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 Alkali–silica reaction in concrete Digest 330
Background to the guidance notes Part 1 2004 Edition
digest
BRE Centre for Concrete Construction
Licensed copy from CIS: unielon, University of East London, 31/01/2014, Uncontrolled Copy.

Concrete can deteriorate as a result of an interaction between alkaline

pore fluids (principally originating from the Portland cements) and reactive
minerals in certain types of aggregates.
The mechanism of deterioration is known as alkali–aggregate reaction
(AAR); it can occur in a number of forms, the most common being
alkali–silica reaction (ASR).
This Digest is in four parts
This Digest offers guidance for general concreting applications.
Part 1 gives the background to the detailed and simplified guidance
contained in Parts 2 and 4. Part 2 gives detailed guidance for minimising
the risk of damaging ASR in new construction. Part 3 gives worked
examples. Part 4 gives simplified guidance for new construction using
aggregates of normal reactivity.
Guidance for concrete in highly specialised applications is outside the
scope of this Digest. For highway structures, in particular, information is
Figure 1 Typical
available from the Highways Agency.
cracking patterns

Background
Alkali–silica reaction was first identified in the
USA in the 1940s. No cases were found in the UK
until 1971 when the reaction was found to be the
cause of cracking in a concrete dam on Jersey. In
1976 it was identified on the mainland UK, and,
since then, relatively few structures have been
identified with distress attributable to ASR. In
relation to the vast quantity of concrete in use,
therefore, the amount of concrete actually
damaged is small and the problem should not be
allowed to get out of perspective.
In the early 1980s, the first guidance documents
(and model specification clauses) were published
by BRE and The Concrete Society [1]. This
guidance has been successful in minimising the
risk of damaging ASR (ie damage by ASR) in
structures. Since the 1980s, knowledge of the
nature of ASR has increased substantially. This is
due mainly to a number of research projects
reaching conclusions in the early 1990s.
Consequently, this revised Digest can now give
better and more focused advice on the correct use
of materials to minimise the risk of damaging
ASR. This will provide increased levels of safety,
and better and more sustainable use of UK
concreting materials.

A BRE research project funded by

DTI Construction Sector Unit
 2
What is ASR?
Alkali–silica reaction (ASR) is the most common form of
alkali–aggregate reaction (AAR). It occurs when the alkaline
pore fluid and siliceous minerals in some aggregates react to
form a calcium alkali silicate gel. This gel absorbs water,
producing a volume expansion which can disrupt the
concrete. Other alkali–aggregate reactions are
alkali–carbonate reaction when certain argillaceous
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dolomitic limestones are attacked, and alkali–silicate
reaction in which the layered silicate minerals are attacked.
Alkali–carbonate reaction is less common worldwide and
no damage by alkali–carbonate reaction has been observed in
the UK. Early suggestions that an alkali–silicate reaction was
responsible for damage in a few UK structures have not been
substantiated. It is now known, though, that the reactive
mechanism involving greywacke aggregates used in some
UK structures was essentially a type of ASR. (Except where
it is specifically stated otherwise, this Digest refers to
alkali–silica reaction.)
Since publication in 1982 of the first BRE Digest on ASR,
our knowledge and experience of the causes and effects of
ASR have significantly increased. This increase is firmly
based, and was made possible only by undertaking sound
research. The most notable developments since 1982 have
been:
● a more detailed understanding of the behaviour of different
aggregate types (including aggregate combinations). This
allows classification of these materials by the threshold
alkali levels required to induce damaging ASR;
● results from chemical and petrographic studies on field
concretes that have provided detailed information to
corroborate the laboratory findings;
● new understanding of the mechanisms by which ground
granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs) and pulverised fuel ash
(pfa) can suppress damaging ASR. The BRE view is that
no account need be taken of the alkalis contained in these
materials when the materials are used in sufficient
quantities;
● new understanding of the use of silica fume, metakaolin
and lithium salts in suppressing ASR damage.
Recognising ASR
The main external evidence for damage to concrete due to
alkali–silica reaction is cracking. In unrestrained concrete the
cracks have a characteristic random distribution often
referred to as ‘map cracking’ (Figure 1) where there is a
network of fine cracks bounded by a few larger cracks.
This form of cracking can also result from other disruptive
forces within concrete such as abnormal shrinkage. However,
shrinkage cracking usually appears early in the life of a
structure, probably in the first year. The earliest time at which
cracking due to ASR has led to concern in the UK is about
five years; in most cases it was later. Frost attack, which may
also produce similar network cracking, can be sometimes
distinguished by the presence of surface spalling. Surface
pop-outs can be caused by reactive aggregate particles close
to the surface and may be confused with similar pop-outs due
to frost action. Few cases of surface pop-outs caused by ASR
have, however, been seen in the UK.
Where the expansive forces due to ASR are restrained
(eg by reinforcement or loads), the pattern of cracking is
modified (Figure 2); cracks tend to run parallel to the main
reinforcing bars or prestressing tendons. If the alkali–silica
reaction is particularly active, the cracks may be bordered by
gel. This is easily confused with, and may be mixed with, the
lime which frequently leaches from cracked concrete: both
Figure 2 Cracking where expansive forces have been restrained
by prestressing
 3
turn to a whitish carbonate on exposure to the atmosphere. In
general, the more colourless and jelly-like the exudation, the
more certain it is that these are the signs of ASR.
The use of uranium acetate and examination by ultraviolet
(UV) light has gained some acceptance in north America as a
rapid, non-destructive test for the presence of ASR. The
technique relies on the principle that ASR gel will readily
exchange alkali metal ions with those of uranium which is
highly fluorescent under UV light. Suitably prepared
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surfaces of the structure are treated with a solution of

uranium acetate and viewed under a UV light source to reveal
the presence of ASR gel.
Recent tests have shown that, although the technique is
sensitive to the presence of gel, results should be interpreted
with caution. The test should not be used as the single
diagnostic method since the presence of ASR gel by itself
neither indicates that expansive damage has occurred nor
that there are other causative factors involved in producing
damage to a structure.
The only reliable evidence for diagnosing ASR as the
cause of damage is provided by microscopic examination of
the interior of concrete to identify positively the presence of
gel, of aggregate particles which have reacted (Figure 3) and
of internal cracking characteristic of that induced by ASR[2].
Wherever possible, judgement should be based on core
section examinations because cracked lumps of concrete
from the surface region can be very misleading. The attacked
particles may be distributed quite thinly within a concrete
and, to be as sure as possible of making a correct diagnosis, it
is preferable to make a thin section of a large area (say 75 x
100 mm) from a slice taken longitudinally into the core.
Aggregate particles coated in gel, and air pockets filled with
gel, on the surface of the core will sometimes give
preliminary indications of reaction (Figure 4). Further useful
evidence that ASR has caused damage can sometimes be
obtained by measuring the length changes of pieces of the
core stored in a warm (38 °C), water saturated atmosphere.

Figure 4 The surface of a concrete core sample showing

aggregate particles coated with ASR gel

Figure 3 Microscopic examination of concrete in the

decommissioned Maentwrog dam in north Wales has revealed the
presence of ASR caused by greywacke aggregate
 4
The characteristic expansion curves of three concretes
stored in this way are shown in Figure 5. An indication of
further expansion can also be obtained from graphs of this
type. However, in extensively cracked concrete, no expansion
may be observed in test cores in spite of the presence of gel;
this is probably because the gel has carbonated and is no
longer expansive.
It may be necessary to decide whether ASR has been the
primary cause of damage to the concrete. This can be done
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Structural effects
The development of damaging ASR is fairly slow under field
conditions and there may be visible cracking on the surface
of the concrete only at a late stage. Provided the concrete
surface can be seen, visual inspection should show that
something is wrong long before it becomes necessary to
consider any structural effects caused by the reaction. At low
rates of expansion during the early stages of reaction, the

only by microscopic examination to establish that a
substantial alkali–silica reaction has occurred and that the
internal cracking is characteristic of damage induced by
ASR. The quantity of gel present does not necessarily
indicate the amount of damage caused by ASR[2].
Further detailed advice on the diagnosis of alkali–silica
reaction is given in a report prepared by a UK cross-industry
working party and published by the British Cement
Association (BCA)[2].
compressive strength of the concrete seems to be little
affected but the tensile strength and elastic modulus can be
markedly reduced. Restraint of expansion can also cause
bowing and movement of concrete components. Extensive
work has been carried out on the structural consequences of
ASR induced expansion; it has shown that, in general, ASR
expansion does not have a major adverse effect upon
structural performance. However, this does depend upon the
structural context, the particular location and the
reinforcement detailing.
The long term durability of components affected by frost
action or reinforcement corrosion may be further reduced by
any cracking induced by ASR. The extent of this reduction
on durability depends on the width, depth and total length of
cracks. Since ASR induced cracking will usually be more
extensive than that allowed for in the design of new
structures, continued monitoring of ASR damaged
components may be required. ASR damage may also
increase the susceptibility of a component to the ingress of
aggressive species (eg chloride ions) and a subsequent
increase in reinforcement corrosion potential.
A working party of the Institution of Structural Engineers
has reported its recommendations on the assessment of
structures damaged by ASR[3].

Core A Concrete seriously affected by ASR but reaction exhausted

Core B Concrete slightly affected by ASR but with potential for more reaction
Core C Concrete made with non-reactive aggregate

Core A
Expansion (mm/m)

Core B

Core C

Time (days)

Figure 5 Expansion of concrete under accelerated conditions with cores at 38 °C and 100% relative humidity

Monitoring the development of damage
Techniques to monitor the development of damage caused
by ASR are:
● visual observation of cracks;
● crack width measurements;
● expansion and deflection measurements.
If both sides of the concrete are accessible, ultrasonic pulse
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velocity measurements may provide a method of monitoring
the development of internal cracking.
Repair methods
The most important issue is whether concrete damaged by
ASR has loadbearing or structural functions. It may be
necessary to consider complete replacement of an ASR
affected section to maintain integrity and safety.
Experience is limited in the repair of concrete structures
damaged by ASR. Where there is evidence that the expansive
reaction is continuing, generally the only feasible methods
are those that minimise exposure of the element to external
moisture: although gel will still be present, it cannot absorb
water and therefore cannot exert expansive pressure.
Leaking drains, expansion joints etc should be repaired.
The concrete surface could be waterproofed but, in certain
situations, this may make the situation worse. Waterproofing
will have a greater chance of success if the concrete is as dry
as possible when it is applied. Cladding the concrete may
provide the best protection but any remedial work must not
assist the retention of water in the concrete. There is evidence
that treatment of damaged concrete with lithium salts can
prevent further expansion, but there is no experience of this in
the UK.
In the UK, there are examples where damaged columns
have been reinforced around their external circumferences to
improve their loadbearing capacity and prolong the life of the
structure. Other attention has generally focussed on making
vulnerable elements redundant by propping or by building
parallel columns. If the expansive reaction has finished it may
be feasible to undertake permanent repairs.
5
Minimising the risk of damaging ASR in new
construction
Three conditions are necessary for damaging ASR to occur:
● a sufficiently alkaline solution in the pore structure of the
concrete;
● an aggregate or aggregate combination susceptible to
attack by this alkaline solution;
● a supply of water sufficient to maintain the reaction and
enable the gel to exert an expansive force.
The alkalinity of the pore solution (the hydroxyl ion
concentration) depends mainly on the content of the alkali
metals (sodium and potassium) in the Portland cement and on
the cement content of the concrete. Other alkali metal salts
included at the concrete mixing stage, for example salt in
aggregates, also increase the alkalinity of the pore solution.
External sources of alkali metal salts, such as ponded
seawater or de-icing salts, may increase alkalinity. Apart
from salts, the soluble alkali content of UK aggregates is
usually very small (but see box below) and these non-salt
mineral constituents are usually not found to have a
significant influence on the alkalinity of concrete. Overseas,
however, some non-salt mineral constituents are thought to
contribute appreciably to total alkalinity.
The content of alkalis in cement is expressed as equivalent
sodium oxide (Na2O eq):
% Na2O eq = %Na2O + 0.658% K2O
CEM I cements to BS EN 197-1 currently produced in the
UK range in their mean acid-soluble alkali contents from
about 0.4% Na2O eq to 0.7% Na2O eq (determined by the
method shown in the National Annex to BS EN 196-21).
The alkalis contributed by salts in aggregates are
calculated from the measured chloride ion concentration in
the aggregate and expressed as equivalent sodium oxide:
% Na2O eq = 0.76 x %Cl–
The minerals in aggregates may have appreciable alkali metal
contents which are insoluble in the pore solution of concrete but
which would be reported in a chemical analysis as Na2O and K2O.
However, there is some evidence from overseas to indicate that
alkalis can be released from volcanic forms of glass in aggregates,
when attacked by hydroxyl ions. These glassy materials, though, are
extremely rare in UK aggregates.
 6
Aggregates
Siliceous aggregates are the most common type of aggregates
susceptible to alkali attack worldwide and are the only type
conclusively identifiable in concretes damaged by ASR in the
UK. The reactivity of the different forms of silica is linked to
the disorder of the crystal structure. For example, well
ordered crystalline quartz which is unstrained is normally
unreactive, whereas opal with a very disordered and porous
structure is extremely alkali reactive. Disorder within a
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crystal lattice can either be a result of crystallisation or of
flaws within the crystal lattice introduced by geological
stresses. These flaws are often termed dislocations.
Other forms of silica, such as glasses, microcrystalline
and crypto-crystalline quartz, chalcedony, tridymite and
cristobalite, are all reactive to various degrees. Straining in
quartz was considered to provide conclusive evidence that a
particular rock or aggregate constituent was alkali reactive,
but it is now thought that it is the complexity of metamorphic
suturing which correlates with reactivity potential rather than
measurement of the angles of strain. Straining in larger quartz
grains may indicate that the rock is sufficiently recrystallised
to allow for additional microcrystalline quartz to develop in
the interclastic region. Such microcrystalline quartz may
well be reactive.
In some rocks the reactive constituent may not be obvious;
it may even be difficult to determine by petrographic
examination. This is true of greywackes, where the reactive
constituent has now been identified as microcrystalline
quartz found between phyllosilicates (eg clayey varieties of
mica and chlorite) or regions of quartz crystals which are
highly dislocated. Early theories that phyllosilicate minerals
were alkali reactive by way of a mechanism termed the
alkali–silicate reaction have now been discounted.
No significant amounts of opal have been found in
aggregates from the UK mainland although an opaline
constituent in the aggregates is associated with damaging
ASR in the dam on Jersey. The reactive minerals found in the
UK are associated with microcrystalline and crypto-
crystalline quartz and chalcedony in cherts, flints and
silicified limestones, and microcrystalline quartz found in
quartzite and a number of other more reactive rock types.
These minerals have been found in both land and
sea-dredged sands and gravels. Reactive silica
(microcrystalline quartz) in some greywacke aggregates can
give rise to cracking at lower alkali levels than occurs with
other aggregates. For this reason aggregates and aggregate
combinations which contain crushed greywacke have been
classified as highly reactive here. In the case of these
aggregates, conservative recommendations are made unless
testing, using Testing protocol for greywacke aggregates [4],
indicates that a relaxation is permissible.
The proportion of reactive silica can have a significant
influence on reactivity, so it is important to take account of
the combination of aggregate types that are being considered
for a particular mix. For very reactive opaline material, the
greatest expansion may occur when as little as 1 to 4% is
present in the aggregate: the pessimum proportion. When the
proportion of reactive silica is increased beyond the
pessimum, there will be less expansion and a point will be
reached where there is no abnormal expansion. Flints and
cherts have proved to be the source of reactive silica in most
UK cases of ASR. The pessimum proportion is such that the
potential of damaging ASR is highest when fine aggregates
(sands) with high proportions of flint or chert are combined
with an inert coarse aggregate of low porosity. Where these
sands are used together with a gravel from the same source,
damaging ASR is unlikely to occur. In aggregates with lower
proportions of chert, such as Trent Valley sands and gravels,
the pessimum proportion of chert may be reached when the
sand and gravel are used together. Generally it has been
thought that an aggregate or aggregate combination which
contains more than 60% by mass of chert or flint in the fine
and coarse aggregate combination, and in which the fine
fraction contains more than 5% by mass, is unlikely to cause
ASR damage (see box below).
When a reactive fine aggregate is combined with an inert
coarse aggregate in pessimum proportion, the porosity of the
coarse aggregate has a significant effect on the reactivity of
the aggregate combination. The use of reactive fines with an
inert, low porosity coarse aggregate is potentially more
damaging than the same fines with an inert porous coarse
aggregate. The use of some recycled concrete aggregates
(particularly with flint and chert) in conjunction with other
potentially non-reactive aggregates may dilute the reactive
aggregate component to a level at which the pessimum effect
initiating deleterious ASR needs to be reconsidered.
Recent laboratory work at BRE has shown that for a very small
number of flint sand and gravel combinations, abnormal expansion
can be observed, in very severe circumstances, where flint
concentrations are higher than 60% of the total aggregate
combination. Accordingly, although widespread use of flint sands and
gravel aggregate combinations spanning several decades has
produced no recorded field instance where abnormal expansion has
been identified in normal concretes, a precautionary approach to
classification of reactivity has been taken in this Digest (Part 2).

Test methods
Aggregates can be tested for potential alkali reactivity using
standard test methods.
BS 812-123 is a concrete prism test which was developed
initially at BRE. The test has been used by many
organisations in the UK and the results obtained show good
correlation with the field performances of aggregates. A
similar method has been published by The International
Union of Testing and Research Laboratories for Materials
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and Structures (RILEM) as Recommendation AAR-3.
An accelerated version of this test, in which the concrete
prisms are stored at 60 °C instead of the 38 °C of the
BS 812-123 method, is being developed by RILEM as
Recommendation AAR-4. It is based on a French method
and has the potential for assessing the concrete mix as well as
a standardised method for assessing aggregates.
UK experience of the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) chemical method, C289, has not been
encouraging in that it classifies a wide range of siliceous
aggregates as susceptible to attack by alkalis, including
aggregates which have been used for many years to produce
durable concrete. Conversely, many crushed greywacke
aggregates, which are known to be reactive in field concretes,
are determined innocuous by this method. Additionally, it
gives no information on the reactivity of different aggregate
combinations. This method is not, therefore, recommended
for assessing UK aggregates.
Until recently the ASTM mortar-bar test, C227, has been
considered worldwide to be a more reliable accelerated
predictor of behaviour of aggregates in concretes. To date the
only UK aggregates that have been shown to be damaging
under these test conditions are the highly reactive greywacke-
type materials. As with C289, this method is, therefore, not
recommended for assessing UK aggregates.
7
An accelerated test using mortar bars has been developed
at the National Building Research Institute (NBRI) of South
Africa and has been published as ASTM C1260. A
development of this method has been published as a RILEM
Recommendation AAR-2. Standard mortar bars are
immersed in sodium hydroxide solution at a constant 80 °C
for 14 days. Trials assessing UK aggregates with this test
method have proved promising but it is important to test
aggregates in a range of combinations to establish the
pessimum proportion. In trials at BRE this was achieved by
blending the test aggregates to the required proportion with
non-reactive aggregate (eg Cheddar limestone) graded to the
recommended sieve fractions. With rock types where it has
not been established that a pessimum concentration exists, it
is recommended that a range of blends are tested with
different proportions of test and inert aggregate with test
aggregate at, say, 5, 15, 25, 50 and 100%.
Petrographical examination of aggregates should comply
with BS 812-104. A development of this method has been
published as RILEM Recommendation AAR-1. It is also
recommended that any petrographic examination should be
carried out by a petrographer experienced in the
identification of aggregate constituents. A guide for
interpreting the results of petrographic examination of
aggregates for their alkali–silica reactivity is given in
BS 7943 and a guide to the RILEM methods has been
published as RILEM Recommendation AAR-0.
Water
Sufficient water must be present for damaging ASR to
develop. It can be argued in theory that there is sufficient
mixing water in mass concrete for this to occur; in practice,
all the structures damaged by ASR in the UK have been
exposed to an external source of water. Severe condensation,
for example, on the underside of bridge decks may be
sufficient.
 8

References and further reading

[1] The Concrete Society. Alkali–silica reaction: minimising the risk of damage to
concrete. Concrete Society Technical Report No 30 (Third Edition). Crowthorne,
The Concrete Society, 1999.

[2] British Cement Association. The diagnosis of alkali–silica reaction. Report of

a working party. BCA Publication 45.042. Crowthorne, BCA, 1992.

[3] The Institution of Structural Engineers. Structural effects of alkali–silica

Licensed copy from CIS: unielon, University of East London, 31/01/2014, Uncontrolled Copy.

reaction. London, ISE, 1992.

[4] British Cement Association. Testing protocol for greywacke aggregates.

Protocol of the BSI B/517/1/20 Adhoc Group on ASR. BCA Publication 45.044.
Crowthorne, BCA, 1999.

British Standards Institution

BS 812-104:1994 Testing aggregates. Method for qualitative and quantitative
petrographic examination of aggregates
BRE is committed to providing
BS 812-123:1999 Testing aggregates. Method for determination of alkali–silica
impartial and authoritative information
reactivity. Concrete prism method on all aspects of the built environment
BS 7943:1999 Guide to the interpretation of petrographical examinations for for clients, designers, contractors,
alkali–silica reactivity engineers, manufacturers, occupants,
etc. We make every effort to ensure
BS EN 196-21:1992 Methods of testing cement. Determination of the chloride,
the accuracy and quality of information
carbon dioxide and alkali content of cement (National Annex). and guidance when it is first published.
BS EN 197-1:2000 Cement. Composition, specifications and conformity criteria However, we can take no responsibility
for common cements for the subsequent use of this
information, nor for any errors or
omissions it may contain.
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)
C227-90 Potential alkali reactivity of cement–aggregate combination BRE is the UK’s leading centre of
C289-94 Potential reactivity of aggregates expertise on building and construction,
and the prevention and control of fire.
C1260-94 Potential alkali reaction for aggregates (mortar-bar method)
Contact BRE for information about its
services, or for technical advice, at:
RILEM (The International Union of Testing and Research Laboratories for BRE, Garston, Watford WD25 9XX
Materials and Structures) Tel: 01923 664000
Fax: 01923 664098
AAR-0 Overview guide and reference materials
email: enquiries@bre.co.uk
AAR-1 Petrographic method Website: www.bre.co.uk
AAR-2 Ultra-accelerated mortar-bar test
AAR-3 Concrete prism test Details of BRE publications are available
from:
www.brebookshop.com
Department of Transport. Specification for highway works. or
Swamy R N (ed). The alkali–silica reaction in concrete. Glasgow, Blackie and Son, IHS Rapidoc (BRE Bookshop)
1992. Willoughby Road
Bracknell RG12 8DW
St John D, Poole A and Sims I. Concrete petrography. A handbook of
Tel: 01344 404407
investigative techniques. London, Arnold, 1997. Fax: 01344 714440
email: brebookshop@ihsrapidoc.com

Published by BRE Bookshop

Acknowledgement Requests to copy any part of this
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the Department of Trade publication should be made to:
BRE Bookshop,
and Industry in the preparation of this Digest. Building Research Establishment,
Watford WD25 9XX
Tel: 01923 664761
Fax: 01923 662477
email: brebookshop@emap.com

© Copyright BRE 2004

August 2004
ISBN 1 86081 709 2

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