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Internal Structure of Earth

The Earth has four main shells:

The crust,
The mantle,
The outer core, and
The inner core
This dominant concentric structure has been
established by many independent analyses of
measurements of earthquake waves. Interpretations of
the travel times, amplitudes, and other properties of
recorded seismic waves of various types have
provided the necessary tomographic images.

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Upper part of the earth

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The earth’s crust

Geologists distinguish between two fundamentally

different types of crust. Crust is divided into two
divisions:
1. Continental
Crust which underlies
continents
2. Oceanic crust, which underlies the sea
floor
The crust is not simply cooled mantle but rather
consists of a variety of rocks that differ in
composition (chemical makeup) from mantle rock

Crust
Seismic evidence shows that that continental
crust has two proncipal layers, and upper one of
granite or granodioritic composition and the
lower one is basaltic composition. These layers
are called Sial and Sima.

Sial: This layer is composed of silica and

aluminum.

Sima: This layer is composed of Silica and

magnesium.

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2. Oceanic Crust
The oceanic crust is only 7-10 km thick.
Oceanic crust consists of fairly uniform layers.
At the top, we find a blanket of sediment,
generally less than 1 km thick, composed of
clay grains and plankton (tiny floating animal
and plant life) shells that have settled like
snow, beneath this blanket, the oceanic crust
consists of a layer of basalt and, below that, a
layer o gabbro (both mafic igneous rocks).
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1. Continental Crust
At its thinnest where plates are being
stretched or rifted, continental crust is
generally less than 20 km (12.5 miles)
Where continental plates have collided to
form mountains, the crust may be as much
as 70 km (45 miles) thick.
The Mantle (1000-2900 km)
The Mohorovicic discontinuity separates the
heterogeneous curse from the more homogeneous
mangle and is marked by a sudden increase in the
velocities of seismic waves. The geophysical data
indicated that the mangle has a layered structures:
The upper mantle: crust- 1000km
Transition zone: crust- 1000km
Lower mantle: 1000-2885 km
•Dunite (Olivine), Peridotite (Olivine & Pyroxene)
and ecologite (Garnet &Pyroxene)
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The mantle of the earth forms a 2,885-km-thick layer
surrounding the core. In terms of volume, it is the
largest part of the earth. In contrast to the crust, the
mantle consists of ultramafic rock, peridotite, which is
very rich in iron and magnesium and very poor in
silica. That is peridotite though rare at the earth’s
surface, is actually the most abundant rock in our
planet.
Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is a unifying model that attempts to
explain the origin of patterns of deformation in the
crust, earthquake distribution, continental drift, and
mid-oceanic ridges, as well as providing a
mechanism for the earth to cool.
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The core
It is separated from the mantle by guttenberg-
weichert discontinuity and extends up to the centre of
the earth. The physical properties of the core indicate
the presence of transition group elements and iron is
sufficiently abundant. The S-waves do not pass
through the core, which suggests that the outer core
is fluid in nature.
Both the pressure and temperature in the core are
extremently high. The temperature is assumed
around 6000°C and pressure about 3 million
atmospheres.
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Continental Drift
(Alfred Wegner, 1910) Evidences for continental drift
 Continental drift hypothesis suggested that the contin Wegener (1915)
ents have not always been in their present locations
but instead have "drifted" and changed positions.
 Wegener's idea was that the continents had once •Paleontological evidence
been joined together in a single "supercontinent,“ •Evidence from structure and rock types
which he called Pangaea (pronounced "pan-JEE-ah”) •Evidence from glaciation
from Greek words meaning "all lands."
•Evidence from other paleoclimatic records
 He suggested that Pangaea had split into fragments li
ke pieces of ice floating on a pond and that the contin
ental fragments had slowly drifted to their present
locations.

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Types of Plate Boundaries

1.Divergent Plate Boundaries

2.Convergent Plate Boundaries
3.Conservative Plate Boundaries

Seafloor Spreading (Harry Hess,

1962)

Divergent Plate Boundaries (Constructive)

1. Plate splits and pull apart.

2. New crust is created by the upwelling of material from the mantle.
3. Magma derived from the partial melting of the mantle is injected
into the fissures as fissure eruptions.
4. Most active volcanic areas of Earth

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Convergent Plate Boundaries (Destructive)

(Himalaya)

1. Two mark boundaries where two plates are converging by the

mechanism of the oceanic lithosphere of one of the plates being
Thrust under the other, eventually to become resorbed into the
sub-lithospheric mantle.
2. Since the Earth is not expanding significantly, the rate
of lithospheric destruction at trenches must be virtually the same
as the rate of creation at ocean ridges.

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Conservative Plate Boundaries

(Transform Faults)

Transform faults are marked by tangential motions, in which

adjacent plates in relative motion undergo neither destruction
nor construction. The relative motion is usually parallel to the
fault.

Triple Junction

1. Triple junctions are points where three plates meet.

2. Such junctions are a necessary consequence of rigid plates
on a sphere, since this is the common way a plate boundary
can end.
3. Triple junctions are classified as stable or unstable,
depending on whether they preserve their geometry as they
evolve.
4. There are sixteen possible combinations of ridge, trench,
and transform-fault triple junctions (McKenzie and Morgan,
1969), of which only six are common.

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R= Ridge
T= Trench
F= Transform Fault

Himalaya

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How Himalayas are Formed ?

Himalaya is the product of collision between Indian and Eurasian plates

Indian Plate

The End

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Introduction to Rock
deformation reason and effect
Types of stress
• Compression – convergent plate boundaries
• Crumpled, thickening vertically and shortening laterally
• Creates folds, reverse and thrust faults
• Himalayas, NW coast of N.A, Appalachians etc.
• Tension-divergent plate boundaries
• Extends crust, thins vertically and lengthen laterally
• Creates basins, normal faults, grabens
• Mid-Atlantic Ridge, East pacific Rise
• Shear-opposing forces along a plane
• Forms parallel blocks, pull-part basins, transform faults, folds and
rotational structure.
• Gulf of California, Sand Andres fault system…
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Rock deformation and reasons
• When the value of applied force or stress
exceeds the rock strength then the fractures
appears.
• If the rock behaves in ductile manner then the
rock bend.
• Stress is define force (F) per unit area (A).
Causes of Deformation
•Rocks change their shape and volume when they are
subjected to stress. Stresses are caused by forces that are
exerted on the edges or interior of a material. A wide variety
of physical processes exert stresses on rocks.
•Gravity constantly exerts downward stress on all rocks.
•Temperature changes cause thermal expansion and
contraction that can cause rocks to fracture.
• Wetting and drying similarly can induce or enhance rock
fractures.
• On a large scale, horizontal plate movement exerts lateral
(horizontal) and vertical stresses on rocks.
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STAGES OF DEFORMATION
Structural planes
• Plane: a flat surface; it has the property that a
line joining any two points lies wholly on its
surface. Two intersecting lines define a plane.
Elastic Deformation:
• Attitude: the general term for the orientation of a
the strain is reversible
plane or line in space, usually related to
Ductile Deformation:
geographical coordinates and the horizontal. Both
trend and inclination are components of attitude.
the strain is irreversible
• Trend: the direction of a horizontal line specified
Fracture: by its bearing or azimuth.
irreversible strain, the • Bearing: the horizontal angle measured east or
material breaks west from true north or south.
• Azimuth: the horizontal angle measured
clockwise from true north.

Strike Dip
The inclination of the line of greatest slope on an
The trend of a horizontal line on an inclined inclined plane. It is measured perpendicular to
plane. It is marked by the line of intersection the strike.
with a horizontal plane.

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Measurement of Dip and Strike

Types of Dip
(Brunton Compass)
• True dip: the inclination of the steepest line
on a plane; it is measured perpendicular to
the strike direction.
• Apparent dip: the inclination of an oblique
line on a plane; it is always less than true dip.

a. Measurment of Strike b. Measurment of Dip

Geological structures Primary sedimentary structures

• Primary structures • Strata, or beds (most characteristic of
– Primary structures are original features of sedimentary sedimentary rocks)
or igneous rocks resulting from deposition or
emplacement • Bedding planes that separate strata
– It gives an ultimate goal to understand the total history • Cross-bedding
of a deformed rock and not just its deformational
history. • Graded bedding
– It also help to understand that the processes of
deposition and deformation are not necessarily isolated • Ripple marks
in time • Mud cracks
• Secondary structures • Convolute bedding
– Secondary structures are formed after the formation of
rock due to different types of stresses.

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Bedding
It is a distinct layer of sediment or rock that may differ in a
variety of ways from overlying and underlying layers.
Genetically, the base of a bed represents an abrupt change in
depositional conditions or sediment supply; the bed
represents more or less uniform conditions; and the top
represents another abrupt change.
Mudcracks
• Mudcracks (also called desiccation or shrinkage cracks) form in
fine-grain Sediment as shrinkage occurs during drying.
• These are normally orthogonal that occur in a great variety of
marine and non-marine deposits. Polygons are generally
curved concave upward.

Top

Bottom

Raindrop imprints Cross

CrossBedding
Bedding

Shallow pits, with slightly raised rims, are attributed to raindrops • Cross bedding is produced by migration of bed-
or hailstones falling on damp mud. forms, mainly ripples, mega-ripples and sand waves,
in response to current action

Flow
Flow Direction
Direction

Younging
Direction

(A) Tangential and (B) Planar foresets

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Graded bedding
Ripple Marks
The term “grading,”
applied to individual
beds or laminae, is
used to describe a
progressive change
in grain size from
the base to the top
of a sedimentation
unit.

Pebble Imbrication
Secondary Structures

• Continues
– Lineation, foliation, boudinage, crenulation
cleavage, folds
• Discontinuous
– Cracks, fractures, joints, faults and thrusts

• Pebble imbrication in conglomerate. Current direction is from left to right.

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Lineation
Foliation
Any linear structures occurring repeatedly in the Foliation is a set of new planar surface produced in
rock is called lineation. a rock as a result of deformation.

Boudinage Crenulation cleavage

When relatively strong layers of rock become stretched during
folding. They may seperate into blocks or pillow shaped Schistosity may crinkled into small folds with a
structures. wavelength of a fraction of an inch.

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Fold Cracks
Folds are curved or non-planar surface of layered Small discontinuous which is not continuous
structures deformed from planar structures.

Fractures Joints
Joints may form as a result of either diastrophism
More continuous than cracks or contraction.

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Fault
Fault are well-defined cracks along which the rock
masses on either side have relative displacement.

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Landslide Landslide Classification (Varnes, 1978)

Causes of Landslide Natural Factors

I. Natural Factors Gravity: Gravity works more effectively on
– Gravity
– Geological factors
steeper slopes, but more gradual slopes may
– Heavy and prolonged rainfall also be vulnerable.
– Earthquakes
– Forest fire
– Volcanoes
– Waves
II. Anthropogenic Factors
– Inappropriate drainage system
– Cutting & deep excavations on slopes for buildings, roads,
canals & mining
– Change in slope/land use pattern, deforestation,
agricultural practices on steep slopes

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Natural Factors
Geological factors: Many slides occur in a geologic setting
that places permeable sands and gravels above
impermeable layers of silt and clay, or bedrock. Water
seeps downward through the upper materials and
accumulates on the top of the underlying units, forming a
zone of weakness.
Natural Factors
Earthquakes: Seismic activities have always been a main
cause of landslides throughout the world. Any time plate
tectonics move the soil that covers moves with it. When
earthquakes occur on areas with steep slopes, many times
the soil slips causing landslides. Furthermore, ashen debris
flows caused by earthquakes can also trigger mass
movement of soil.
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Natural Factors
Heavy and prolonged rainfall: Water is commonly the
primary factor triggering a landslide. Slides often occur
following intense rainfall, when storm water runoff
saturates soils on steep slopes or when infiltration causes a
rapid rise in groundwater levels. Groundwater may rise as a
result of heavy rains or a prolonged wet spell. As water
tables rise, some slopes become unstable.
Natural Factors
Forest fire: fires cause soil erosion and induce
floods and landslides due to the destruction of
the natural vegetation.
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Natural Factors Natural Factors

Volcanoes: Volcanoes are prone to sudden collapse,
especially during wet conditions. The conditions commonly
prevail after volcanic eruptions that kill vegetation over
extensive areas and spread loose volcanic rocks over the
landscape.
Waves: Wave action can erode the beach or
the toe of a bluff, cutting into the slope, and
setting the stage for future slides.

Anthropogenic Factors Anthropogenic Factors

Inappropriate drainage system: Natural drainage lines on Cutting & deep excavations
slopes are blocked by terracing/ contour bounding adopted to on slopes for buildings,
prevent soil erosion and to enhance percolation during dry roads, canals & mining:
season for cultivation, without adequate provision for surface Developmental activities like
construction of buildings,
drainage of excess storm water during high intensity rains road cutting, embankments,
increase the landslide vulnerability. cut and fill structures causes
modification of natural
slopes, blocking of surface
drainage, loading of critical
slopes and withdrawal to toe
support promoting
vulnerability of critical
slopes.

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Investigation of Landslide
Anthropogenic Factors • Preliminary Investigation
Change in slope/land use pattern, deforestation, – Field exploration and interview
agricultural practices on steep slopes: Deforestation – Aerial photogrammetry
and cultivation of seasonal crops and increase in
settlements. Improper land use practices such as heavy – Topographic survey
tilling, agricultural practices and settlement patterns – Geophysical survey
have contributed to creep and withdrawal of toe • Detailed Investigation
support in many cases – Detailed field investigation (landslide Investigation Map)
– Setting of measurement line
– Investigation of surface displacement
– Rainfall investigation
– Detailed geological investigation
– Investigation of subsurfcae displcaement (sliding surfcae
investigtaion)

Preliminary Investigation of Landslide

Preliminary Investigation of Landslide
Field exploration and interview:
Aerial photogrammetry:
Field exploration should be • In aerial photograph
carried out at the first stage of interpretation (API) vertical
investigation to see the images of the surface are
landslide condition, extent of collected during an aircraft
the landslide area and condition overflight.
of surrounding area. • Using a stereoscope, two
Information on history and images of the same area
that have been taken from
causes of the landslide should different locations are
be gathered by interviewing the viewed, one image with
local people or studying the old each eye. This allows a
records. three dimensional image of
the terrain to be observed,
permitting interpretation of
the surface features.

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Preliminary Investigation of Landslide Preliminary Investigation of Landslide

Topographical survey:
Large scale and
precise totographic
mp along with the
longitudinal cross
sections across the
centre of the
landslide blocks
should be prepared
to analyze the
landslide and make
the master plan.

Preliminary Investigation of Landslide

Geophysical exploration
Provides depth of rock
thickness, fault, fold etc.
Methods:
1. Gravity: Measures the
desnsity of materials.
2. Magnetic: Magnetic
susceptibility and natural
remanant magnetism.
3. Electrical Method:
Electrical resistivity
4. Seismic Method: Elastic
properties of material- seismic
waves

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Detailed Investigation of Landslide Detailed Investigation of Landslide

Bird’s-eye view:
Sketch in topomap or in aerial photo including
following landforms:
• Peak, spur, road, river bank, terraces
• Main scarp, tension cracks, tilted trees, shape of displace
material
• Neighboring landforms (valley slope, cut bank,
deposition bank, landuse)

Sketch of landslide and surrounding landforms in the Bhaktpur area

Detailed Investigation of Landslide

Walkover Survey:
• To draw the landslide features, one should walk
up along the centre of the landslide from bottom
to the main scrap and sketch the slope profile
with relative steepness.
• Then it is required to go around the landslide
and carefully observe if there are any signs of
past instability.
• For this purpose, main features of the landslide
zones should be drawn at a convenient and
tentative scale and the details of observation Field sketch map of a landslide at Kurintar, about 101 km west of Kathmandu.
Source: M R Dhital
noted down with an appropriate number
indicated on the map.

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Detailed landslide map of the Kumaina village

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Petrology
A branch of geology which deals with the study
of rocks. It focused on the origin, composition,
distribution and structure of rocks.
Petrogenesis
Petrogenesis, also known as petrogeny, is a
branch of petrology dealing with the origin of
igneous rocks. Petrology is the discipline of
geology that studies rocks.
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Petrography
Petrography is a branch of petrology that
focuses on detailed descriptions of rocks. It is
the study of rocks in terms of composition,
texture in hand specimen as well ad in thin
section.
Petrographic classification of Rock
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Sedimentary Metamorphic
Rocks Rocks
Geological Cycle (Rock Cycle)

Igneous
Rocks

The mantle, crust and surface of the earth can be

thought of as a giant recycling machine; rocks are
neither created nor destroyed, but redistributed and
transformed from one rock type to another.

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Rocks and Natural Processes make up the

Rock Cycle
weathering
Sedimentary Metamorphic

Igneous

The Rock Cycle

Rocks are
weathering weathered
Sedimentary Metamorphic eroded,
transported
and deposited
to form
Sedimentary
Rocks

Igneous

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The Rock Cycle

Igneous
Sedimentary Metamorphic
Rocks
form from molten rock
or magma in the
subsurface or from lava
extruded at the surface

Igneous

The Rock Cycle

Pressure,
heat
Sedimentary Metamorphic and fluids
cause
preexisting
materials to
become
Metamorphic
Rocks

Igneous

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The Rock Cycle

Igneous Rock
The Rock Cycle does not go
weathering
Metamorphic in just one direction.
Sedimentary Any given rock can go
through any part of the
cycle any number of times.

Igneous

Physical Properties Classification

• Absence of bedding plane and foliation plane
• Absence of fossils 1. On the basis of Texture
• Hard, massive and compact Plutonic (deep
Seated) Granite
Intrusive
• Usually containts much feldspar
Hypabassyal
Igneous rock rock (Shallow
Seated) Tonalite

Extrusive (Surfce
of fine grained
(volcanic Rock)

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Classification
2. On the basis of Silica composition (silica%)
a. Acidic rock = > 60%
b. Intermediate rock = 52-66%
c. Basic rock = 45-52%
d. Ultrabasic rock = <52
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3. IUGS classification (International union of
Geological Sciences) QAP triangle
Percentage of following five minerals are
determined: Quartz, Plagioclase, Alkali
feldspar, ferromagneisan minerals and
feldspathoids
Pecentage of Quarts, Alkali feldspar and
plagioclase feldspar is again calculated in teh
100%
Texture
1. Crystallinity (degree of Crystallization)
– Hollocrystaline- 100% crystal
– Hypocrystalline- both glass and crystal
– Holohylaine- 100% glass
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2. Granulity (size of Grain)
Phaneritic texture: Seen by naked eye
Aphaneritic texture: not distinguished by
naked eye.
4. Mutual Relationships
Equigranular texture: Uniform size
Inequigranular texture: not-uniform size
Porphyritic texture: Large crystals are surrounded by fine-
grained cyrstals
Poikilitic texture: smaller grains within large grains
Ophitic texture: Randomly arranged crystals are enclosed
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3. Crystal Shape:
Euhedral- well developed crystal faces
Sub-hedral- Some faces are well developed
Anhedral- Lack of Crystal face
Engineering Significance of Igneous rock
• High strength rock
• Mineral which crystallize at depth are unstable
in surface condition
• More suitable for dam and reservoirs
• Granite has high crushing material so that
they are use for consturction material
• Horizontal sill may have destabilizing effece on
a hill slope by allowing groundwater.
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Sedimentary rocks Classification

•Fossils are common
•Generally soft and stratified
•Various sedimentary structures are found
•Quartz, clay mineals, calcite, dolomite,
feldspar minerals found in sedimentary
rocks
1. Orthochemical sedimentary rocks
- Chemical decomposition and compact. Eg. Evaporites,
chert
2. Allochemical Sedimentary rocks
- Precipitated minerals have undergone some movement
and redeposition and after theri crystallization and
compaction. Eg. Limestone, dolomite
3. Terrigeneous Sedimentary rocks
Solid fragments of rocks or minerls after deposition,
compaction and cementation
a. Rudaceous rocks- conglomerate
b. Arenaceous- sand size- sandstone
c. Argillaceous- silt and clay size- Claystone

Texture
1. Clastic Texture:
a. Size of Grains
• Coarse grained - >5 mm
• Medium grained – 1-5 mm
• Fine grained - < 1mm
b. Shape of grains
• Rounded
Orthochemical Allochemical
• Sub-rounded
Rudaceous
sedimentary rocks sedimentary rocks sedimentary rocks • Angular
c. Packing of grains
• Loosely packed
• Hard packed
d. Sorting of grains
• Poorly sorted- different sized grain
• Well sorted-uniform sized grains

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Texture Engineering Significance

2. Non-Clastic Texture: • Cementing materials play important role for
Chemical and biogenic process strength
Macrocrystalline- > 20 μm • Increasing percentage of organic remains
Microcrystalline-< 20 μm decreases the strength of rocks
Crysptocrystalline- cannot distinguished • Highly porous rocks have low bearing capacity
• Claystones swell in saturated condition
• Sedimentary structures like mudcracks
decreas the strength

Strongly foliated rocks-

Classification – breaks easily along the folia due to presence of
platy minerals. Eg., slate, phyllite
Based on Foliation:
1. Strongly foliated rocks-
– breaks easily along the folia due to presence of platy
minerals. Eg., slate, phyllite
2. Weakly foliated rocks
– Foliation rather passive. Eg. Gneiss, migmatite,
mylonite
3. Non-foliated rocks
– Shows massive character eg. Amphibolite, marble

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Weakly foliated rocks Non-foliated rocks

– Foliation rather passive. Eg. Gneiss, migmatite, – Shows massive character eg. Amphibolite,
mylonite marble

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Site Investigation The Importance of Site Investigation

Site investigation is a process of site exploration
consisting of boring, sampling and testing so as
to obtain geotechnical information for a safe,
practical and economical geotechnical evaluation
and design. Generally it is an exploration or
discovery of the ground conditions especially on
untouched site.
• To study the general suitability of the site for an engineering
project.
• To enable a safe, practical and economic design to be prepared.
• To determine the possible difficulties that may be encountered by a
specific construction method for any particular civil project.
• To study the suitability of construction material (soil or rock).

Elements of Site Investigation

• Desk study to collect all the relevant data and
information, Procedure of Engineering in site
• Reconnaissance of site works
• Planning program after reviewing the above
Selection
• Ground or soil exploration includes boring,
sampling and testing,
• Laboratory testing (also field if necessary)
• Preparation and documentation of SI report
• Engineering design stages
• Review during construction and monitoring.

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Surface Exploration Surface Exploration

1. Interpretation of 2. Aerial photographs and geological Maps
Topographic maps a. Airphoto:
1. shape, size, pattern, shadow, tone
– Land surface-relief
and position 2. Provides both regional and local site features
3. Geological information bedding, fault, fold etc.
– Man-made
features
– Position of gullies,
ridges, hills,
mountains, plains
– Scale

Procedure of Engineering in site Procedure of Engineering in site

Selection Selection
B. Geological Maps
3. Engineering
1. Geological structures
geological map
2. Structural line-draw
x-section line - Terrain evaluation
- Geological hazard
3. Structural attitude of
strata - Degree of weathering
4. Thickness of each - Geomorphological
formation units, fan, hills
- Construction material
survey

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Sub-Surface exploration Sub-surface exploration

4. Geophysics
Provides depth of rock
thickness, fault, fold etc.
Methods:
1. Gravity: Measures the
desnsity of materials
2. Magnetic: Magnetic
susceptibility and natural
remanant magnetism
3. Electrical Method: Electrical
resistivity
4. Seismic Method: Elastic
properties of material- seismic
waves
5. Bore hole drilling
It is direct method or subsurface exploration. Deep
drilling are performed either by cable tool
method or by one of several rotary methods.
Different types of drilling techniques:
a. Cable Tool Method
b. Rotaty Method
c. Test Pit
d. Trench
e. Auger boring

Bore hole drilling Bore hole drilling

• Rotaty Method
• Cable Tool Method • 45 cm in diameter can
be constructed
The cable (manila rope • Operates continuously
or wire line) pulls the with a hollow rotating
string of tools up and bit through which
down as brought about mixture of clay and
water or drilling mud is
by a spring pole or a forced.
walking beam at the • Material loosened by
surface. the bit is carried
Drilling holes of 8 to 60 upward in the hole by
cm in diameter the rising mud.
• Drilling mud consists of
Bits are manufractured a suspension of water,
in lengths or 1 to 3 m bentonite, clay and
and weight up to 1500 various organice
kg. additives.

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Bore hole drilling Bore hole drilling

• Test Pit • Trench
• It is exploratory pit • It is a long narrow
shallow excavation
or hole excavated in the ground for
for determining the visual inspection
nature and fitness and sampling.
of the ground for • It provides a
engineering works. continuous profile
of soil strata, an
• 1m X 1m to 2m X excellent view of
3m usually dug by overburden bed
rock contact,
hand labour to structural features
explore sil strata. and defects in
bedrock and obtain
in situ soil samples.

Bore hole drilling Tunnel

• Auger Boring
• This method consists of
driving a hand or power
operted helical steel auger
5 to 15 cm into the ground
and withdrawing if full of
soil material.
• It is very common
inexpensive method to
obtail samples of
overburden especially of
cohesive soils and borrow
material above water table.

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Tunnel
1. Lithology:
– Hard rock is most favourable, i.e. Quartzite, granite 3. Overbreak
– Soft rock rives the probles of sqeezing and swelling
– Water table -Excaved material to maintain the perimeter
2. Geological structure:
– Horizontal direction: Pressure distribution in all direction
to tunnel
– Attitude of rock: Tunnel driven parallen to the strike create the problem
– Folded rock Geological factors which govern the amount of
– Fault zone overbreak are:
– Joint system
– Groundwater condition
– Gases in tunnel
-The nature of rock
– Temperature in tunnel
– Stability of tunnel entrance -Orientation and spacing of rock
-Orientation of bedding plane

Dam-site selection
Classification of Dam
• Classifications based on type and materials of
construction
• Types Materials of Construction

• A. Gravity Concrete

• B. Arch Concrete

• C. Buttress Concrete, also timber & steel

Bartlett Dam, Colorado • D. Embankment Earth or rock

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Gravity Dam
• Gravity dams are dams which resist the horizontal
Arch Dam
thrust of the water entirely by their own weight.
• Arch dams includes:
• They use their weight to hold back the water in the
reservoir. • *series of horizontal arches
• Can be made of earth or rock fill or concrete. • *series of vertical cantilevers

Salmon Creek
Dam, Alaska

Tygart Dam,
West Virginia

Buttress Dam Embankment

•
•
sloping membrane that transmits the water load to a series of
buttresses @ right angles to axis of dam
• Generally have some sort of water proof insides
(called the core), which is covered with earth or
• -Increased formwork & reinforced steel compared w/gravity dam rock fill. Water will seep in through the earth or
• -Less massive than gravity dam (requires 1/3 to 1/2 as much concrete)
rock fill, but should not seep into the core. The
water will seep into the core material and should
• -Use on weaker foundation stop at the seepage line.

Daniel-Johnson
Dam, Quebec Wolf Creek Dam, Nashville

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Site selection Site selection

1. Topography: Narrow part of vally with seep 2. Lithology:
rocky slope - Rock foundation (Hard Rock)
- Limestone can create problem by making caverns
-The weaker rocks are vulnerable to deformation and
differential movements.
-Phyllites and slates exhibit large variation in strength
- if there is no discontinuities, dolerites, basalts,
amphibolites, granulites, gneisses, quartzite, sandstone
and massive dolomite have sufficient high bearing
Glen Canyon Dam on the strength, and make very good foundation rocks.
Colorado River in Page,
Arizona.
Hover dam

Site selection Site selection

3. Geological Structures
- Dam axis should be perpendicular to the
geological structures.
- Steep dipping towards the upstream bedding is
favourable.
-Dipping upstream of anticline limb is good
-Less jointed
-Dam founded on fault zone is very unfavourable.
4. Free from slope stability problems
5. Earthquakes
6. Groundwater condition (Acidic water is sensitive
to carbonate formations)
7. Construction material should be near
8. Permeability of the rock
9. Fresh rock condition
10. Hidden channels (cave)
11. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

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Road
1. Preliminary study:
Site selection of Road – Interpretation of Topographic maps
– Interpretation of Aerial maps
– Geological mapping

2. Detailed study:
– Surface exploration
– Sub-surface exploration

Road Road
1. Topography: Topography of the landform of a 3. Geological Structure:
region is single most important factor that -Stability can be analysized by using stereonet.
controls the selection of alignment of a road.
2. Lithology: 4. Weathering:
– Composition, texture, structure and origin of - Degree and extent of weathering
rocks and sediments. 5. Groundwater condition:
– Ground may be divided broadly
• Consolidated
-Either local seepage or water of line of spring
• Massive hard rock can present.
• Unconsolidated

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Road Reservoirs
1. Preparation of base field maps along the
alternative routes.
2. Data collection for the state of nture types
and extent of danger
3. Subjective judgement in the field
(Interpretation of collected data)

Site Selection Bridge

1. Topography: Broad natural valley ended with narrow
gorge where a barrier could be placed.
2. Groundwater condition: The amount of leakage of
water from the reservoir is controlled by the depth of
water table.
3. Permeability: The rocks which are highly fissured,
intensely jointed, faulted or have solution channels,
cause serious leakage from the reservoir.
4. Silting of Reservoir: The amount of silt produced and
supplied depends mainly upon the lithologic
character and topography of the catchments area.
5. Lithology: The rocks exposed in the reservoir rim
must be resistant to solution, erosion and free of
voids to leake the water.

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Bridge Favourable Condition for Bridge

1. Geological Investigation: 1. Minimum bank cutting
– Abutment and piers must be in strong rock
– Poorly cemented, thinly bedded and soft sedimentary rocks 2. Competent bed
should be avoided
– Presence of harder rocks over weaker layers, rock 3. Narrow span
heterogeneity, zones of weathering are not suitable for bridge
foundation 4. Strike should be across the river
2. Geological structure: 5. Less jointed
– Stable from plane, wedge and toppling failure
– Fault zone should be avoided 6. Filling should not be clay
3. Types of river channel: 7. Less geological structures
– River should be straight
– Mender river can damage the abutment 8. Water drainage should be studied

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Rock Mass Classification

– Terzaghi-rock load classification system
– Lauffer-stand up time calculation
– Deere-RQD index classification
Rock Mass Classification – Wickham-Rock Structure Rating (RSR)
– Bieniawski’s RMR
– Barton’s Q-system
– Laubscher’s MRMR
– Franklin’s size Strength Classification
– Modified Hoek-Brown Failure criterion for jointed rock
masses
– NATM – New Austrian Tunneling Method

Terzaghi-rock load classification system (1946)

Lauffer-stand up time calculation (1958)
Intact rock Rock with no joints
Stratified rock Rock with little strength along bedding surfaces
Moderately Rock mass jointed but cemented or strongly
jointed rock interlocked
Blocky and Jointed rock mass without any cementing of
seamy rock joints and weakly interlocked blocks

Crushed rock Rock that has been reduced to sand-sized

particles without any chemical weathering

Squeezing rock Rock containing a considerable amount of clay

Swelling rock Rock that squeezes primarily from mineral
swelling

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Deere-Rock quality designation index (1967)

• RQD is defined as the percentage of intact core pieces
RQD
longer than 100 mm (4 inches) in the total length of core
(Deere et al., 1967)

RQD RQD
• RQD = Σ pieces > 4” long (100) • Palmström (1982) suggested a different method
total length cored to calculate the RQD when no core is available
but discontinuity traces are visible in surface
• 100-90 Excellent exposure, the RQD may be estimated from the
number of discontinuities per unit volume. The
• 90-75 Good suggested relationship for clay-free rock masses
• 75-50 Fair is:
• 50-25 Poor • RQD = 115-3.3 Jv
• <25 Very poor • Where, Jv is the sum of the number of joints per
unit length for all joints sets known as the
the reported RQD value varies along the volumetric joint count.
scan line of the recovered core

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Wickham-Rock Structure Rating (RSR) (1972, 1974)

Rock Mass Rating (After Bieniawski 1989)
Wickham et al. (1972, 1974) described a quantitative method for
describing the quality of a rock mass and for selecting appropriate
support on the basis of their Rock Structure Rating (RSR) 1. Uniaxial compressive strength of rock
classification.
The RSR is calculated by the following relation: material.
RSR = A+B+C 2. Rock Quality Designation (RQD).
Where, A = Rock Structure (Origin, hardness, geological structure)
B = Discontinuity pattern with respect to the direction of the 3. Spacing of discontinuities.
tunnel (joint-spacing and orientation relative to direction of tunnel
drive) 4. Condition of discontinuities.
C = Groundwater inflow (based on over all rock mass quality 5. Groundwater conditions.
described by parameters A and B, joint condition, amount of water
inflow in tunnel). 6. Orientation of discontinuities.
The outcome from this relation is used to design rib, bolt and shot-
crete support for tunnels via the support recommendations of the
Terzaghi system.

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Guidelines for excavation and support of 10 m span rock tunnels Barton’s Q-system
in accordance with the RMR system (After Bieniawski 1989).
The Q-system of Barton et al. (1974, 1976, and 1988) of the
Norwegian Geotechnical Institute proposed a Tunnel Quality
Index (Q) on the basis of an evaluation of a large number of case
histories of underground excavations. The numerical value of the
index Q varies on a logarithmic scale from 0.001 to a maximum of
1000 and is defined by:

Where,
RQD = rock quality designation
Jn = joint set number
Jr = joint roughness number
Ja = joint alteration number
Jw = joint water reduction factor
SRF = stress reduction factor

4

Franklin’s size Strength Classification
Franklin et al. (1970, 1974, 1975, and 1986)
developed a classification system based on intact
rock strength and the block size of intact rock
blocks. The intact rock can be established by
hammer and scratch tests or Point Load Strength
whereas block size is defined as the diameter of a
typical rock block. The intact rock strength, the
influence of rock block diameter and tunnel size
have been related to tunnel stability and potential
failure mechanism.
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Laubscher’s MRMR
Laubscher (1977, 1981, 1984, and 1990) modified
the RMR classification of Bieniawski by adding
groundwater in the condition parameters and
determined by the following relationship:
MRMR = RMR*adjustment factors
Where,
MRMR = Mining rock mass Rating
RMR = Rock Mass Rating
Adjustment factors are compensation factors for:
the method of excavation, orientation of
discontinuities and excavation, induced stresses and
future weathering.
Modified Hoek-Brown Failure criterion for jointed
rock masses
This failure criterion incorporates a simple rock mass
classification system (Hoek et al., 1992) and formulated as
follows:
Where,
= major principal effective stress at failure; = minor principal
effective stress at failure; = intact rock strength
mb and a are parameters describing the rock mass structure
and surface conditions
The ‘structure’ is related to the block size and the
interlocking or rock blocks while the ‘surface condition’ is
related to weathering, persistence and condition of
discontinuities.
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NATM-New Austrian Tunneling Method

The New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) (Müller,
1978; Pacher, et al. 1974, Rabcewicz, 1964; Rabcewicz,
et al. 1972) includes a number of techniques for safe
tunneling in rock conditions in which the stand –up time
is limited before failure occurs.
This system includes legal and contractual parameters
NATM
not found in any of the other systems and are strictly
related to tunneling. This technique is mostly applicable
in soft rock and broken rock by including the use of
smaller heading and benching to form a reinforced ring
inside which the bulk of the tunnel can be excavated.

Gotthard based Tunnel