ControlValves

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Process plants consist of hundreds, even thousands of control loopsallnet.
worked together to manufacture a product. Each of these control loopsisde.
signed to keep some important process variable such as pressure, flow,level,
temperature, or concentration within a required operating range to ensure the

quality of the product.

To reduce the effect of load disturbances, sensors and transmitterscollect
informationabout the process variable and its relationship to some desired set

point. A controller then processes this information and decides whatmustbe

done to get the process variable back to where it should be after a loaddistur-
bance occurs. When all the measurements, comparisons, and calculations are

done, there must be an element in the control loop to execute the commands
issued by the controller. This element is called final control element (FCE),which
is powered by the actuator. The most common final control element in process
control industries is the control valve.
Of
It is impossibleto design a practical control system without some means
controllingthe volume and pressure of the matter and directing the flow
teriaJ to the operating units. The control valve manipulates a flowing fluid,such
as gas, steam, water, or chemicals to compensate for the load disturbance and
point 'A
keep the regulated process variable set
as close as possible to the desired
control valve regulates the supply adjusting
of material or energy to a process by Ill
an opening through which the
material flows. It is an engineered resistance
control loop, the only variable con
resistance in the loop, which is within our
Valves make up 20—30% accurateß
of the piping cost for a plant. Valves must be
the control of fluid valve
flow, pressure and the sequence of operation• A
definedas any device by
which the flow of fluid may be started, stopped,
regulatedby a movablepart
that opens or obstructs passage.
Four main functions of
control valves are;
• Start and stop flow
• Regulation of
flow
 Control Valves 189

Actuator
spring
Diaphrag

'Valve position
indicator
Valve
stem
Valve bod
Actuating
signal
Flow Valve plug
Valve seat
direction

Fig. 8.1 Line diagram of an air-to-close control valve representation

Backflowprevention
• Releasepressure
SAMA(ScientificApparatus Makers Association) defines the control valve as
"valvewithpneumatic,hydraulic, electric or other externally powered actuator
fully or partially opens or closes the valve to a position dic-
thatautomatically,
tatedby signalstransmitted from controlling instruments".
Theactuatorprovides the power that is used to move the valve stem and
plug.Valvesmay be controlled manually, electrically, pneumatically, mechani-
cally,hydraulically,or by combinations of two or more of these methods. The
power sourceused in the process industries for the vast majority of the actuators
isairbecauseit is safe and reliable. Hydraulic actuators provide very high power
whileelectricactuators like motors are compact.
Thecontrolvalve assembly typically consists of the valve body; the internal
timparts;an actuatorto provide the motive power to operate the valve; and a
varie
tyof additionalvalve accessories; which can include positioners, transduc-
' ers,supplypressure
regulators, manual operators, limit switches, etc. A simpli-
fledlinesketch
of a control valve is shown in Fig. 8.1.
8.2 COMMON
ABBREVIATIONS IN VALVE INDUSTRY
Control
valvesbeing an important component of automation process, many soci-
qies/organizations
are involved in framing standards for their materials, installa-
safetyaspects,etc,
les In this section, some of the established organization/
involvedin the
control valve industry are listed.
Organizations/Societies
ANSI
AmericanNational
API American Petroleum
StandardsInstitute
Institute
AmericanSociety Testing
of ASTM ----American Society for
MechanicalEngineers
and Materials
190 Process Control: Principles and Applications

BS British Standards BVQI Bureau veritas

CSA Canadian Standards DIN Quality
Deutsche
Association Industries
FCI Fluid Controls Institute IEC International
Electrotechni%l
Commission
ISA Instrument Society ISO International Standards
of America Organization
MSS Manufacturers NACE National Association
Standardization Society of
Corrosion Engineers

8.2.1 Control Valve Materials

Control valves are composed of a variety of materials; the
selectionofthepräi*
composition depends on type of the medium and control system
requirement
Metal choices for valve body include brass, bronze, copper,castiron,
iron, Monel, and stainless steel. Plastic material choices includePVCandCPV(
Some of the most commonly used valve materials and their abbreviationsä
given below.
Aluminum A.l. All Iron
Bronze C.I. Cast Iron,
c.s. Cast Iron / Carbon Steel Cr Chromium
1).1. Ductile Iron F.S. Forged Steel
Monel Metal Molybdenum
M.I. Malleable Iron N.l. Nickel Iron
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride N Nickel
CPVC Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride S.S. Stainless Steel
Tef Teflon

8.3 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS ASSOCIATED WITHCONTROL

VALVES
Control valve is a complex mechanical assembly with actuators powered
cally, pneumatically or hydraulically. There are standard terms,
section. ReferFiy
ciated with control valves which will be discussed in this
for understanding the parts of control valves.
variable
Plug Plug is a movable part in control valve which provides
in a port. clc»l.ß
ts for
Seat Seat is a portion of valve body which a valve plug connec
permit
Stem Stem is a rod extending through bonnet assembly to
forceto
Piston A movable pressure-responsive element that transmits
actuator stem.
Connector The device that connects the actuator stem to
Stem
btructure that rigidly connects the actuator power unit
Yoke The
 Control Valves
191

importantterms and phenomena associated with control valves, are:

Jüh,esizingand valve capacity Valve size often is described by the nominal size
connections,but a more important measure is the flow that the valve
echnikl oftheend
Control valve sizing involves determining the correct valve to install
canprovide.
valves commercially available. The procedure is based on infor-
fromthemany
mationprovidedby valve manufacturers, who specify the capacity of their valves
Iof usingthevalvecoefficient, Cv. The capacity or flowing rate of a control valve
mustmatchwith the process conditions it is called upon to regulate. A common
basisforratingcapacities of control valves is by specifying the cv value. cv
numbers arevalve coefficients that define maximum capacity of a valve. It is
definedasthenumber of GPM (x 3.785 lit/min) of water at 600F which will pass
ofthepw
througha wideopen control valve with a pressure drop of I psi. A valve with a
requireme
t iron,
Qof I hasa capacity of I GPM of water with I psi pressure drop. There are
dui
standardtablesand figures to help in arriving at the correct size of the valve.

)reviatiorß
q,=Q
whereAP= pressure drop (psi) across the valve
on, G = liquid's specific gravity (l for water)
ium Q = Flow rate in GPM
Steel Thisvalue is in US GPM.
ienum

Iron In unit 11.7 Q

whereQ = water flow (m /hr)

ss Steel
AP = pressure drop (kPa)
Forgases,mixed phase flows the equation is a little more complicated be-
cause
gasesare compressible and
affected by temperature variations.
Rangeability
It is the ratio of maximum controllable flow to minimum control-
redel' lableflow,
i.e.,
Q max v max
Olllella»
•n min v min
"Referfl! ContractaThe
mum lowest pressure point where the fluid velocity is at its maxi-
andfluidstatic
Occurs pressure and cross-sectional area are minimum. It normally
just at the
lble downstream of constriction.
CavitationIf the pressure
drop across the orifice is such that the fluid pressure
goesbelowthe
vapor pressure of liquid, then recovers back to a higher
closß
for Pressureabovethe
V vapor pressure, then this pressure recovery gives rise to a
known as capitation, ofthe
implosion, or collapse
pos!
bubblesformed which causes an
pockets
at the vena contracta. Violent collapses of gas
surf'Inshock waves causing
generating impact pressures over 200,000 psig
C noise, and vibration problems.
Produces a rough surface fluid used in the pro-
texture even if the
 and Applications
192 Process Control: Principles

low intensity and low frequency. Cavitation may wear out the trim
parts of valves in short time. One Inethod employed to eliminate
split the total pressure drop across the valve into smaller portionsusing
stage trims. Each of these small drops keeps its vena contractapressure
the vapor pressure, so no vapor bubbles are formed. Another method
try to eliminate the cavitation, but rather minimizes or isolates thedamageh
hardening the valve surface.
Flashing Flashing occurs when both the static pressure at the venacontract
and the valve outlet pressure drop below the fluid vapor pressure.(i.e.,
enters as liquid and exits as vapor). Flashing can produce serious erosiondamag Gall
to the valve trim parts. Flashing damage is characterized by a smoothandpolishedresul
appearance, while cavitation damage is characterized by a rough andcinder-likAir-ti
appearanceof the eroded portion. It is distinctly different fromthesmoothin aff
polished appearance caused by the erosion of flashing. positi

Figure 8.2 pictorially represents the phenomena of cavitation andflashing. Fai14

Application ratio A common way to characterize potential cavitationconditions
actuat

is to use the application ratio, defined as: memb

action
Application ratio Pi - PO ; where memb

In cask

Pi inlet pressure, absolute the act

po = outlet pressure, absolute

= vapor pressure of the fluid, absolute when

the
The fluid flashes if the application ratio is more than l. On the otherhand, exten

closer is the ratio to I, the higher is the potential for cavitation. With an increasingwhere
fluid temperature,the danger for cavitation increases. supply

open
Corrosion Corrosion is the chemical reaction between the materialof the
supply
and the fluids handled. It causes valve
deterioration.
Erosion Erosion is the wear and tear
of the valve trim and body, resulting
high-velocityfluids containing solids. b cont

Valve inlet pressure

Cavitation
Outlet pressure
Vapor pressure
Outlet pressure
Flashing
Lowest pressure
("vana contracta")

Distance along flowstream

Fig. 8.2 Cavitation and
flashing effect
 Control Valves
193
Air-to-close/fail-open
Air-to-open/fail-close Air-to-open/fail-close
Load
Load Vent
Vent

ATO-FO ATO-FC
ATO-FC
Fig. 8.3 Illustrations of ATC/ATO valves

condition between the valve stem and the stem

A high-friction
Galling guides,
froma lack of lubricity between the moving parts.
resulting
Air-to-close Air-to-open valve means the valve will open on increase
Air-to-open
valve means the valve will move towards closed
inairsupply,while air-to-close
uponincrease in air supply.
position
Fail-safe is the characteristicof a valve and its
Fail-safe/Fail-open/Fail-close
wherebythe loss of actuating energy supply will force a valve closure
actuator,
to becomefully open, fully closed, or retain its position,whichever
member
isnecessaryto protect the process. In case of fail-close, the valve closure
action
member movesto a closed position when the actuating energy source fails. And,
incaseof fail-open,the valve closure member moves to an open position when
theactuating energy source fails.
Fig8.3depictsthese types and combinations. In Fig. 8.3 (a) stem retracts
whenairis supplied through load opening, thereby opening the valve, while stem
extendson loss of air pressure and closes the valve. It can be used on steam lines
where
incaseof failure valve on steam line will get closed, stoppingfurther
supply
ofsteam.In Fig. 8.3 (b) stem retracts on loss of air pressure and hence
open
thevalve.In Fig. 8.3 (c), plug design is such that stem retracts on failure of
supply
andcloses the valve.

Example
8.1 A control valve regulates the liquid flow of a tank. The water level
ISControlled
in the tank at a level of 25 feet by regulating the outflow.The mea-
sured
inflowvaries from 0 to 120 gallons per minute. Calculate cv for the valve.
Inflow

25

Outflow

Fig. E8.1
 Control Valves 195

16 psia 40 20
0.834
40— 16
ratio
licatioll Pi
ratio I, cavitation will occur, but no flashing.
application

VAEVE CHARACTERISTICS
CONTROL inherent flow characteristic that defines the relation-
ave an
valvesh
op ening and flow rate under constant pressure conditions.
Il between valve
lift' is used to describe the valve opening, i.e., whether the
shiPterm'valve and down movement of the plug relative to the seat) or
Ive (up
globeva
The

valveisa
(lateral movement of the plug relative to the seat).
valve
the three commonly used inherent valve characteristics
8.4shows this type, the relationship between flow and valve open-
figure - In
Quickopening linear up to 60-70% of the valve opening. After this
is approximately change rapidly with the change in the valve opening.
doesn't
limit,theflow proportional to the valve opening for a con-
The flow is directly
Linear
drop. The relationship, thus, can be expressedas a straight
Stantpressure
given as:
line.It is

S max
Qmax
position (m.)
where S = Stem
= maximum stem position (m.)
Smax
/sec)
Q = Flow rate (m
(m /sec)
Q = maximum Flow rate
of valve movement produce an equal
increments
Equalpercentage - Equal of equal percentage valve is directly
gain
changes in inflow. The
percentage

100%
Quick opening

Linear
Flow
rate Equal percentage

100%

00/0 Valve opening

characteristics
Fig, 8.4 Valve
 Principles and Applications
196 Process Control:

proportionalto flow through the valve. Gain is

low when

In short, in quick opening, most of the valve capacity is

reached
travel; valve capacity is equal to travel in linear valve, while
most
is made available towards the end of valve travel in equal ofthe
percentage
The selection of valve characteristics very much depend
expected across the control on
pressure drop valve. Figure 8.5
illustrates
a ve. At
head loss through the pipes is less (10 psig), leaving a larger lowflow

across the valve; while at high flow, the head loss throughthe
differential
pipe
(40 psig), leaving a smaller pressure across the valve.

Rules of thumb for selecting valve characteristics

l. Equal Percentage (most commonly used valve control)
a. Used in processes where large changes in pressuredropare
b. Used in processes where a small percentage of the totalpressured(!
is permitted by the valve
c. Used in temperature and pressure control loops
2. Linear
a. Used in liquid level or flow loops
b. Used in systems where the pressure drop across the valveis
expecti

to remain fairly constant (i.e., steady state systems)

3. Quick Opening
a. Used for frequent on-off service
large flow is needed(i.e.,
b. Used for processes where "instantly"
systems or cooling water systems)

8.5 VALVE CLASSIFICATIONS AND TYPES

accordingtotheirß
A widely accepted way of classifying control valves is
one of the following:
• Flow control
• Pressure control
• Directional control

Low flow 100psig

90 psig 10 psig
High flow J00 psig awe

Fig. 8.5 Relationship across

between flow rate and pressure
differential
 Control Valves
197
have multiple functions that fall into more
is valvesthough than one
.1aqsificat1011.

Valves
Flowcontrol
valvesare used to regulate the flow of fluids in fluid-power systems.
ve.
fluid-power systems is important because the rate of move-
offlowin
control
erenti(
offluid-powered machines depends on the rate of flow of the pressurized
le
effect types of flow control valves are discussed below.
ow,tht
someof the different
fluid.

IS mort BallValve
as the name implies, are stop valves that use a ball to stop or start the
valves,
Ball
As the valve handle is turned to open the valve, the ball rotates to a
flowoffluid.
where
point a partor the entire hole through the ball is in line with the valve body
andoutlet,allowing the fluid to flow through the valve. When the ball is
:pected suchthatit is perpendicular to the flow openings of the valve body, ball
rotated
re drop provide
valves tight shut-off Figure 8.6 shows the end view of the ball within
ballvalveat different stages of rotation.
Most ballvalves are of quick-acting type. They require only a 900 turn to
either
completely open or close the valve. Best suited valve characteristics for
ball
valvesarequickopening and linear. They are recommended for fully open/
closed
operations with poor throttling characteristics. It provides tight sealing
pected
%ithlow torque.

Valvefully open Valve half-open Valve fully closed

safety

Fluid passes Fluid is Fluid is totally

freely partially blocked
blocked
Fig. 8.6 End view of ball within ball valve
Gate
Valve

orsluice valve, opens by

as it is sometimes known, is a valve that
or rectangular Gate valves
gate/wedge out of the path of the fluid.
whena straight-line flow restriction are
flow of fluid and minimum
'Gatevalves
are so named because stops or allows the
the part that either

'Ibisleaves same size as the

an opening for the
Whichthevalve flow through the valve,
is installed,
198 Process Control: Principles and Applications

of
tur

are

on

Gil

Open Closed
Fig. 8.7 Gate valve as

cor

Therefore, there is a little pressure drop or flow restrictionthrough the ger

Gate valves are not suitable for throttling purposes. The controlofflowisdifficul of

because of the valve's design, and the flow of fluid slappingagainst apartially
open gate can cause extensive damage to the valve.
(sil
Gate valves are characterized as either me
• Rising-stem gate valves, or off

• Nonrising-stemgate valves plu

Rising stems provide a visual indication of valve position.Nonrising

stemsar: val
valvei:
used where vertical space is limited or underground. The nonrising-stem
we,

handwheel of
shown in Fig. 8.7. The stem is threaded into the gate. As the
I

threads,
whiletht
stem is rotated, the gate travels up or down the stem on the
ful

will almostalways
stem remains vertically stationary. This type of valve
end of the stem to indicatetheposition
pointer indicator threaded onto the upper
of the gate. know byimmediat
Valves with rising stems are used when it is important to
closed and whether the threads(stem
become
inspection whether the valve is open or have
exposed to the fluid
gate) Insuch
contaminants.
damaged by fluid of the
valve
out
valves, the stem rises gat
the valve is opened. for
characteristic recolfl•
Best suited valve it is
and throttling
valves is quick opening, non-
open/closed,
mended for fully
operations.

valves
linear motion
Globe valves are
widely useo ff
round bodies. They are
fluid flow in both
try to regulate valves are
throttling service. Globe existence•
in
Fig. 8.8 Angle globe valve the most common valves
 Control Valves
199
from the globular shape of
getsits the valve body.
also have globular-shaped bodies; however, it other types
is the internal
valvethat identifies the type of valve. The inlet and outlet struc-
openings for
valvesare arranged in a way to satisfy the flow requirements. Globe
valves
icallytwo-port valves, although three port valves are also produced.
the body to let the fluid flow in or out. Ports
openings in The two ports may be
straight across from each other on the body, or oriented at an
ports at an angle are called angle globe angle.
valves
Globe with valves. Figure 8.8
valve.
globe
an angle
shows
Globevalvesare classified as single-port and double-port. Single-port valve,
shown in Fig. 8.9, is the most common valve body style and is simple in
Generally, single-port valves are used for applicationswith
construction. strin-
shut-off
gent requirements. Because of high-pressure fluid loading the entire area
b' is
difficl' oftheport,forcerequired for closure is more.
a partial} Thedouble-portvalve, as shown in Fig. 8.10, has two valve plugs on a com-
spindle,with two valve seats. Not only can the valve seats be kept smaller
thereare two of them), but also the forces are partially balanced. This
(since
meansthatalthoughthe differential pressure is trying to keep the top valve plug
seat(aswith a single seat valve), it is also trying to push the lower valve
offits
down.The fluid flows equally on all sides of the center of support when the
plug
isopen,so there is no unbalanced pressure on the disk to cause uneven
valve
tem valvth
Therateat which fluid flows through the valve is regulated by the position
wear.
V'heel on
ofthe
diskin relation to the seat. The valve is commonly used as a fully open or
s, while th
fully
closedvalve,but it may also be used as a throttle valve. However, since the
ways haw
seating
surfaceis a relatively large area, it is not suitable as a throttle valve, where
the positic:

Actuator force
immedc
J.
is (stem
ve becoß

Seats
valve

Bonnet

Body
n.tbrotllß

Valve plug
Fluid
flow- PressureP:
Pressure

Valve sea

stcocc
Differential pressure
Fig, 8.9 Single-portvalve
200 Process Control: Principles and Applications

Actuator force

Upper valve plug

Upper seat

Fluid flow
Lower valve plug

Lower seat

Fig. 8.10 Globe valve (Double-port)

fine adjustments are required in controlling the rate of flow.

Double-portu
forlarger
have higher capacity than single port valves and are recommended
sizes.
should never be jammed in the open position.Afterthe}
The globe valve
should be turned toward the closed
is fully opened, the hand wheel to
is likely
approximately one-half turn. Unless this is done, the valve
impossible, to close thevalve•
open position, making it difficult, if not itiss
that
is
reason for not leaving globe valves in the fully open position valve
If the
times difficult to determine if the valve is open or closed.
by
in the open position,the stem may get damaged or broken
thinks the valve is closed, and attempts to open it. streams'
the fluid
Three-way valves are used for mixing or diverting
diagram of three-wayvalve is shown in Fig. 8.11.
Figure 8.12 shows a three-way diverting valve.
andequal
Best suited valve characteristics for globe valves are linear
regulatioß•
age. They are recommended for throttling service and flow multiple
in
drop is high, flow control is accurate, and they are available

Mixing Diverting

Fig. 8.11 Mixing and valve)

diverting valve (Three-way
 Control Valves 201

Port A Source

valve
plug

Port B
valve plug
Fig. 8.12 Three-way divertingglobe valve
seat
NeedleValve
Needle controlvalves have a slender, tapered point at the end of the valve stem
thatisloweredthrough the seat to restrict or block the flow. Needle valves are
similar indesignand operation to the globe valve. The long tapered end of the
valve
51e-pofll.' permitsa much smaller seating surface area than that of the globe valve.
Therefore, theneedle valve is more suitable as a throttle valve.
Needle valvesare also used to control the end of a work cycle, where it is
desirable to bring motion slowly to a halt; and at other points where precise
adjustments of flow are necessary and where a small rate of flow is desired.
Although manyof the needle valves used in fluid power systems are the manually
loseißll
Operated type,modifications of this type of valves are often used as variable
restrictors.This valve is constructed without a handwheel and is adjusted to
Provide a specificrate of flow. This rate of flow will provide a desired time of
Operation fora particular subsystem. Since this type of valve can be adjusted to
conform totherequirements of a particular system, it can be used in a variety of
systems. Figure.8.13 illustrates a needle valve that is modified as a variable
restrictor

flowingthrough the valve turns 900 and passes through an orifice that is
Fluid
fora rod with a cone-shaped tip. These small valves are widely used to
and gases
accurately regulate the flow of liquids
threading ofthe stem
at low flow rates. The fine
flow.
allow for precise resistance to

Pinch/Diaphragm Valve
include any valve with a flexible
Pinch valves closed to
can be pinched
elastomer body that using a mecha-
flow,
restrict or cut-off the fluid are full bore,
Pinch valves
niS11)or fluid pressure, be used in on-
they can
linear action valves, so variable position or
a
off manner as well as inDiaphragm valves are
Needle valve for throttling service,
 202 Process Control: Principles and Applications

Diaphragm

belo
amo

is te
cess

valv
relie'
weir
smal
(a)
of th
Fig. 8.14 (a) Diaphragm valve (b) Pinch valve
press
related to pinch valves, with the only exception that they useanelastomr,
gas
diaphragm instead of an elastomeric liner in the valve body, to separate perat
stream from the closure element. Instead of pinching the linerclosed, such
phragm is pushed into contact with the bottom of the valve bodytoprovideshü
Safe
off. Fig. 8.14 (a) and (b) show diaphragm and pinch valve respectively.
They
Butterfly Valve
diskltal
Butterfly valves are quick opening valves that consist of a metalcircular
the valve
vane with its pivot axes at right angles to the direction of flow in
when rotated on a shaft, seals against seats count
in the valve body. They are normally used as excee
throttling valves to control flow. In the open till th

position, the disk is parallel to the pipe wall,

allowing full flow through the valve. In the teract

force
closed position, it is positioned perpendicular
atmos
to the pipe wall, stopping the flow. Figure
Capac
8.15 depicts constructionand working of valve
Butterfly
butterfly valve. Fig. 8.15
While

teach
8.5.2 Pressure Control Valve
and relatedeq I
The safe and efficient operation of fluid power systems
demands some measure to control the pressure. There are many
escape
matic pressure control valves, Some of them merely provide an J
the excess pressure (pressure cooker), some reduce the pressure
pressure and some keep the pressure in a system within a required
Relief Valve
Pressure relief valves are self-actuated, safety valves designed to
upstream pressure from the line. Some fluid power systems, ev

control this excess pressure. Relief used

valves are automatic valves
 Control Valves 203

prevent over pressurization. Most relief valves simply lift

linesandequipmentto
(open)at a preset pressure and reset (shut) when the pressure drops slightly
theliftingpressure.They do not maintain flow or pressureat a given
below
amount,butpreventpressure from rising above a specific level when the system
istemporarilyoverloaded. In a pneumatic system, the relief valve controls ex-
cesspressureby discharging the excess gas to the atmosphere.
Smallerreliefvalves, similar in design and operation to the main system relief
areoftenused at isolated parts of the system where pressures must be
valve,
at a set point lower than that provided by the main system relief. These
relieved
reliefvalvesare also used to relieve pressures caused by thermal expansion
small
of the fluids.
Allreliefvalveshave an adjustment for increasing or decreasing the set relief
Commonapplications of these valves are for the automatic release of
pressure.
gasfroma boiler,pressure vessel, or other system when the pressure or tem-
exceedspreset limits. They are often called by more specific names
perature
suchas pressure relief valves.

SafetyValve
areusedto release excess pressure in gases or compressible fluids.
They
Bothreliefand safety valves prevent equipment damage by relieving acciden-
of fluid systems. The main difference between a relief
talover-pressurization
valveanda safety valve is the extent of opening at the set point pressure.
Areliefvalve is set to a predetermined pressure with a spring force which
counteracts the force created by fluid system. When force created by the system
exceeds springforce, the valve will start to open and continue to open gradually
tillthepressuredrops to the point where it will close again.
Safety valve(otherwise called as "pop-off" valve) also has spring force coun-
teracting thepressure created by the fluid system. When force created by spring
k exceedsthe spring force, the valve "pops" fully open and vents air to
mmøsphere. Safetyvalves are sized in such manner that they have greater flow
capacity thanthe source which created excessive pressure situation.
Areliefvalve
opens only as necessary to relieve the over-pressure condition,
while a safetyvalve rapidly pops fully open as soon as the pressure setting is
reached. A safetyvalve will stay fully open until the pressure drops below a reset
Pressure whichis pressure drops below a reset pressure which is lower than the
utuating set point pressure.

88.3Directional
Control Valves
controlvalves are designed to direct the flow of fluid in a fluid power
' atthedesired other terms
time, to the point where it is required. Various

Pneumaticvalve, commonly referred to as the exhaust port, is usually

 and Applications
204 Process Control:Principles

vented to the atmosphere. Directional control valves may be

ences in pressure acting on opposite sides of the valving element,
operated
bydiff
positioned manually, mechanically, or electrically. or they 8
man
Check Valve
Check valves are used in fluid systems to permit flow in one inc
direction
prevent flow in the other direction. They are classified as one-way isa
cop
ntly in a
flow in one direction only, or it may be used as an integralpart toallti incl
line
ofglobe atte
quence, counterbalance, and pressure-reducing valves. Check
valvesare
able in various designs. They are opened by the force of fluid in tion

in one direction, and are closed by fluid attempting to flow in the the
oppositedi€vice.
tion. The force of gravity or the action of a spring aids in closingthe
Figure. 8.16 shows a swing check valve in which the movableparttoblock consi
t! out tc
flow, swings on a hinge either onto the seat to block reverse floworoffthe
ity, an
to allow forward flow. Although swing check valves can comeinvarioussil<
must
large check valves are often swing check valves.
In the open position, the flow of fluid forces the hinged diskupandalloy
free flow through the valve. Flow in the opposite direction with theaid
forces the hinged disk to close the passage and blocks the flow.Thistype
valve is sometimes designed with a spring to assist in closingthevalve.
Check valves work automatically; they are not controlled byany
control; most do not have a valve handle or stem. An importantconcept inch]
valves is cracking pressure which is the minimum upstreampressure atwhil
the valve will operate. Typically, the check valve is designed forandcanthdt •
Pr
fore be specified for a specific cracking pressure. Check valvesarealso R
•
when multiple gases are mixed into one gas stream. A check valveisinstalldt Pr
each of the individual gas streams to prevent mixing of the gasesinthe
source. For example, if a fuel and an oxidizer are to be mixed, thencheck
will normally be used on both the fuel and oxidizer sources to ensure In
original gas cylinders remain pure and therefore nonflammable. Some typöj Sp
irrigation sprinklers and drip irrigation emitters have small checkvalves
the lines from draining when the system is shut off.

15

po

Ins

Ins

Val'
Open
Closed

Fig 8.16 Check valve

 CHAPTER

p&lDiagram

9.1 INTRODUCTION
(Inanindustry,processes can be described and understood by the use of Piping &
(P&l) diagram . The purpose of P&l diagrams is to provide quick,
Instrumentation
and reliable information for process analysis, productioncontrol,
systematic,
specification
ofequipment, and preparation of equipment requisitions. While designing
complex
controlsystems, the following types of diagrams will be required:
(a) Functional diagrams
(b) Detailedschematic diagrams
(c) Interconnection diagrams
(d)ISAPipingand Instrumentation (P&l) diagrams
AP&ldiagram should provide information about the following:
• thevariablebeing measured
indicating,recording, or other services, like control and alarm functions
auxiliaryfeatures of the instrument or the controller
typeof connecting
lines
approximate location of the point of measurement and control
Inc Ofinstrumentationto be included the control centre at the processing end
in
Instituteof Instrumentation and Control defines piping and instrumentation
diagram
as:
l' Adiagram
which shows the interconnection of process equipmentand the
Instrumentation industry,a
used to control the process. In the process
set of symbols is used to prepare drawings of processes,The
standard
Instrument based on
symbols used in these drawings are generally
InstrumentationSystems and - | 984.
Standard S5, I
Automation (ISA) Society
. e Primaryschematic laying out a process control
drawing used for
Installation
 210 Process Control: Principles and Applications

The P&l diagram is a pictorial representation of:

• key piping and instrument details
• control and shutdown schemes
• safety and regulatory requirements
basic start-up and operational information
ISA S5.l defines how each symbol is constructedusing
elements, alpha and numeric identification codes, abbreviations,function blui
and connecting lines. ISA S5.l defines four graphicalelements—discrt
instruments, shared control/display, computer function, and programmablelo\é
controller—andgroups them into three location categoriesdepending
(local
location, viz. primary location (main board), auxiliary location
graphical
field mounted. Table 9.1 shows the symbols of four
ele%

depending on eir physical location.

location
Table 9.1 Four graphical elements & their
Auxiliary location
Field mounted normally
accessibe
normally accessible tooperator
to operator

Discrete
instruments

Shared display,
shared control

Computer
function

Programmable
logic control

• Discrete instrumentsare indicated by circular elements. el

graphical
• Adding a single horizontal bar across any of the four category.
indicates that the function resides in the primary location thedes
places
• A double line indicates an auxiliary location, and no line
function in the field. 100
inaccessible
• Devices located behind a panel-board in some other
are shown with a dashed horizontal line. ware.
by a sq
Shared control/display elements are circles stirroundedograrnrnJble
•
square
controller (PLC) functions are shown as a diamond inside
 P&l Diagram
211
'F TERMS USED IN DIAGRAMS
signals the existence of an abnormal condition by
Adevicethat discrete change,
means
or both intended to attract attention.
or visible
audible
that has a group of instruments mounted on it and that is
Astructure designation. The board may consist of one or more
havean individual
cubicles,desks, or racks.
blocks,
mounted A term applied to an instrument that is mounted on a board
Board
to the operator for his normal use.
le logic thatisaccessible relay that performs one or more
computingrelay A calculations or logical
out one or more resultant output signals.
their
orbothand sends
rd), and
controllerA device having an output that can be varied to maintain a controlled
or within specified limits or to alter the variable in a
ata specifiedvalue
ements

$ified manner.
Anautomatic controller varies its output automatically in response to direct or
inputof a measured input variable. A manual controller is a manual loading
:ation
anditsoutput is not dependent on a measured process variable but can be
station,
bymanualadjustment. A controller can be integral with other functional
esslhl
wiedonly
of a control loop.
elements
station A manual loading station that also provides switching between
Control
andautomaticcontrol modes of a control loop. It is also known as
manual
auto-manualstationor auto-selector station.
Controlvalve A device, other than a manual on-off valve that directly manipu-
latestheflowof one or more fluid process streams. In some applications, it is
commonly knownas a damper or louver.
The designation"hand-control valve" is limited to hand-actuated valves that
usedforprocess throttling.
A device that receives information in the form of an instrument
Converter
altersthe form of information, and sends out a resultant output signal. A
signal,
converter
is a special form of relay.
controlelement The device that directly changes the value of the ma-
9ulated
variableof a control loop.
identify
The sequence of letters or digits that are used to uniquely
Idtntification
Qindividual
IlcalTh instrumentor a loop. behind the board.
e ocationOf an instrument that is neither on nor
a primary element or a
Instrumentsare commonly used in the vicinity of
fucontrol
element.
board A board that Local boardsare
is not a central or a main board.
in thevicinity of plant subsystems or sub-areas. arranged to
Combination instruments
of one or more interconnected
eand/orcontrola process
variable. This lightindicates
ThePilot light is also known as monitor light. light which
sconditions of a unlike an alarm
Ire,
an system or a device. It is
abnormal condition,
 212 Process Control: Principles and Applications

Primary element That part of a loop or an instrumentthatfirst

value of a process variable, and then assumes a correspondingpredete
and intelligible state or output. The primary element may be separate fr
integral with another functional element of a loop. It is also knownas
or a sensor.
Process Any operation or sequence of operations involving a changeOfenel
state, composition, dimension, or any other property that maybe defined g

respect to the given data.

Process variable Any variable property of a process.
Relay A device that receives information in the form of oneor more inst!
ment signals; modifies the information or its form or both, ifrequired;
one or more resultant output signals. It is not designated as a controlleror
switch. The term 'relay' is also specifically applied to an electricswitch thati
remotely actuated by an electric signal. In P&l diagrams, it is alsoapplied!i
functions performed by relays.
Scan To sample each of a number of inputs intermittently is calledscanning,A
scanningdevice may provide additional functions such as recordoralarm.
Shared controller A control device which allows implementation ofuser&

fined control strategies or functions. Control of multiple process variables

implemented by sharing the capabilities of this single device.
Shared display The operator interface device which is used to selectivelydiy
play of signals and/or data (text, graphics) on a time-sharedbasis.
Shared instruments An instrument which is permitting sharedfunctionsd
display, control, signal lines.
Switch It is a device that connects, disconnects, or transfersoneor
circuits; and is not designated as a controller, a relay, or a controlvalve.
Transmitter A device that senses a process variable throughthemediumofl
primary element, and that has an output whose steady state valuevaries
a predetermined function of the process variable. The primaryelement
may not be integral with the transmitter.
Some of the process signals, which are frequently used, are shownin

Table 9.2 Line symbols

Connection to process, instrument, supply:
Pneumatic signla
Electric signal
Capillary tubing (filled
system)
Hydraulic signal
Electromagnetic and sonic
heat, radio waves, signal (include
nuclear radiation, light)

Internal system Jink

(software or data link)

The following
abbreviations are of powerS/
AS -- Air supply; type
IIS Hydraulic suggested to denote thesupply; NS
supply; ES Electric
 P&l Diagram 213

Steam supply; WS - Water supply.The supply

GS - Gas supply, SS -
supply; added to the instrument supply line, e.g. AS —100 means 100
psig
levelmaybe means a 24-V direct current power supply.
—24DC
airsupply;ES
INSTRUMENT IDENTIFICATION
3
number combinations appear inside each graphical element and letter
and
Letter
are defined by the ISA standard. Each instrument is identified by
combinations
functionaland loop identification.
its defines the measured or initiating variables such a Analysis (A),
Thefirstletter
(F),Temperature(T), etc. with succeeding letters defining readout, passive,
Flow
such as Indicator (I), Record (R), Transmit (T), and so
oroutputfunctions
forth.
of identification letters when they come as first
Table9.3 gives the meanings
letters.
lettersor succeeding
Table 9.3 Meaning of identification letters

First letter Succeeding letters

Measured or Readout or
Initiating passive Output
Modifier function function Modifier
Letter variable
Analysis Alarm
B Burner, User's choice User's choice User's choice
combustion
Control
C User's choice
D Density (mass) Differential
or Specific
gravity
E voltage (EMF) Primary element
Flow rate Ratio
(fraction)
G User's choice Glass, viewing
device
High
Hand(Manually
initiated)
Current Indicate
(Electrical)
Power Scan
Control
Time,time Time rate station
schedule of change Low
Level Light (pilo!) Middle
User's choice Momentary
(Contd)
Table 9.3
 Process Control: Principles and Applications
214

Table 9.3 (Contd)

First letter Succeeding letters as a
Measured or Readout or
Initiating passive Output
Letter variable Modifier function function
cons

Modifi<
N User's choice User's choice User'schoice
o User's choice Orifice Irst•

Pressure, Point
Vacuum oran
vana
Q Quantity or Integrate,
event totalize diffel

R Radiation Record, print

or inl

s Speed or Safety Switch abler

Frequency Loop
Temperature Transmit comr

U Multivariable Multifunction Multifunction MultifunctiM

FV-21

by all
Vibration, Valve
desig
mechanical
any
analysis 0'

rate
W Weight, Force Well
x Unclassified X-axis Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified
tempe

Event, State Y-axis Unclassified Relay, switch

presence Compute,
Note:
convert
z Position, Z-axis Drive or
dimension actuate
$
Functional identification The functional identificationof the instrument
sists of some letters that stand for the following:
First letter Measuredor initiatingvariable
Succeedingletters : Functionsof the individual instrument. 2.

(represen
The functional identification of an instrument consists of first letter
measured variable) or first letter with modifier and one or more succeeding
which identify the functions performed by the instrument(indication,reco
controlling, etc). The succeeding letters of functional identification designat
example'
or more readout or passive functions and/or output functions. or
TRC, the first letter 'T' is the measured variable (temperature);the
letter 'R' stands for the readout/passive function; 'C' standsfor
and letter
functionof the control.
(The first letter of identification shall be to theme
selected according
or mitiating variable and not according
to the manipulated variableYhUS'J
valve varying (he/low according
to the dictates ofa level controller
 Diagram 215

number of functional letters grouped for one

an FV. The instrument
to
kept a minimum (< 4). Also, letters shall be in upper case.)
be
should according to the
is made
Identification function, not according to the
/ instrument. For example, a differential pressure recorder used
N
of
nstructionthe
measurement is designated as FR.
fprtheflow
tM0difyinglettersmay modify either a first letter or succeedingletters) Any
if used in combination with modifying letters 'D' (differential),
fißt_letter,
'M' (momentary), 'K' (time rate of change), 'Q' (integrate or totalize),
IF(ratio),
combinationof these is intended to represent a new and separate measured
Thus,instrumentsTDI and TI indicate two different variables,namely,
variable.
temperature and temperature. Modifying-letter K, in combination with
differential
suchas L, T, or W, signifles a time rate of change of the measured
aflßt-letter
variable.The variable TKI, represents a rate-of-temperaturechange
orinitiating
PDAHcontains two modifiers. Letter 'D' modifies the pressure vari-
indicator.
it "differential pressure" and letter 'H' after A represents high alarm.
making
able
Each instrument loop has a unique number.An instrument
Loopldentification
to twoor more loops may have a separate loop number, e.g. FV-2A,
common
instrumentthat performs two or more functions may be designated
FV-2B.(An
byallitsfunctions,ß.g.a flow recorder FR-2, with a pressure pen PR-4 is
byFR-2/PR-4 A loop numbering sequence may begin with I or with
designated
convenientnumber, such as 301 or 1201. The number may incorpo-
other
rate
coded
informationsuch as plant area designation.
FI 001 represents Flow meter —indicating, TT 001 represents
Forexample
transmitter, FVOOI represents control valve, ZSH represents position
temperature
switch-high
levle.

Notes
forTable 9.2
choice" letters are intended to cover unlisted meanings that will be
"User's
usedrepetitivelyin a particular project. If used, the letter may have one
meaningas a first-letter and another meaning as a succeedingletter. The
meanings need to be defined only once in a legend, or other place, for that
Forexample, the letter 'N' may be defined as "modulus of elasticity"
Project.
asa firstletter
and "oscilloscope" as a succeeding letter.
unclassifiedletter 'X' is intended to cover unlisted meanings that will
usedOnlyonce or used to a limited extent. If used, the letter may have
anynumberof well as a succeeding-letter.
meanings as a first letter as
Except
for its use the meanings
that
Will
bedefined with distinctive symbols, it is expected
3.
on a flow diagram.
may be modified
grammaticalform of the succeeding letter meanings
"indicator"or
required. For example, "indicate" may be applied as
4. Indicating" s,
, transmit"as "transmitter" or "transmitting", etc. •user's
Cho,etter'A' described by a
(analysis) covers all analysis not defined
Ice"letter. It will be properly
Outside is ofanalysis
a tagging expected that the type
bubble,
 Process Control: Principles an
216

5. First letter 'V', "vibration or mechanical analysis," is intended

the duties in machinery monitoring. Except for vibration,it is Il
the variable of interest will be defined outside the taggingbubble.
6. First letter 'Y' is intended for use when control or monitoring
are event-driven as opposed to time- or time schedule-driven.
'Y', as the first letter, can also signify presence or state. 14.

7. The term "safety" applies to emergency protective primary

emergency protective fmal control elements only. Thus,a self-actuattd
valve that prevents operation of a fluid system at a higher-than-desir±
pressure by bleeding fluid from the system is a back-pressure-type po 9.4
even if the valve is not intended to be used normally. However,thisvalve!Some
designated as a PSV if it is intended to protect against emergencyconditiotiFig
i.e., conditions that are hazardous to personnel and/or equipment andthdmeter
are not expected to arise normally. The designation PSVappliestoallvallåintegra
intended to protect against emergency pressure conditionsregardlessl
whether the valve construction and mode of operationplacethem int: Fig. 9.3
category of the safety valve or relief valve. also rec

8. The passive function 'G' applies to instruments or devicesthatprovide'

uncalibrated view, such as sight glasses and television monitors.
9. "Indicate" normally applies to the readout—analog or digital—ofanacU
measurement.In the case of a manual loader, it may be usedfordial!
setting indication, i.e., for the value of initiating variable.
10. A pilot light that is part of an instrument loop should be designatedbyafß
light:}'
letter followed by the succeeding letter 'L'. For example,a pilot
indicates an expired time period should be tagged KQL.
ll. A device that connects, disconnects, or transfers energyand/or JJ
may be one of the following: a switch, a relay, an on-off controller'
and
control valve. If the device manipulates a fluid process stream FO
valve
hand-actuated on-off block valve, it is designated as a control
applicationsother than fluid process streams, the device is designat
follows:
(i) A switch, if it is actuated by hand.
(ii) A switch or an on-off controller, if it is automatic. The term
is generally used if the device is used for alarm, pilot light,
interlock, or safety.
(iii) A relay, if it is automatic device ina
and is not the first such
it is actuatedby a switch
or an on-off controller.
(jv) The term 'controller' used
is generally used if the device is
operating control.
J2, The modifying C
terms 'high', 'low',
to values of the 'middle', and 'intermediate'
signal'
measured variable, not to values of the
otherwise noted, For
acting level transmitter
example, a high-level alarm derived
signal even though
actuated when the should be an LAH,
signal falls to a low
value,
 Diagram 217

terms 'hig h' and 'low', when applied to positions of valves and other
13. The are defined as follows: 'high' denotes that the valve is
open-closedevices,
approaching the fully open position, and 'low' denotes that it is in or
in or
closed position.
approachingthe fully
'record' applies to any form of permanent storage of information
14.Theword
retrieval by any means.
thatpermits
a cover page where common and typical terms,
Often, diagrams include
symbols,numberingsystems, etc. are defined.
DIAGRAMS
9.4 EXAMPLESOF
Some of the frequentlyused symbols are shown in Fig. 9.1.
Figure9.2 shows the P&l representation of a differential-pressure-type flow
meterwiththe following functions —(i) recording of flow rate, (ii) indication of
flow,and (iii) switch actuated by integrated flow.
integrated
Afurnaceequippedwith non-contact-type radiation thermometer is shown in
Fig.9.3.Figure9.4 depicts P&l representation of a flow ratio controller which
alsorecordsthe individual flows.

Locally mounted Mounted on main

board Solenoid

Rotarymotor with
electricalsignal
Pilot light Clock

TW4 TDI

Temperature
connection Differential temperature
with well indicator

Fig. 9.1 Examples of P&l representation

100
100
Thermal-radiation-
c T130 type temperature

Fig. 9.2
Fig. 9.3
 218 Process Control: Principles and Applications

Figure 9.5
gram of a shows
continuous
tank reactor flow
(CSTR)
both the reactant in
FFRC resultant effluent
by-product
10 through the are
same outlet.
pressure is R
sensed and
flow from the
the reactor
to maintain the is
desiredo
Fig. 9.4 &l representationof flow ratio controller pressure. Process gas
process liquid feed feedt
streamsart
the flow controlloop.

FRC PRC
202 201

201
202 Reactor effluent
and by-product
Gas feed
FRC
201

201

Liquid feed

Fig. 9.5 diagram of CSTR

Example9.1 Explain the working of the P&l diagram shown in Fig

SP TIC
FIC
201
201

201
201
201

Fig. E9.1
s a field-mounted flow transmitter connected via electrical signals
line) to flow indicating controller FIC 101 located in a shared
square).
inh. device (circle inside
electrical signal given to TY 201 located in an
of FIC 201 is an
behind-the-panel-board (dotted line in circle) location. The output
or
inaccessible is pneumatic signal (line with double forward slash marks)
TY
to pneumatic) converter. Y as succeeding letter
TY201an I/P (current
I the

making
forConvert.
stands
ON and TIC 201 are temperature measuring, indicating, and controlling
r 201 201 is connected via an internal software or data link
Theoutput of TIC
devices. point (SP) of FIC 101 to form a cascade control
set
withbubbles)to the
(line
in chapter 10).
(to be discussed
strategy
9.2 Explain the working of the P&l diagram shown in Fig. E9.2
Example

YIC
S
201

Air supply

ZSH ZSH
xxx

Fig. E9.2

an on/off valve which is controlled by a solenoid valve and is fitted

indicates
limitswitchesto indicate open (ZSH) and closed (ZSL) positions. All inputs
with
and are wired to a PLC that's accessible to the operator (diamondin a
outputs
witha solid horizontal line). The letter "Y" indicates an event, state, or
square
Theletter "I" depicts indication is provided, and the letter "C" means
control
takesplace in this
device.

R E CAPITULATION
Theinstrument generally based on
symbols used in P&l diagrams are S5.l-19S4.
(ISA) Standard
Systems, and Automation Society
ISAS5.l defines using graphicalelements,
how each symbol is constructed and con-
alphaand numeric function blocks,
necting identification codes, abbreviations,
lines. control/
ISASSI defines instruments,shared groups
four graphical elements—discrete controller—and
display,
computer function, and programmable logic