its own. This device
also fits well with the automatic intervention philosophy of poka yoke. There is no way the
driver will commit an error because the vehicle will stop him from doing so.

Lane assist is a form of mistake-proofing that prevents accidents:

Electronic stability control helps reduce the possibility of accidents that can occur when a
vehicle skids uncontrollably due to over-steering by the driver. The condition being controlled
here is the slippery road -- when this condition comes into play the system kicks in to prevent
an unwanted result from occurring.
Cross-traffic alerts warn drivers of impending traffic when they are reversing from a parking
position. Like the first example of mistake-proofing in the automotive sector, this device is more
of a warning and must be used in-conjunction with other devices to be successful.
Adaptive headlights are able to respond to the conditions on the road so as to assist the
driver have better visibility. For example, they are able to illuminate curved roads and also
during bad weather.
Airbags deflate quickly after an accident to prevent injury to the occupants of the vehicle.
Seat belt pre-tensioners assist in holding the passenger in place in case of an accident and
prevent them from sliding through.
Seat belt pre-tensioners prevent occupant from sliding under during accidents, a form of
pokayoke
Blind spot assist warns the driver when there are objects within the blind-spot range that are
not visible.

Blind spot assist is a form of Poka Yoke

EBS braking distributes power evenly and the discs expand symmetrically when hot. This
minimises uneven tear of the discs
Brakes that continuously self-monitors and reports any problems to the central control unit.
This prevent the likelihood of an accident attributable to the breaking system

Do You Think Most of the Products You Use Are Safe?

• YES
• NO
See results
Poka-yoke in these plugs ensure they can only enter in a certain way
Poka Yoke Examples in Everyday Life
Products that we use every day have features that make them safe and convenient. The
following are a few examples of how mistake-proofing is used for everyday household products:
Micro-wave oven does not work until the door is shut.
Washing machines only start when the door is closed and cannot be opened until the cycle is
over.

USB cable can only enter facing one side

This electric socket has used poka yoke in a cover to make it child-proof
Electric plugs have an earth pin that is longer than the other pins and is the first to make
contact with the socket. The protective shield of the neutral and earth sockets are then opened
safely.
Electric sockets are shaped in a manner that only one way of plugging-in is possible. This
prevents the possibility of a short-circuit occurring.
Child resistant tops for medicines and household chemicals makes it difficult for children to
consume the contents.
Elevator doors have a sensor that causes them to open when there is an obstructionthis
prevents injury to someone trying to enter as the doors are closing.
Box cutters have a retractable blade that only pops out when the handle is held.

Lawn mowers have a safety bar on the handle that when released, switches off the machine.
Circuit breakers in the home electrical system prevent electrical overloads.

Overflow outlets in bathroom and kitchen sinks prevent flooding of the house when the drain
is blocked.
The Door of a washing machine or dryer makes the machine stop when it is opened, so as to
prevent injury from accidents

Examples of Poka Yoke in Manufacturing

In lean manufacturing systems, poka yoke also includes a philosophy of constantly working to
prevent mistakes from occurring in the first place. The internal processes in lean manufacturing
systems are supposed to produce quality products the first time. Error-proofing in this case is a
quality assurance technique that ensures quality is in-built and results in better products.
For the final product to be of high quality, all the inter-connected process steps have to give
first time quality. If a mistake or defect is allowed to move to the next step, the likelihood of it
appearing in the finished product is very high. It is therefore necessary to develop ways of
preventing a defective product moving to downstream process.
This is important because a finished product is considered to be the most expensive form of
inventory due to the accumulated costs along the value chain. If a defect occurs in the finished
product, the costs of production increase due to the effort required to correct it.
Magnets in a grain packaging plant detect and remove metal pieces before they are packed.
Interlock switches which detect the position of a machine guard and switch off the machine
when the guard is lifted. The machine will never operate when the guard has been lifted and
this prevents accidents to the operator.
Light curtains in a factory detect when someone is near very dangerous machines and
switches off the machine to prevent injuries.
Safety mats near machine areas that pose a danger automatically trigger stoppage when
someone steps on them. This prevents injury to personnel (such are technicians) who are trying
to access dangerous sections of a machine.
Power guards on high inertia machines with moving parts prevent opening until the parts have
stopped completely in order to prevent accidents.
Machines that must be controlled using both hands ensure that some distance is kept between
the operator and dangerous machine parts.
In the food industry, gloves and other small pieces of personal protective equipment must be
blue in colour for ease of detection in case they fall into food. This is because blue foods are
rare in nature and the color difference makes it easy to detect that a foreign object has fallen
into the food.
Using standardized containers at the workstation enables workers to know exact quantities
without having to weigh or count the contents.
Use of colour coded date labels to mark the production dates of products. This way the
different batches are easily identifiable for the purpose of product rotation. The system is
especially useful in the food industry where rotation of batches is very important because of
hygiene considerations.
Implementing PokaYoke for Assembly line:
Technically, “mistake-proofing” applies to the assembly line, while “error-proofing” applies to
product design. Thus, a good example of mistake-proofing is a power tool that flashes a red
light when a screw has not been tightened to the correct torque. A good example of error-
proofing is to design the joint to snap together, thereby obviating the need to monitor torque
altogether. However, most people use the terms interchangeably.
Poka-yoke techniques need not be confined strictly to preventing defects. The methodology can
also be used to promote job safety and prevent damage to machinery.
Ideally, poka-yoke techniques ensure that the right conditions exist to make a good assembly,
before a joining process is actually executed. Thus, there should be only one way two parts can
be joined before they are snapped, welded, bonded or fastened together. Where this is
impossible, poka-yoke techniques detect defects as soon as they are made, preventing faulty
assemblies from being passed to the next station.
Before engineers can prevent errors during assembly, they first need to know what errors to
expect and how those errors occur. One way to do that is through failure mode effects analysis
(FMEA).
FMEA can also be applied to the assembly process. FMEA can help cross-functional teams
identify poka-yoke opportunities that will have the biggest impact on the customer and yield the
best return on investment. Through FMEA, defects are ranked according to their frequency,
severity, detectability and customer impact.
Assemblers are valuable resources for designing and implementing poka-yoke techniques. When
every employee understands the principles of error-proofing, work teams can easily see how
defects are generated, and they can effectively eliminate them.
5.4 JIT (Just in Time)

`Just-in-time' is a management philosophy and not a technique.

It originally referred to the production of goods to meet customer demand exactly, in time,
quality and quantity, whether the `customer' is the final purchaser of the product or another
process further along the production line.
It has now come to mean producing with minimum waste. "Waste" is taken in its most general
sense and includes time and resources as well as materials.

Elements of JIT include:

• Continuous improvement.
• Attacking fundamental problems - anything that does not add value to the product.
• Devising systems to identify problems.
• Striving for simplicity - simpler systems may be easier to understand, easier to manage and
less likely to go wrong.
• A product oriented layout - produces less time spent moving of materials and parts.
• Quality control at source - each worker is responsible for the quality of their own output.
• Poka-yoke - `foolproof' tools, methods, jigs etc. prevent mistakes
• Preventative maintenance, Total productive maintenance - ensuring machinery and equipment
functions perfectly when it is required, and continually improving it.

Eliminating Waste
There are seven types of waste:
• Waste from overproduction.
• Waste of waiting time.
• Transportation waste.
• Processing waste.
• Inventory waste.
• Waste of motion.
• Waste from product defects.

Good housekeeping - workplace cleanliness and organization.

Set-up time reduction - increases flexibility and allows smaller batches. Ideal batch size is 1
item. Multi-process handling - a multi-skilled workforce has greater productivity, flexibility and
job satisfaction.
Levelled / mixed production - to smooth the flow of products through the factory.

Kanbans–
Simple tools to `pull' products and components through the process.
A Kanban system is a means to achieveJust-in-time(JIT) production. It works on the basis that
each process on a production line pulls just the number and type of components the process
requires, at just the right time. The mechanism used is a Kanban card. This is usually a physical
card but other devices can be used. Automation- providing machines with the autonomous
capability to use judgment, so workers can do more useful things than standing watching them
work.

Andon (trouble lights) - to signal problems to initiate corrective action.

To elaborate further, under just-in-time manufacturing (colloquially referred to as JIT
production systems), actual orders dictate what should be manufactured, so that the exact
quantity is produced at the exact time that is required.
Just-in-time manufacturing goes hand in hand with concepts such as Kanban, continuous
improvement and total quality management (TQM).
Just-in-time production requires intricate planning in terms of procurement policies and the
manufacturing process if its implementation is to be a success.
Highly advanced technological support systems provide the necessary back-up that Just-in-time
manufacturing demands with production scheduling software and electronic data interchange
being the most sought after.
Advantages Just-In-Time Systems
Following are the advantages of Adopting Just-In-Time Manufacturing Systems
• Just-in-time manufacturing keeps stock holding costs to a bare minimum. The release of
storage space results in better utilization of space and thereby bears a favorable impact on the
rent paid and on any insurance premiums that would otherwise need to be made.
• Just-in-time manufacturing eliminates waste, as out-of-date or expired products; do not enter
into this equation at all.
• As under this technique, only essential stocks are obtained, less working capital is required to
finance procurement. Here, a minimum re-order level is set, and only once that mark is
reached, fresh stocks are ordered making this a boon to inventory management too.
• Due to the aforementioned low level of stocks held, the organizations return on investment
(referred to as ROI, in management parlance) would generally be high.
• As just-in-time production works on a demand-pull basis, all goods made would be sold, and
thus it incorporates changes in demand with surprising ease. This makes it especially appealing
today, where the market demand is volatile and somewhat unpredictable.
• Just-in-time manufacturing encourages the 'right first time' concept, so that inspection costs
and cost of rework is minimized.
• High quality products and greater efficiency can be derived from following a just-in-time
production system.
• Close relationships are fostered along the production chain under a justin-time manufacturing
system.
• Constant communication with the customer results in high customer satisfaction.
• Overproduction is eliminated when just-in-time manufacturing is adopted.

Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages of Adopting Just-In-Time Manufacturing Systems
• Just-in-time manufacturing provides zero tolerance for mistakes, as it makes re-working very
difficult in practice, as inventory is kept to a bare minimum.
• There is a high reliance on suppliers, whose performance is generally outside the purview of
the manufacturer.
• Due to there being no buffers for delays, production downtime and line idling can occur which
would bear a detrimental effect on finances and on the equilibrium of the production process.
• The organization would not be able to meet an unexpected increase in orders due to the fact
that there are no excess finish goods.
• Transaction costs would be relatively high as frequent transactions would be made.
• Just-in-time manufacturing may have certain detrimental effects on the environment due to
the frequent deliveries that would result in increased use of transportation, which in turn would
consume more fossil fuels.

Precautions
Following are the things to remember When Implementing a Just-In-Time Manufacturing
System
• Management buy-in and support at all levels of the organization are required; if a just-in-time
manufacturing system is to be successfully adopted.
• Adequate resources should be allocated, so as to obtain technologically advanced software that
is generally required if a just-in-time system is to be a success.
• Building a close, trusting relationship with reputed and time-tested suppliers will minimize
unexpected delays in the receipt of inventory.
• Just-in-time manufacturing cannot be adopted overnight. It requires commitment in terms of
time and adjustments to corporate culture would be required, as it is starkly different to
traditional production processes.
• The design flow process needs to be redesigned and layouts need to be reformatted, so as to
incorporate just-in-time manufacturing.
• Lot sizes need to be minimized.
• Workstation capacity should be balanced whenever possible.
• Preventive maintenance should be carried out, so as to minimize machine breakdowns.
• Set-up times should be reduced wherever possible.
• Quality enhancement programs should be adopted, so that total quality control practices can
be adopted.
• Reduction in lead times and frequent deliveries should be incorporated.
• Motion waste should be minimized, so the incorporation of conveyor belts might prove to be a
good idea when implementing a just-in-time manufacturing system.

Summary
Just-in-time manufacturing is a philosophy that has been successfully implemented in many
manufacturing organizations.
It is an optimal system that reduces inventory whilst being increasingly responsive to customer
needs, this is not to say that it is not without its pitfalls.However, these disadvantages can be
overcome with a little forethought and a lot of commitment at all levels of the organization.
EXERCISE
1. Explain each of the five terms in 5S. Apply this principle to improve quality of your
workplace and write a report of the same.
2. How does 5S help in improving productivity?
3. Name all the seven types of waste. Identify each of them in your manufacturing unit.
4. Perform FMEA for one of the failures occurred on your assembly line. Explain what FMEA
is with the help of a chart.
5. State advantages and disadvantages of Just-in-time(JIT)
6. Explain Kaizen principle and apply it to improve the process you are currently working
on. Present it in the form of Kaizen sheet.
7. What is Poka-Yoke? Make a list of the Poka-Yoke identified in your surroundings.
8. What do you mean by zero-defects?
 CHAPTER 6
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Introduction
The term Communication has been derived from the Latin word communism that means
common. Thus to communicate means to make common or to make known. This act of making
common and known is carried out through exchange of thoughts, ideas or the like. The
exchange of thoughts and ideas can be had by gestures, signs, signals, speech or writing.
People are said to be in communication when they discuss some matter, or when they talk on
telephone, or when they exchange information through letters. It is the transfer of information
from a sender to a receiver with the information being understood by the receiver. A proper
understanding of information is one very important aspect of communication.

6.1 PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION

• Establish goals.
• Develop plans for achievement of goals.
• To effect change, internal functioning & influence actions Organize human and other resources
in the most effective and efficient ways.
• Select, develop and appraise members of the organization.
• Lead, direct, motivate and create a climate in which people want to contribute.
• Control performance.

6.2 Types of communication

• Written Communication
• Oral Communication

6.2.1 Meaning of Written Communication:

Written communication involves any type of message that makes use of the written word.
Written communication is the most important and the most effective of any mode of business
communication. Some of the various forms of written communications that are used internally
for business operations include:
Memos. Reports.

6.2.2 Importance of Written Communication:

• Written communication involves the use of written words to send a message from one point to
another. Written communication is important for any business entity to carry out the daily
business activities.
• It helps in maintaining records of business transactions.
• Written communication like brochures and catalogs help companies to showcase their
products effectively.
• Print advertisements help to market products.
• Written documents can serve as evidence in a court of law if and when required.
• Written words are believed more than spoken words. It’s just human psychology to believe
something that we see in writing than something someone says
• Personal written communication like letters, emails, post cards, greeting cards, etc., have
their own charm and special meaning to the ones sending and receiving them.

6.2.3 How to Improve Written Communication Skills

The importance of effective written communication skills cannot be stressed enough. Written
communication plays a major role, especially in the corporate world. Hence, it is doubly
important to have good written communication skills in the workplace. Business writing or any
other form of written communication can be very simple for those who follow the guidelines that
are given below.

Audience: The audience is mainly what determines the content to be written. Once you have
an idea about who is the intended audience, you can judge for yourself what other necessary
steps need to be taken to ensure the completion of the communication cycle, which is, after all,
the intention of any piece of communication.

Information: The basics of communication should be covered in your piece of written

communication. This is basically almost the entire information that you wish to give the reader.
However, you present the data, these points need to covered, only then is it an effective way of
communication.

Tone: Deciding the tone of your communication depends on the audience to a large extent
Tones can vary from casual, semi-formal to formal, depending on who your communicating with
and what you intend to communicate.

Length: Knowing when to stop applies to written communication skills as well.

You can’t just keep rambling on and on, when not required. The beauty of effective written
communication can be seen in its presentation. How well and how concisely you manage to
accommodate all the information that you need to give is what shows how proficient your
written communication skills are. The key is to be clear, concise and correct. But this does not
necessarily mean that you cut short on something that requires to be explained in detail.

Advantages
• Provide a tangible and verifiable record
• Record can be stored for an indefinite period of time
• Permanent in nature
• Accurate and assigning of Responsibilities

Disadvantages
• Time consuming
• Lack of feedback
• No guarantee how reader will interpret it
• Costly process
• Lack of clarification

6.2.4 Meaning of Oral Communication

Developing the oral communication skills, holds great importance in interacting properly with
people. The communication process which is carried out by means of spoken words is referred
to as oral communication. In today’s world, development of different media has led to the
communication process to take place by different means such as telephones, teleconferences
and video conferences. Face-to-face meetings and speeches were the main forms of
communication in earlier times. Effective listening in the workplace is important just like
speaking.
6.2.5 Skills Required for Oral Presentation
For a good oral presentation, the quality of text being prepared and the way it is presented are
equally important. An organized text presentation allows the orator to proceed smoothly from
point-to-point. Presenting relevant data through the presentation is first and foremost point to
be kept in the mind. The speech/presentation should be interactive.
It is necessary to develop oral communication skills to survive in today’s world. Individual and
business relations can be developed and maintained with the help of these skills.

Advantages
• Time - saving device
• Interaction
• Ample scope
• Economic in nature
• Feedback

Disadvantages
• Lack of time
• Lack of legal validity
• Misunderstanding
• Effectiveness
• Retained in record books

Summary
Written communication is very common in business situations, so it is important for small
business owners and managers to develop effective written communication skills. Oral
communication describes any type of inter-action that makes use of spoken words, and it is a
vital, integral part of the modern business world. For oral communication to be effective, it
should be clear, relevant, tactful in phrasing and tone, concise, and informative. A good oral
presentation will include transitional phrases to help listeners move through the material, and
will not be overly long or technical.

6.3 Common Etiquettes

Etiquette is a behavior that is to be observed if you want to be appreciated in front of others.
Not only this, you should observe some etiquettes for your personal well-being to live an
elegant and graceful life. Let us have a list of such etiquettes that are good to observe if you
want to be sophisticated in the society. So let us make a list of such etiquettes that are to be
observed while eating, while at workplace, while with women, while talking on phone and some
personal etiquette. But let us start with a few things which are to be taken care of always in life.
So first make a list of some General Etiquettes.
The etiquette that tops the list is
• Obey the elders. You should always keep a low tone with them.
• Then you should learn to appreciate others.
• Never take uninvited guests with you at someone, at least, without informing.
• Never ever spit on sidewalks or throw litter on the road.
• Always use a handkerchief while sneezing or coughing. Also apologize immediately.
• Never tip-toe to a person’s room. It’s rude to get in without asking.
• Always hold the door disregard to the gender.
• Help the disabled and the needed. They will remember you forever.
• Never misplace anybody’s things. He/she may get troubled.
• Return borrowed things in time or apologize and ask to keep them for some more time.

6.3.1 Workplace Etiquettes

Workplace is a place where people don’t only notice you, but also mark you on your behavior.
So it’s time to see a few Workplace Etiquettes. Always remember that you are the ambassador
of your company. Any action you do gives others an impression about your company. Suppose
you own a restaurant and you yourself eat the utensil food (for example- a piece of cake) with
your hands during a lunch meeting, people looking at you will get an impression that you don’t
provide a fork with desserts in your restaurant. Friends, you aim to conduct yourself respectfully
and gallantly in a workplace. So, you should take care while dealing with clients or customers
because your cordial relationship will cause them to come back to you. In order to do so, mark
out a few do’s and don’ts-

The Do’s (at workplace)

• Always avail yourself. Being approachable is definitely a quality.
• Always keep your boss in the loop. Informing is must.
• Be on time as “early bird catches the worm”.
• Bear a pleasant appearance so that you don’t feel bored and lazy while working.
• Be aware of the office policies and procedures.
• Always cooperate with your co-workers. That too without expecting anything in return. Learn
to give credit to others instead of taking it to yourself.
• Say what you want to but in an acceptable manner.
• Treat your colleagues, superiors, subordinates, cleaners, and everybody with equal respect
because remember ‘you get what you give’.
• Passing sexist comments upon a coworker is offensive.
• Take responsibility, both for the work and for the mistakes. Apologizing is not a big deal.
• Keep everything properly arranged so that you can avoid shuffling at the end moment.

Don’ts (at workplace)

• Never confuse your colleague with your best friend. Keep the relationships straight and
simple.
• Never say no to what your boss asks you to do.
• Do not forget to keep your cell phone off while meetings. It will save you of embarrassment.
• Never show your impatience to everyone. Instead discuss matters with the concerned ones
and keep the tension off.
• Workplace is not appropriate to display fashion.
• Neither criticize nor gossip about any co-worker’s work or life respectively. Also do not pass
personal remarks.
• Do not try to sell things in your office.
• Do not boast that you know everything.
• Never argue with the boss until you desire to leave the job.
• Would you like if your colleague reads your emails? Then why should you do that.

6.3.2 Telephone Etiquettes

We all talk on telephone. Have you ever noticed that there are a few etiquettes to be observed
while talking on Telephone? Telephonic conversation has increasingly become an essential part
of our professional and social life. Though body language and eye contact do not come into
consideration, there are other parameters to influence the listeners on phone. Some companies
also take interviews on telephone. So, it is essential to follow some guidelines and show
telephone etiquettes. Now check the do’s while on telephone.

Do’s (while on telephone)

• Your ring tones and caller tunes make an impression about you. Choose them carefully.
• Call when it is convenient for others, not for you.
• Always ask if it is the right time to talk. Also keep the conversation short.
• Give an impression to the caller that you are listening carefully by giving small replies like
“hmm”, “yeah” etc.
• Be polite and use phrases like- “May I know who’s speaking?”
• Keep the conversation rotating.
• Be clear and precise.
• Start the conversation with greetings and end it with a wish.

Don’ts (while on telephone)

• People around you don’t want to listen to your conversation. Don’t make them your audience.
• Do not forget to convey the message for which you have made the call, in gossiping.
• Never drive while talking as one cell may lead you to another.
• Being loud doesn’t send your voice sooner to the listener. So try not to be loud.
• Giving miscalls is considered as rude.
• Never entertain wrong numbers.

So, in this way, you can avoid annoyance caused to others while talking on phone. Now there
are some Personal Etiquettes. Yes, you definitely want to behave appropriately to yourself. The
only thing that describes personal etiquette is how you think of yourself. It’s none of your
business to keep sleeping over on what others think of you. It is only your point of view that
matters. Now it doesn’t mean that you overestimate yourself and feel like on the seventh
heaven every time. But it is to make you remain down to earth and never underestimate
yourself too. This is the key to be lovable to all.

Here is a list which can make you think about yourself for some time
• Think broad. Your small thinking will lead you nowhere.
• Respect yourself. If you don’t, nobody will.
• If you don’t like someone breathing in your space, you should also respect for other’s personal
space.
• Keep an attitude of not hurting others. It will always give a favorable impression.
• Learn to say NO wherever you think you will be in trouble. But that too politely.
• Think of what you can do; and not of what you cannot do. It wastes your time and energy.
• Manage yourself first, and then others. You need yourself the most.
• Stop depending upon others for your happiness. Make your world happy for yourself. It is not
a bad idea to pamper yourself for a while.
• Think good for yourself. Positive. Feel determined and inspired.
But this doesn’t mean that you should become selfish and snob. The idea is that to think good
of others, you need to think good of yourself too, as the saying goes- ‘Charity begins at home’.

Summary
So, we have come to the end of this topic. Let us summarize it quickly. You have first seen
some useful tips for grooming. And then you have seen some common etiquette that included
those etiquettes which are to be observed when you are eating, while you are at workplace,
while you are with women, when you are talking on phone and some personal etiquette. This
concludes the chapter

EXERCISE
1. Explain the importance of good communication.
2. State importance of written and oral communication.
3. Demonstrate workplace etiquettes through a small role play or presentation
4. Explain the dos and don’ts while talking on a telephone
5. Classify the following as good and bad practices at workplace
a) Obeying the elders.
b) Boasting that you know everything
c) Always informing your boss
d) Being clear and precise
e) Keeping your cell phone off during meeting
f) Spitting on sidewalks or throwing litter on the road
 CHAPTER 7
BASIC UNITS & THEIR CONVERSIONS

Introduction
In our day to day life we come across the measurement of different things i.e. weight of
materials we purchase, distance we travel, time to complete the work etc., and during this
measurement, the form of measurement must be same, not only in our locality or city or
nation, but also universally. The stability and progress of physical science mainly depends upon
the accuracy and consistency of physical laws discovered and established from time to time.
The establishment of these laws involves measurement of different quantities i.e. Measurement
of electric current, temperature, time, force, volume, distance, energy etc. Hence the units for
measurement are necessary.

DEFINITION
Units are the accepted standard for measuring a quantity.

7.1 CLASSIFICATION OF UNITS

Units are mainly classified into two categories:
1. Fundamental units
2. Derived units.
Fundamental units are the units of fundamental quantities i.e. units of length, mass and time.

Fundamental units are further sub-divided into

1. C.G.S. System;
2. M.K.S. System
3. F.P.S. System.
The first two is known as Metric system and the third one is known as British system.

C.G.S. system means centimeter gram second system. In this system, unit of length is
centimeter; unit of mass is gram; and unit of time is second. M.K.S. system means meter
kilogram second system. In this system, unit of length is meter; unit of mass is kilogram and
unit of time is second. F.P.S. system means foot pound second system. In this system, unit of
length is foot, unit of mass is pound and unit of time is second.

Derived units are the units which are used to express a quantity by combined two or more of
the fundamental units. For example, units of area, volume, energy, power, speed etc. maybe
said as examples of derived units.

7.2 S. I. UNITS
S.I. unit means System International of Units i.e. "International System of Units". This is an
extension of M.K.S. system of units, introduced since 1960 and it is accepted internationally,
which are being commonly used in our country.

There are four more fundamental quantities which belong to earlier branches of physics. These
are temperature, electric current, luminous intensity and the amount of substance.
System international (i.e. S.I.) units
Sr. No. Quantity Unit Name Unit Symbol
1 Length Meter m
2 Mass Kilogram kg
3 Time Second s
4 Electric current Ampere A
5 Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
6 Amount of substance Mole mol
7 Luminous Intensity candela cd

Sr. No. Quantity Unit Symbol of Unit

1. Area square meter m2

2. Volume cubic meter m3
3. Velocity (Linear) meter per second m/s
4. Velocity (Angular) radian per second rad/s
5. Acceleration meter per second squared m/s2
6. Force Newton N
7. Pressure Newton per square meter (Pascal) N/m2
8. Density kg per cubic meter kg/m3
9. Work / Energy joule J
10. Power watt W
11 Torque Newton meter Nm
12. Specific Heat Joule per kg kelvin J/kg.K

7.3 Inter-relationship between Metric and British system of Units:

Although S.I. units are now being adopted all over the world, countries which were more
technologically advanced like U.K., U.S.A. etc. still following the old British systems of units
also. Hence it is necessary for us to be conversant with the British system of units also.

Therefore, inter-relationship between system of units given below, may be highly useful in
finding conversions from one unit to another unit.

Inter-Relationship between Metric and British Systems of Units:

Length
1 mm = 1000 microns
1 cm = 10 mm
1 cm = 0.3937 inch
1 mm = 0.03937 inch
1 meter = 100 cm = 1000 mm
1 meter = 39.37 inches
1 meter = 3.281 feet
1 kilometer = 1000 m
1 inch = 2.54cm = 25.4mm
1 foot = 12 inch = 30.48 cm

Area:
1 sq. meter (m2 ) = 10,000 cm²
1 square inch = 6.3516 sq. cm
1 square foot = 0.0929 sq. meter

Volume:
1 milliliter = 1 cubic centimeter
1 liter = 1000 cubic centimeters
1 liter = 1000 milliliters

Weight:
1000 gram = 1 kilogram
1000 kilogram = 1 metric ton
1 kilogram = 2.205 pounds
1 pound = 0.453 kg

Pressure:
1 kg/sq. cm = 0.98 bar
1 PSI ( pound/sq. inch) = 0.0689 bar

Miscellaneous items
1 kilowatt (kW) = 1000 watts
1 horsepower (HP) = 0.746 kW = 746 Watt
1 W =1 newton meter per second

Temperature conversion from Celsius to Fahrenheit

Formula:
°F = °C x 95 + 32
Where, °F = Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
°C = Temperature in degrees Celsius

Temperature conversion from Fahrenheit to Celsius

Formula:
°C = (°F – 32) x 59
Where, °C = Temperature in degrees Celsius
°F = Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
Note:
0 °C = 32 °F (Zero degrees Celsius equates to 32 degrees Fahrenheit)
0 °C = 273.15 °K (Zero degrees Celsius equates to 273.15 degrees Kelvin)

TEST PAPER QUESTIONS (SOLVED)

Example 1:
Convert the following:
(i) 35° C into °F
(ii) 36 inches into cm
(iii) 5 metric H.P. into watts
(iv) 33 pounds into kg

Solution:
(i) We know °F = °C x 95 + 32
Where,
°F = Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
°C = Temperature in degrees Celsius
Hence, substituting value of °C = 35°, we get
°F = °C x 95 + 32
= 35 x 95 + 32
= 63 + 32
= 95
35°C =95° F …Ans.

(ii) 1 inch = 2.54 cm

 36 inches = 36 x 2.54
=91.44 cm …Ans.

(iii) 1 metric H.P. = 746 watts

5 metric H.P. = 5 x 746
= 3730 watts …Ans.

(iv) 1 pound = 0.453 kg

33 pounds = 33 x 0.453
=14.949 kg …Ans.

Example 2:
Covert the following:
(i) 300° F into °C
(ii) 1920 sq. ft. into metre2
(iii) 22 KW into H.P.

Solution:
(i) We know °C = (°F – 32) x 59
Where, °C = Temperature in degrees Celsius
°F = Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
Substituting value of F = 300°, we get
°C = (°F – 32) x 59
= (300-32) x 59
= 268 x 59
= 268 x 0.555
= 148.89 °C …Ans.

(ii) 1 sq. ft.= 0.0929 square meter

 1, 920 sq.ft. = 1,920 x 0.0929
= 1 78.37 sq. meters …Ans.

(iv) 1 kilowatt = 1.341 HP

22kW = 22 x 1.341
=29.502 H.P. …Ans.

EXERCISE
1. Define the following terms:
1) Units 2) Metric System 3) British System 4) S. I. Units

2) Conversions
1) 1 inch = ---------------cm = -----------------mm = --------------meter.
 2) 1 Foot = ---------------cm.
3) 1 mm = ----------------inch.
4) 1 sq. cm = ---------------------sq. Inch.
5) 1 pound = -----------------gms.
6) 1 HP = --------------------watt.
7) 1 Watt = ---------------N meter per sec.

3) Convert
a) 23 inches into mm.
b) 920F into 0C.
c) 700C into Kelvin.
d) 30 kg into pound.
e) 10 HP into KW.
f) 5 KW into HP.
g) 25 psi into bar.
h) mm to microns

4) Write units of following:

a) Area
b) Volume
c) Velocity (Linear)
d) Velocity (Angular)
e) Acceleration
f) Force
g) Pressure
h) Density
i) Work / Energy
j) Power
k) Torque
l) Specific Heat

5) Write the SI units of:

a) Length
b) Mass
c) Time
d) Electric current
e) Thermodynamic temperature
f) Amount of substance

6) Explain the difference between SI and CGS system

7) Explain the inter-relationship between Metric and British system of Units with an
example.
8) Write the formula for conversion of 0 C to K
 CHAPTER 8
WORK WITH SUPERIORS AND COLLEAGUES

8.1 Role of Various Work Levels

Worker:
Role of worker is to give required assistance to the operator and the worker must be present all
the time with the operator because the worker must understand that the efficiency of the
operator is dependent on the assistance given by the worker. Worker must give all the required
material to operator and maintain cleanliness nearby work area.

Operator:
The operator must give correct and in time instruction to worker about cleanliness and supply of
material for the job. Operator also must operate machine carefully with optimum use of
machine and also capacity utilization of the machine should be 100%. The job done by the
operator must have zero "defects and must fulfill the specification given in job order. Operator
must remain friendly with the worker so that the worker and the operator both have job
satisfaction. Operator must take proper instruction from supervisor and complete the work as
per the requirement in time.

Supervisor:
As the supervisor has to get the work done from the group of 5-6 operators and 5-6 workers,
he must have required skill of man- management. Along with the human skill, he must have the
technical skills about the machine, method of operation and efficient utilization of man,
materials and machines. He should take care of all of its subordinates as well as his supervision
should be task-oriented as well as human oriented. He must see that safety rules are followed
strictly on the shop floor as well as zero accident must be his objective. He should be a team
leader and get the work done so that person working under him will get good job satisfaction.
He should plan his day-to-day work, organize and co-ordinate and need to improve the
productivity of the shop-floor.

Engineers and specialist:

Engineers and specialist must be highly technical person, must be able to identify the problems
related to shop-floor on method and machine, they should be able to solve the problems and
improve the efficiency of supervisors in turn operators and workers working under them. They
should be quality conscious in respect of raw material received as well as finished product. They
must be able to implement TQM in their shop-floors and adopt the concept of internal customer
satisfaction.

8.2 Operational and functional management:

To have a smooth working of any industrial organization, there is necessity of various manager
or functions such as purchase and store manager, manufacturing manager, engineering
maintenance manager, Quality control manager, R & D manager, safety and security manager,
personnel manager, finance manager and marketing manager. The team of this entire manager
does their functions along with the persons working under them. There should be close co-
ordination amongst all these functional mangers and team should work with the objective to
earn the profit from the activity of the organization, expansion of the organization and satisfied
employees, vendors and customers. The effective teamwork of all above functional managers
will lead to improve productivity, quality product and services, efficiency of the employees. If
the team of the functional managers is effective then people get a good image about the
organization, which will improve the marketing creditability and profitability amongst the
people.

8.3 Relationship between the Worker and Supervisor, Specialist and Managers
There should be harmonious relationship between the supervisors and worker, supervisors and
specialist, managers and specialist and managers and investors. In each case the superior
should give full support and subordinate should give full co-operation while performing the
activities. Superior should not be only task oriented or only people oriented, but also best team
leaders who will bring all concerned employees under them to improve productivity and good
team working. The specialist must not be too much technical but he should be able to make the
technical things simple which can be understood easily by the supervisors and the workers. If
manager plans the shop works properly, organize the things neatly, coordinate amongst all
department by keeping various control such as manpower control, waste control, cost control
and quality control, then all work will be done in a very neatly and properly. But during this he
must keep good relations with workers, supervisors and specialists.

8.4 Elements of Work with superiors and colleagues

1. Communicate effectively
2. Establish and maintain effective relationships with colleagues and customers
3. Work in a team

8.4.1 Effective Communication

To help ensure your communication is polite, professional and friendly, the following tips will
assist:
 Follow all establishment policies
 Use a person’s name where it is known
 Be honest
 Use ‘please’ and ‘thank you’ a lot
 Don’t interrupt
 Speak at an appropriate pace and volume
 Make sure your non-verbal language matches the verbal communication.
 When communicating with others it is vital to make sure that the language and tone is
appropriate to the nature of each individual communication

8.4.2 Work in a Team

Teamwork is classified as the collective actions towards a number of people towards a collective
goal.
It requires the collective efforts of many people to achieve success.
Elements of Teamwork are:
1. Request or provide assistance so that work activities can be completed
2. Provide support to colleagues to ensure achievement of team goals
3. Discuss and resolve problems through agreed and/or accepted processes
4. Recognise and accommodate cultural differences within the team
5. Identify, prioritise and complete individual tasks within designated time lines

A team is often characterised through:

1. Having a common goal.
2. It is important all staff not only identify the goal,
3. Working interdependently with each other.
4. Independent job functions.

8.4.3 Assistance from other

Not everyone can do everything.
On many occasions we need the assistance of others because:
1. We don’t know how to do it
2. Others are better equipped to do it
3. We need more than one person to do it.

8.4.4 Providing assistance to others

Why provide assistance?
The intent of helping team members is:
1. To ensure that team goals are achieved
2. To deliver excellent service to customers
3. To prove your commitment to the team
4. To encourage team members to help you when you need assistance.

8.4.5 What is the importance of teamwork in an organization?

• Teamwork is important in an organization because it provides employees with an
opportunity to bond with one another, which improves relations among them.
• Workers who constitute a team working on a project often feel valued upon the successful
completion of such tasks.

8.4.6 What is the purpose of teams in Organizations?

• The purpose of creating teams is to provide a framework that will increase the ability of
employees to participate in planning, problem-solving, and decision-making to better serve
customers.
• Increased participation promotes: A better understanding of decisions.

EXERCISE
1. What are the Various Work Levels?
2. When communication being effective?
3. What are the importance of Assistance from other?
4. What are the importance of providing assistance from other?