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Low (10–800 MHz) and high (40 GHz) frequency probes applied to petroleum multiphase flow

characterization

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2008 Meas. Sci. Technol. 19 055602

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IOP PUBLISHING MEASUREMENT SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Meas. Sci. Technol. 19 (2008) 055602 (8pp) doi:10.1088/0957-0233/19/5/055602

Low (10–800 MHz) and high (40 GHz)

frequency probes applied to petroleum
multiphase flow characterization
E Bondet de la Bernardie1,2, O Dubrunfaut1, J C Badot3,
A Fourrier-Lamer1, E Villard2, P Y David2, B Jannier1,2, N Grosjean4 and
M Lance4
1
LGEP, CNRS UMR8507, SUPELEC, UPMC Univ. Paris 06, Univ. Paris-Sud, 11 rue Joliot-Curie,
Plateau de Moulon, F-91192 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
2
Geoservices SA, 7 rue Isaac-Newton, F-93151 Le Blanc-Mesnil, France
3
LCMCP, CNRS UMR7574, ENSCP, 11 rue P et M Curie, F-75231 Cedex 05, France
4
LMFA, CNRS UMR5509, ECL, Univ. Lyon 1, INSA Lyon, F-69131 Ecully, France
E-mail: olivier.dubrunfaut@lgep.supelec.fr

Received 6 July 2007, in final form 24 January 2008

Published 19 March 2008
Online at stacks.iop.org/MST/19/055602

Abstract
The method presented here is suited to the real-time characterization of fluids pumped from an
oil layer. Two kinds of flow in the production line are studied: homogeneous flow of oil and
water and annular flow (oil and water plus a gas column). The method is based on dielectric
spectroscopy. Two probes are used: one at high frequency (around 40 GHz) to determine the
composition of the liquid phase, i.e. the oil–liquid ratio (OLR) and the water–liquid ratio
(WLR); a second one at low frequency (10–800 MHz) to calculate the gas ratio or gas hold-up
(GHU). The electromagnetic models of each probe are presented. Experimental results for
static and dynamic fluids (measurements on a two phase flow loop) validate the principle for
homogeneous and annular flows for GHU between 60% and 95%.

Keywords: sensor, petroleum, oil, OLR, WLR, GHU, gas hold-up, multiphase, emulsion,
annular flow, microwave, dielectric spectroscopy, permittivity, flow loop, pipeline

1. Introduction is very high: the fluid runs as an emulsion forming a liquid

Three principal effluents coexist in an oil layer: water, oil
and gas. They flow up to the surface as a multiphase fluid
mixture where oil and water generally constitute an emulsion
and gas circulates in various modes depending on dynamic
conditions. In order to optimize the separation conditions of
the fluids, multiphase flow metering has to evaluate precisely
the proportions of each component upstream of the devices
of decantation and filtering, without having recourse to a
preliminary separation of the different phases. The flowing
conditions in a vertical pipeline depend primarily on the
respective flows in liquid and gas phases. The present study
considers two types of flow: homogeneous and annular flows.
The first occurs when the gas phase is negligible: a water
and oil emulsion in variable proportions entirely fills the
pipeline. The second case occurs when the gas proportion
layer on the circumference of the pipe and the gas goes up
as a column centered on the axis of the pipe. The measured
data are the oil and water volume fractions in the liquid phase
named oil liquid ratio (OLR) φ o and water liquid ratio (WLR)
φ w (φ o + φ w = 1), respectively, and the gas hold-up (GHU)
which is the section of the gas column compared to the
sectional surface of the pipeline.
Various methods allow non-destructive measurements to
be carried out in real time. Invasive methods (e.g. [1])
allow accurate estimations for a large range of flow types
but such techniques can have a poor shelf life. Indeed,
sand is often carried with the fluid and may cause damage
to the inserted probe. Of non-invasive methods, the most
reliable consists in the measurement of γ radiation absorption
by the multiphasic mixture [2, 3]. To avoid radioactive-
source-related hazards, oil companies intend to develop

0957-0233/08/055602+08$30.00 1 © 2008 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK

Meas. Sci. Technol. 19 (2008) 055602 E Bondet de la Bernardie et al

non-nuclear solutions, mostly electromagnetic and derived

from destructive methods [4] like resonator techniques
[5, 6] and reflection–transmission or reflection microwave
spectroscopy [7–9]. This last method developed by J Hilland
during her PhD Thesis describes a probe geometry quite
similar to the method presented in this paper—a coaxial guide
positioned radially to the pipeline—but the frequency band,
the analytical resolution and the approach are different.
The presented measurement device, based on dielectric
spectroscopy, determines (1) the composition of the liquid
phase in emulsion, i.e. φ o and φ w, from a very high-frequency
measurement (around 40 GHz) and (2) the GHU from a
measurement at low frequency (10–800 MHz). φ o and φ w
are determined whatever their values between 0 and 1; for
the GHU, the validity domain of the device is between 60%
and 95%. The originality of the method presented here is
that the measurements are carried out by two complementary
and independent probes with very different frequency bands,
one working at high frequency and the other at low frequency
(patent [10]). We first present the principle (section 2) and
then the electromagnetic models of each probe (sections 3
and 4). Experimental results with static and moving fluids
Figure 1. Schema of the device (example of annular flow).
(measurement on a flow loop) then validate the device for
homogeneous and annular flows (section 5).

2. Principle

The principle of the sensor is to work at low and high frequency

in order to reach, according to the frequency, different parts
of the pipeline. Indeed, trivially, the penetration depth is
inversely proportional to the frequency in open space as in
guided propagation beyond the cut-off frequency. At low
frequencies (LF, about 500 MHz), the whole fluid can be thus
observed and, at high frequencies (HF, about 40 GHz), only
the layer located near the excitation is investigated. In the case
of an annular flow, the study at HF thus characterizes the liquid
layer (i.e. φ o and φ w) and the study at LF, the liquid layer and
the gas column (i.e. the GHU). Therefore, two probes are used:
one denoted LF, the other denoted HF according to the
geometry of figure 1 (let us note here that only one probe
covering the entire frequency band is hardly possible for
sensitivity reasons: a HF-suited connector is not sufficiently Figure 2. Section of the pipeline and its annular flow (dark: gas,
white: mixture water/oil).
sensitive, with this kind of geometry, at LF).
The radius of the pipeline is fixed for the whole study
at 14.4 mm. The geometry of the two probes is identical, LF probe consists of a connector GR900 or APC-7 mm
only their standards are different: each probe is a coaxial (diameter of the external conductor is 14.28 mm and 7 mm,
cable placed radially to the pipeline and connected to a respectively; maximum frequency is 9.6 GHz and 18 GHz,
network analyzer to measure the admittance Y (Y = G + iB) respectively). The HF probe uses the APC-2.4 mm standard
at the discontinuity between the coaxial guide and the tight (diameter of the external conductor is 2.4 mm; up to 57 GHz).
dielectric window. The usually selected shape of window The windows of the LF and HF probes are made of
for this kind of probe is the coaxial geometry where the polyetheretherketones or ‘peek’ (εr = 3.2 and negligible
inner conductor of the coaxial guide can be extended through losses, measured with [13]) and have a thickness of about
the window (e.g. [11, 12]); however, we chose for the HF 1 mm.
probe a cylindrical circular geometry (full window) which Because of the flat part introduced into the geometry by the
allows, as will be seen further, an optimal response of presence of the probes, the section of the pipeline and thus the
this probe. For the LF probe, the two kinds of windows gas stream is not strictly cylindrical. As a first approximation,
(coaxial and full) are appropriate. From the mechanical we assume that the shape of column conforms to the shape of
point of view, the full window is nevertheless better. The the pipeline (figure 2).

2
Meas. Sci. Technol. 19 (2008) 055602 E Bondet de la Bernardie et al

Thereafter we will take R = 14.4 mm, U = 14.3 mm and

e = dL. The trivial calculation of the GHU from the
geometrical parameters is presented in the appendix.
The data processing from admittance measured is different
for each probe. For the HF probe (around 40 GHz), the
composition of the liquid layer, i.e. φ o and φ w, is deduced from
the admittance YHF (the gas is not reached by the wave). For
the LF probe (10–800 MHz), the thickness of the liquid layer
and then the GHU is deduced from the admittance YLF and
from the value of the relative permittivity of the liquid mixture




εm = εm −iεm , this being obtained thanks to the measurements
of the HF probe (φ o and φ w) and to a mixture law which allows
permittivity calculation at low frequencies. The mixture law
used is Bruggeman–Hanai’s law [14, 15], which describes the
permittivity behavior of the mixture versus the permittivity of
each component and their ratios:


εd − εm εc 1/3
= 1 − φd , (1)
εd − εc εm Figure 3. Admittance YHF simulated at 40 GHz for mixtures oil in
water (O/W) and water in oil (W/O).
where ε m is the permittivity of the mixture, εc is the permittivity
of the continuous phase, εd is the permittivity of the dispersed
phase, φ d is the ratio of the dispersed phase. Let us note influential in the validity domain of the model. The model
that for the same φ d, the permittivity of oil in water mixture presented hereafter is given for APC-2.4 mm, a full 1 mm
(O/W) and of water in oil mixture (W/O) will in general be thick window in peek (εr = 3.2).
different. Oil permittivity, measured with Belhadj’s method
[16], is frequency independent and then fixed at 2.2 – i0.001. 3.1. Model
Water permittivity is given by the Cole–Cole formula [17]
Owing to the working frequency of the HF probe, the
εS − ε∞ σ
ε (f ) = ε
− iε

= ε∞ + −i , (2) parameters influencing the permittivity of the mixture are
1 + (i2πτ.f )1−α ε0 .2π.f reduced to the simple ratio of each liquid and the type of
where ε S is the static permittivity (80.4 at 20 ◦ C), ε∞ is mixture (W/O or O/W). At a working frequency, it is thus
the optical permittivity (5.2 at 20 ◦ C), ε 0 is the vacuum simple to obtain a model of the admittance versus φ w or φ o
permittivity, ω = 2πf is the angular frequency, τ is the (the permittivity of the mixture being calculated with (1)) by
characteristic relaxation time (9.443 ps at 20 ◦ C), α is the using, for example, finite element simulators (Ansoft HFSS).
parameter of distribution (0 for water) and σ is the static The optimal frequency is found around 40 GHz. In
conductivity of material (varies versus salinity). When the this range a good sensitivity of the admittance is obtained
parameter α is equal to 0, we obtain the Debye function [18]. versus φ w or φ o. Moreover the penetration is sufficiently
An additional interest of measurements at high frequencies shallow in the pipeline to avoid being disturbed by the gas
is that the study of the proportions of the liquid phase is column as long as the GHU is not too high (see section 3.2).
simplified by the fact that salinity and impurities do not have Below 30 GHz the attenuation in the window is too strong.
any more influence on the permittivity of water (for salt: from The admittance versus the WLR φ w is shown in figure 3 at
approximately 30 GHz at 100 kppm) whereas the values of 40 GHz. Let us note that the case φ w > 0.7 with W/O mixture
permittivity of water and oil are still contrasted (εw = 19.35 – does not exist: beyond 0.7 the mixture is no longer stable and
i29.40 at 35 GHz, εo ≈ 2.2). becomes O/W.
The electromagnetic studies presented hereafter connect From these simulations, it is simple to deduce numerical
the admittances to the characteristics of the fluid and also models of G and B versus φ w and the nature of the mixture.
enable optimization of the geometry of the probes and the From the measurement of the complex admittance, it is thus
working frequencies so that the two probes fulfill their roles. possible to determine the nature of the mixture, φ w and φ o (let
us recall that φ o = 1 − φ w). These ratios are then inserted into
3. High-frequency probe: numerical model the mixture law (1) to obtain the permittivity at low frequency
which is used by the LF probe.
The electromagnetic behavior of the HF probe is not
solved in an analytical way owing to the complexity of 3.2. Validity domain and sensitivity
the discontinuity where many kinds of modes are generated
and combined at our working frequencies (around 40 The average sensitivities dG/dφ w and dB/dφ w at 40 GHz are,
GHz) for which a lot of modes are propagative. A respectively, 2.5 mS (except for φ w > 0.8) and 3 mS, which
model from numerical simulations was then implemented. implies a maximum absolute uncertainty in φ w(%) of 1.5 points
It describes the behavior of the admittance versus the for an Agilent E8364B. At 35 GHz, the sensitivity decreases
liquid contents in the emulsion, the gas column not being significantly (around 1 mS). However these numerical models

3
Meas. Sci. Technol. 19 (2008) 055602
Figure 4. Schema of the cell SC [19].
remain valid if the gas column is not detected by the HF
probe. So the maximum GHU must be defined. Let us note
that quantitative reasoning based on penetration depth is not
possible; indeed, the matching between the tight window and
the fluid in the pipeline must be included in the calculus.
Qualitatively, the interest in working at very high frequency is
having a low penetration depth, except with very low losses in
liquid: the worst case for the validity domain is then when φ o
is very high. According to simulations carried out the minimal
thickness of liquid for which the gas column has no influence
is 0.15 mm at 40 GHz, i.e. a maximal GHU equal to 98%, if
φ o < 0.90. If φ o > 0.95, the maximal GHU is around 95%.
4. Low-frequency probe: analytical model
For LF probe, the model linking φ w, φ o and the GHU
to the measured admittance is analytical. A geometrical
analogy between the device of figures 1 and 2 and the cell of
figure 4 [19] denoted as SC is considered. The height h of the
cell corresponds to the thickness e of the liquid layer in the
pipeline (figure 2); on the plane z = h (figure 4) a magnetic
wall corresponding to the interface between the liquid and the
gas column of figures 1 and 2 is placed. This analogy, limited
in frequency, is based on the fact that the field is primarily
concentrated around the tight window in the frequency band
used (10–800 MHz). The radius R
of the cell SC (figure 4) is
fixed at 14.4 mm (same value as that for the pipeline). This
value is not influential since, as a consequence of the preceding
remark, the field intensity is negligible on the electric wall at
y = R
(figure 4) in our band, i.e. under the first resonance
frequency of the cell.
4.1. Analytical model
The electromagnetic problem relating to the structure of
figure 4, i.e. the expression of the admittance versus
permittivities of the window and of the liquid and versus
dimensions of the cells (coaxial guide standard, thickness of
the window, radius and thickness of the liquid layer) is solved
in [16] by a modal method in the case R
= a and with a full
window and is solved in [19] in the case without a window
but with R
> a. The electromagnetic problem relative to
figure 4 is then a simple mix of these two cases. In the case
4
E Bondet de la Bernardie et al
of a coaxial window, the problem is solved by using the trivial
formula to calculate the admittance in the plane z = −dW from
the admittance in the plane z = 0 (found with [19]) for a TEM
mode (3) if we assume that the TM modes generated in the
plane z = 0 are negligible in the calibration plane z = −dW
(this assumption is valid if dW > 0.7 mm in the case of a peek
window in APC-7 mm)
√
y(z = 0) + i tan(k0 εWin dW )
y(z = −dW ) = √ , (3)
1 + iy(z = 0) tan(k0 εWin dW )
where y is normalized admittance, εWin is the permittivity of
the window and k0 = 2πf c
( f is the working frequency and c is
the speed of light in vacuum).
Thus, by using this analogy, the admittance YLF measured
with the LF probe is linked analytically to the permittivity of
the liquid layer and its thickness e. This one is thus computed
from measured YLF and from the permittivity of the liquid
(obtained with the HF probe) by minimizing on the frequency
band the difference between YLFmeasured and YLF(e), e being the
adjustable parameter. Then the GHU is trivially deduced from
e (cf the appendix).
4.2. Validation and limit of the analogy, sensitivity
To validate the analogy between the two structures, admittance
YLF simulated using HFSS for the structure of figures 1
and 2 (LF probe) is compared with that found for the structure
of figure 4 denoted SC. Results presented are for standard
GR900, a full window in peek with a thickness of 1 mm and for
two GHU: 0% (homogeneous flow) and 95%. For a GHU equal
to 95%, the thickness of the liquid layer is 0.36 mm (cf the
appendix) and the value of h for cell SC is thus also 0.36 mm.
The imaginary part B of the admittances relative to the two
structures SC and LF probe with extreme liquids (100%
water and 100% oil) are compared at the low frequencies
(figure 5).
The results obtained show that admittances are equal (with
a margin better than 1.5%) for the two geometries, except for
pure water (WLR = 100%) and GHU = 0% around 1 GHz.
This is the first resonance frequency of the cell SC (which is
the first non-trivial solution of YSC(f) = 0). In the other cases
(WLR = 0% with GHU 0% and 95%, WLR = 100% with
GHU 95%), this frequency is higher than 2 GHz. So the worst
Meas. Sci. Technol. 19 (2008) 055602
Figure 5. Imaginary part of the admittance relative to the probe LF
(figure 1) (symbol) and to the cell SC (figure 4) (line) for various
fillings (pure water: WLR = 100% and pure oil: WLR = 0%) and
various GHU (0% and 95%).
case is for GHU = 0% and 100% water; the upper frequency
limit for the analogy is then 800 MHz. The analogy will be
applied thereafter up to 800 MHz.
The role of the LF probe being to determine the GHU, the
validity domain of this is also fixed by the sensitivity of YLF
versus the radius of the gas column. To evaluate the accuracy
of the GHU, uncertainty in YLF measured with Agilent E8364B
and uncertainty in φ w found with YHF are taken into account.
One finds a minimum GHU of 80% to have an absolute
precision better than 2 points, the absolute precision for a
GHU of 60% being 4 points. Under 60%, YLF is no longer
sufficiently sensitive to e (figures 1 and 2), then the GHU
cannot be given with good accuracy any more. On the other
hand, one can then deduce from the LF probe the permittivity
of the mixture and thus the ratios φ w and φ o; indeed, the
thickness of the liquid layer then has no more influence and
can thus be fixed arbitrarily. Thus, in the homogeneous case,
the ratios φ w and φ o can be obtained either with the HF probe,
or with the LF probe. Let us note in addition that the annular
flows having a GHU lower than 60% seldom occur in real
cases.
5. Experimental results
Measurements are carried out in static mode (mixture of water
and oil) and dynamics (annular flow with air and water) to
validate the principle of the sensor. Static measurements are
related to only homogeneous liquid mixtures, the gas column
cannot be reproduced in a reliable way. They validate the
use of the Bruggeman–Hanai’s law for the description of the
dielectric behavior of the emulsions as well as electromagnetic
analysis relating to the LF probe and HF probe. On the other
hand, the dynamic conditions make it possible to reproduce
annular flow, the theoretical principles of deduction of φ w, φ o
and GHU at high and low frequency are then verifiable.
5
E Bondet de la Bernardie et al
5.1. Measurements of static mixtures: homogeneous filling
The coaxial standard is the APC-7 mm for the LF probe, the
peek-made window (εr ≈ 3.2) is 0.7 mm thick and coaxial. For
the HF probe, APC-2.4 mm is used; the peek-made window
is full and 1 mm thick. The admittance is measured with
network analyzers Agilent 4291 (1 MHz–1.8 GHz) and Agilent
E8364B (10 MHz–50 GHz). The samples are O/W and
W/O emulsions prepared with a mixer Ultra-Turrax UT-18
and entirely filling the pipeline. An emulsifier (Versamul) is
added to the mixture in certain cases to stabilize emulsions.
The results presented here are obtained for O/W mixtures
at 20 ◦ C. For the LF probe, the permittivity of the mixture
ε m is computed from the admittance by using the analytical
problem relating to the cell of figure 4 (section 4.1). The
model of Bruggeman–Hanai (1) is then used to compute φ w
and φ o knowing the kind of mixture and the permittivity of
both components presumably known (εw and ε o) (figure 6(a)).
For the HF probe, φ o is computed from figure 3 using B, the
imaginary part of the admittance (figure 6(b)).
At frequencies below 10 MHz, the error in φ o is due
to the low values of the admittance combined with the
inaccuracy of the analyzer in this frequency band. An
important inaccuracy appears around 800 MHz in the case of
pure water. This inaccuracy shifts toward the high frequencies
when the permittivity decreases with the introduction of oil.
This phenomenon corresponds to the appearance of the first
resonance frequency of the cell SC (figure 4) which is the
limit of validity of the analogy (cf section 4.2). The results
obtained for the determination of φ o(%) in the diphasic mixtures
are however very satisfactory in a broad frequency band (10–
800 MHz), the absolute error being better than 1.5 points.
In addition, these results validate the use of the Bruggeman–
Hanai’s law as well as the electromagnetic analysis in the
homogeneous case. At 40 GHz, the error is better than 2
points except for pure oil (4 points) where the sensitivity is
the worst (cf B in figure 3 at WLR = 0). Let us note that φ o
computed from G is much less accurate, probably because G is
much lower than B. Nevertheless, the HF probe is validated in
the homogeneous and static case. Dynamic flow will probably
make these results worse.
5.2. Dynamic measurements: annular mode
To test the robustness of the sensor in front of the imperfections
generated by the flow as well as the association of the probes
HF and LF to determine φ w, φ o and the GHU; this one is
inserted in a flow loop of the LMFA (Laboratoire de Mécanique
des Fluides et d’Acoustique–Ecole Centrale de Lyon). This
loop reproduces annular water flows (figure 1). To evaluate
the performance of our sensor, the GHU is also measured with
a densitometer gamma Berthold. The parameters of the loop
(water flow from 1 m3 h−1 to 4 m3 h−1 and air from 80 m3 h−1 to
120 m3 h−1) are thus connected to the GHU determined by the
densitometer. The cases presented correspond to GHU from
83% to 98%, a range where annular flow is guaranteed in the
loop used. The WLR (φ w) is here equal to 1 (flow without oil
in the liquid). The temperature of water is between 19 ◦ C and
22 ◦ C. The admittances are measured with a network analyzer
Meas. Sci. Technol. 19 (2008) 055602
(a)
Figure 6. Homogeneous case: oil in liquid ratio for mixtures of oil in water measured (a) with the LF probe between 1 MHz and 1.8 GHz
and (b) with the HF probe at 40 GHz (symbol: experimental results).
(a)
Figure 7. Imaginary part of the admittance for annular flow water–air: (a) measured with LF probe and (b) measured with HF probe.
Agilent E8364B (10 MHz–50 GHz) with an average of 8 and
a bandwidth of 700 Hz. For a given GHU, measurements are
made five times over 20 s and then averaged. The two probes
used are in standards GR900 (LF probe) and APC-2.4 mm (HF
probe). The two probes have full 1 mm thick windows in peek
(ε r = 3.2). The admittances measured with LF and HF probes
are presented in figures 7(a) and (b), respectively, for various
GHU.
One can note that with the HF probe (figure 7(b)), YHF
is sensitive to the fluid running out in the pipeline beyond
approximately 20 GHz: the variation of the admittance
between the presence of water on the circumference and the
presence of air (GHU = 100%) increases with the frequency.
YHF is also independent of the GHU as wished except for
a GHU of 98% beyond 36 GHz. The consistency of this
case is doubtful: there is indeed an anomaly for this GHU
at HF: BGHU = 98% should logically be between BGHU = 93%
6
E Bondet de la Bernardie et al
(b)
(b)
and BGHU = 100% but is not. For this very high GHU (98%),
we assume that the flow is not perfect as in figure 2: this
assumption is consolidated by the calculation of the GHU with
the LF probe at this point (section 5.2.2). For the LF probe,
YLF depends in a very significant way on the GHU as desired
(figure 7(a)). In addition, let us note that a temporal average
(five measurements during 20 s in addition to the average
of eight) makes it possible to obtain low noise curves of
admittances in the frequency bands studied, i.e. (10–800 MHz)
and around 40 GHz. Moreover, for very high GHU (>95%) the
reference measurement (with the densitometer) is suspicious.
It could be interesting to use more sensitive equipment to make
this comparison.
5.2.1. Calculation of φ w or φ o with the HF probe. The
theoretical φ w is of course equal to 1 (no oil in the loop)
and thus, from figure 3, theoretically B = 32 mS. For the
Meas. Sci. Technol. 19 (2008) 055602
Figure 8. GHU measured with LF probe versus GHU measured
with the densitometer gamma.
various GHU, B measured at 40 GHz is equal to 32.5 mS ±
0.5 mS, except for GHU = 98% (34.4 mS). The case 98%
is discussed in section 5.2.2. So the measurements are quite
good below 95% but must be improved during the next tests on
the flow loop: indeed, using section 3.2, the total uncertainty
in B (due to VNA, flow, mechanical tolerance, model) must be
better than 0.1 mS—and not 0.5 mS as in our measurements—
to have an absolute uncertainty in φ w(%) around 3 points. A
way to improve measurements could be to increase the number
of sweeps and to implement, in addition to the classical
calibration, one with known fluids: air, oil and water for
example.
With the Debye law (2) and Bruggeman–Hanai (1)
(useless here), the permittivity of the liquid versus frequency
is then deduced from φ w.
5.2.2. Calculation of the GHU with LF probe. φ w, and thus
the permittivity of the liquid, being known thanks to the HF
probe, the thickness e of the liquid layer (and thus the GHU) is
calculated using the LF probe following the principle described
in section 4 on the frequency band (10–800 MHz) and then
averaged (e being of course independent of the frequency).
GHU is then calculated from e and compared with the GHU
measured with the densitometer gamma (figure 8).
The calculation of the GHU with the LF probe is
superimposed on the behavior found with the gamma
densitometer with an absolute margin of error better than 2
points for a GHU lower than 94%. For a GHU of 98%, the
absolute error is approximately 5 points. This too great error
in the case of very high GHU can have various reasons such as
the bad modeling of the shape of the gas column (figure 2) or
the influence of the imperfections on the liquid–gas interface,
the thickness of the liquid layer being then very weak. One can
for example assume that the liquid–gas interface is then badly
defined (presence of fog) and that this imperfection, not taken
7
E Bondet de la Bernardie et al
into account by the theory, acts negatively on the measure of
the admittance.
6. Conclusion
The theoretical study and the tests of the sensor in static and
dynamic conditions showed the effectiveness of the association
of a LF probe (10–800 MHz) with a HF probe (around 40 GHz)
for the determination of the water, oil and gas contents in the
case of annular or homogeneous flow. The validity domain for
the determination of the WLR and OLR using the HF probe
is included between GHU = 0% and 95%. Above 95% the
gas column disturbs the wave emitted by the HF probe. The
HF model is then invalid. For the determination of the GHU
with the LF probe knowing the WLR thanks to the HF probe,
the minimum GHU is 60% (absolute precision better than 4
points between 60% and 80%, better than 2 points above 80%);
under 60%, the admittance measured with the LF probe is no
longer sensitive to the gas column. Thus, the general range of
validity of the sensor is fixed for GHU ranging between 60%
and 95%. If the GHU is lower than 60% (in the homogeneous
case for example), only the WLR and OLR can be calculated
(either with the LF probe since then the thickness of the liquid
layer does not have any influence, or with the HF probe), the
GHU being then unspecified. In addition, it was shown that
the nature of the emulsion could be given with the HF probe.
Measurements in flow loop moreover showed that this type of
flow does not appreciably deteriorate measurement, a temporal
average reducing the noise due to the flow. On the other hand,
a lack of precision for GHU higher than 95% was highlighted
with flow loop measurements: the shape of the gas column
following figure 2 could be better modeled in the case of high
GHU, even really modified by changing the geometry of the
probe–pipeline interface.
In addition, this study was conducted for a pipeline with
a radius of 14.4 mm. If the radius is changed, it must remain
large enough compared with U (figure 2) so that the flow
is not too disturbed and remains like the shape assumed in
figure 2. A radius of at least 14.4 mm is advisable if GR900
standard is used (U = 14.3 mm). If the radius is greater than
14.4 mm, the range of validity [GHUMIN; GHUMAX] shifts up:
the LF probe investigates the gas column up to 3.2 mm deep
which corresponds to a GHUMIN of 60% if R = 14.4 mm and
70% if R = 20 mm for example; in the same way, the minimal
thickness from which the HF probe does not see the gas column
is around 0.36 mm which correspond to a GHUMAX of 95% if
R = 14.4 mm and 96.5% if R = 20 mm.
To complete the validation, it will also be necessary
to carry out measurements on a triphasic loop (annular
flow of oil and water), this type of loop being much more
complicated to implement. Moreover, we assumed here that
salinity, influencing the permittivity under about 30 GHz at
100 kppm, was known thanks to another sensor. Our sensor
could be extended to the determination of this parameter
by measurements of conductivity at low frequencies and by
the determination of relaxation frequencies, two parameters
depending on salinity. The extension to other kinds of flow
(stopper, bubble and churn) should also be considered. A
Meas. Sci. Technol. 19 (2008) 055602 E Bondet de la Bernardie et al

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ST
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R2
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( − sin ) and SG = π · RG2 − electromagnetic waves in multiphase flour Patent WO
RG2 9942794
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− sin
) where
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= 2 · arccos A−d L
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