Applied Research Quality Life (2019) 14:527–543

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-018-9627-y

Patience as a Mediator Between the Dark Triad

and Meaning in Life

Jinya Wang 1 & Tsingan Li 1 & Kenneth Wang 2 &

Cuiying Wang 1

Received: 14 September 2017 / Accepted: 3 April 2018 / Published online: 1 May 2018
# Springer Science+Business Media B.V., part of Springer Nature and The International Society for Quality-
of-Life Studies (ISQOLS) 2018

Abstract Recently, researchers have shed light on the link between personality and
meaning in life. The present study was designed to explore this association by
investigating the relationships between the Dark Triad personality traits (i.-
e., Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism), meaning in life, and patience.
Notably, patience is a construct derived from the Buddhist six perfections theory. It is
composed of (1) the patience to endure suffering willingly (PES), (2) the patience to not
retaliate against harm (PNH), and (3) the patience to thoroughly scrutinize phenomena
(PSP). We also examined the potentail mediating role of patience in the links between
the Dark Triad personality traits and meaning in life. Participants in the present
study were 434 company employees in China. A battery of questionnaires measuring
the Dark Triad personality traits, patience, and meaning in life was admininstered to the
participants. The results showed that the Dark Triad personality traits were negative-
ly correlated with patience and meaning in life. Results also indicated that patience
fully mediated the relationships between the Dark Triad personality traits and meaning
in life. Taken as a whole, the findings suggest that the lack of meaning in life among the
working population in China might be associated with inadequate patience. The present
study reveals the possible mechanism governing the associations between the Dark
Triad personality traits and meaning in life and contributes to the process of bridging
Buddhism and psychology.

Keywords Dark Triad . Machiavellianism . Narcissism . Psychopathy . Meaning in life .

Patience

* Tsingan Li
tsingan@126.com

1
Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
2
School of Psychology, Fuller Theological Seminary, Travis Research Institute, Pasadena, CA, USA
528 J. Wang et al.

Introduction

With the modernization of Chinese society, employees have been facing increasing
amounts of stress, which can lead to suicidal ideation (Baumert et al. 2014). For
example, in 2010 there were 18 suicide attempts among the employees of Foxconn
(an electronics manufacturing company in China), resulting in 14 deaths during that
single year. As one of the five major sources of sustainable happiness (Seligman 2012),
meaning in life represents how people define and sense their own existence and their
innate nature of self (Steger et al. 2006). Studies have proved its inverse correlation
with suicidal ideation (Heisel and Flett 2016, 2008; Kleiman and Beaver 2013; Sinclair
et al. 2016), which suggests it might protect people from suicide risks (Heisel et al.
2016; Kleiman et al. 2013). Moreover, those who lead a life full of meaning experience
a higher level of life satisfaction and well-being (Doğan et al. 2012; Ho et al. 2010;
Moomal 1999; Shek 1992; Zika and Chamberlain 1992), have fewer physical and
mental problems (Heisel and Flett 2014; Steger 2012; Steger et al. 2008b, 2009), and
are more likely to enjoy themselves at work (Bonebright et al. 2000; De Klerk 2005;
Littman-Ovadia and Steger 2010). Given that meaning in life plays a vital role in both
work-related destructive and constructive behaviors of employees (Bonebright et al.
2000; Liu et al. 2013), knowing what undermines and what promotes individuals’
meaning in life is a critical issue.
According to Frankl (2000), a psychiatrist and Auschwitz survivor, meaning can be
obtained even in the worst situations imaginable. But of course, not all Auschwitz
survivors were like Frankl, who came home able to derive meaning from his experi-
ence. Why do some experience meaning in certain situations while others do not?
Recently, researchers have shed light on this question, concluding that personality is
among factors which influence individuals’ perceptions of the meaning in life
(Mcadams 2010; Schnell and Becker 2006).

Dark Triad and Meaning in Life

The influence of personality traits on meaning in life has been evident in numerous
studies. As Halama (2005) found, meaning in life is positively correlated with consci-
entiousness, openness, and extroversion, whereas inversely correlated with
neuroticism. Similarly, Isik and Uzbe (2015) found that extroversion, neuroticism,
and positive affect can predict the ability to experience meaning in life. Moreover,
neuroticism (Steger et al. 2008a) and psychoticism (Pearson and Sheffield 1989) were
both found to be negatively associated with meaning in life.
Although the influence of personality traits on meaning in life is evident, the
relationships between Dark Triad personality traits and meaning in life have not been
that clear. As we mentioned earlier, meaning in life plays a vital role in both destructive
and constructive work-related behaviors of employees (Liu et al. 2013; Bonebright
et al. 2000), and it is important to know what undermines and promotes employees’
meaning in life. Therefore, determining the associations among Dark Triad personality
traits, patience, and meaning in life is imperative.
The Dark Triad personalities traits (i.e. Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcis-
sism) represent a hidden dark side of humanity. These three share a common core of
disagreeableness, which is displayed as emotional coldness and aggressiveness
Patience as a Mediator Between the Dark Triad and Meaning in Life 529

(Paulhus and Williams 2002). More specifically, Machiavellianism is characterized by

the tendency to manipulate others to achieve one’s own purpose in a callous manner
(Jakobwitz and Egan 2006). Psychopathy features impulsivity, antisocial behaviors,
and lack of empathy; those who score high on psychopathy scales are prone to seeking
thrills (Wilson et al. 1996). Narcissism refers to a feeling of grandiose self-worth such
that those who score high on narcissism often appear dominant and egotistical (Lee and
Ashton 2005). Narcissists commonly experience feelings of superiority over others and
can be quite aggressive when they sense that their self-esteem is under threat (Ruiz
et al. 2001).
Moreover, researchers have found that narcissists differ from others in their personal
sense of well-being and life satisfaction, suggesting that narcissism could be further
subdivided into overt narcissism and covert narcissism (Rose 2002). Overt narcissism
includes craving people’s attention, aggression, and assertiveness, whereas covert
narcissism includes insecurity about one’s own competence, difficulty being satisfied,
and hypersensitivity in interpersonal relationships. Both overt and covert narcissists are
highly self-centered, impatient, and overconfident (Wink 1991).
Machiavellianism and psychopathy have been found to be negatively associated
with meaning in life and related constructs (Aghababaei and Błachnio 2015; Egan et al.
2014; Bartels and Pizarro 2011); however, the relationship between meaning and
narcissism is more complicated. In general, narcissism has been found to be positively
correlated with meaning and well-being (Abeyta et al. 2017; Aghababaei and Błachnio
2015; Zondag 2005). But when the relationship between well-being and the two types
of narcissism was further examined, researchers found that a positive relationship exists
only between overt narcissism and meaning, while covert narcissism and meaning are
negatively correlated (Ng et al. 2014; Zondag et al. 2009).
Additionally, Roberts and Helson (1997) found that increased individualism can
result in more overt narcissism, and increased age can result in more covert narcissism.
In the same vein, narcissists from a more collectivist society tend to be more covert,
whereas those live in a more individualist society tend to be more overt (Foster et al.
2003; Zondag et al. 2009).
In the current study, participants were all born and raised in a collectivist Chinese
society, and as company employees, they were relatively older than regular undergrad-
uate participants. Therefore, we hypothesized that all three Dark Triad personality traits,
including narcissism, would be inversely correlated with meaning in life.

Patience and Meaning in Life

Based on a Buddhist perspective, patience in the current study is defined as a concept that
emphasizes an individual’s capacity to maintain a peaceful state of mind in the face of
various challenging situations, suggesting that people with high levels of patience are able
to consciously control their behaviors and thoughts to endure the sufferings and uncer-
tainties in life without being emotionally disturbed (Deng and Li 2017; Wright 2009).
For over 2000 years, the Buddhist tradition has focused on extinguishing suffering and
cultivating a peaceful mind, so as to experience the ultimate meaning in life (Wallace and
Shapiro 2006), and has developed a profound literature regarding theories of patience and
methods by which it can be cultivated (Shonin et al. 2014). According to the Buddhist
literature, patience includes three dimensions. The first is the patience to endure suffering
530 J. Wang et al.

willingly (PES), namelyto accept both mental and physical suffering with gratitude,
which can be achieved by identifying positive aspects that embedded in adverse condi-
tions. The second is the patience to not retaliate against harm (PNH), namely to
withstand harm caused by others, and respond with forgiveness and loving-kindness
rather than anger or hatred. Third, the patience to thoroughly scrutinize phenomena
(PSP), namely to bear with uncertainty and insecurity, and to see things as they truly are,
which ensues from an ever-broadening and wholesome view of reality (Cheng and Tse
2014; Deng and Li 2017). Overall, patience is a personality trait which enables individ-
uals to go beyond all fear and pain in seeking wisdom and the ultimate meaning in life
under any circumstances (Wright 2009).
In addition to the ability to control oneself and avoid rushing into things (Stevens
and Stephens 2008), and the ability to delay the consumption of a reward (Curry et al.
2008), patience in the current study also stands for the ability to stay calm and open-
minded in this ever-changing world (Deng and Li 2017). Moreover, patience represents
the very opposite of aggression, emotionality, and hostility (Bommarito 2014). It is
analogous to resilience and conscientiousness, yet still has its unique features.
Resilience represents an individual’s ability to effectively cope with adversity and
remain relatively healthy (Rutter 1987). According to Connor and Davidson (2003),
resilient people are able to tolerate negative affects and endure stress and pain, which
corresponds to the patience to endure suffering willingly and the patience to not retaliate
against harm. As expected, a significant positive association exists between resilience and
patience (Deng and Li 2017). However, patience not only helps individuals maintain
mental and physical health during the coping of adversities, and facilitates spiritual growth
after the coping process like resilience does, it also psychologically prepares people for
uncertainties in life before anything undesirable happens (Bommarito 2014).
Patience also shares several features with conscientiousness (Deng 2014). Specifi-
cally, highly conscientious individuals are able to think deliberately before they act and
persist in tasks despite distractions (Costa et al. 1991), just like individuals with a high
level of patience do (Tsomo 2015). Nevertheless, as mentioned earlier, not only can
highly patient people control their behaviors and thoughts to act wisely, they can also
remain calm and emotionally undisturbed when presented with difficulties (Deng and
Li 2017; Wright 2009).
The influence of patience on meaning in life is a relatively new topic, not found in
existing research; however, in previous studies, positive relationships were found between
resilience and meaning in life (e.g., Richardson 2002; Omidi-Pour et al. 2015), and
between conscientiousness and meaning in life (e.g., Halama 2005; Steger et al. 2006,
2008b). Since patience shares numerous features with resilience and conscientiousness,
we hypothesized that patience would also be significantly and positively correlated with
meaning in life.

Mediation Effect

According to the posttraumatic growth model (Tedeschi and Calhoun 2004), enduring
suffering and challenging life events can result in various positive outcomes, including
experiencing meaning in life (Steger 2012). Further, the model suggested that the
underlying cause of individuals’ different reactions towards suffering and challenging
life events could be traced back to personality factors.
Patience as a Mediator Between the Dark Triad and Meaning in Life 531

Based on the literature, people who score high on Machiavellianism and psychop-
athy experience less meaning (Aghababaei and Błachnio 2015; Bartels and Pizarro
2011; Egan et al. 2014), and so do some narcissists (Zondag et al. 2009). Those who
score high on the Dark Triad are likely to react hostile and revengeful in challenging
situations (Brewer et al. 2015; Goncalves and Campbell 2014; Jones and Paulhus 2010;
Richardson and Boag 2016), suggesting that they lack the patience to endure suffering,
which could lead to meaning (Tedeschi and Calhoun 2004). Hence, patience can be
seen as a potential mediator between personality and meaning in life.
More specifically, although narcissists can be relatively calm and adaptive in
stressful situations (Birkás et al. 2016), but when the situation become ego-threatening,
instead of patiently evaluating and coping with the situation, narcissists tend to react
with aggression (Bettencourt et al. 2006; Jones and Paulhus 2010), which has a
negative correlation with meaning in life (Steger et al. 2008b; Thompson et al.
2003). In a similar vein, facing physically provoking cues, instead of patiently evalu-
ating and coping with them, individuals with high psychopathy are more likely to react
with aggressive behavior (Jones and Paulhus 2010), which is inversely correlated with
meaning (Steger et al. 2008b; Scheier and Newcomb 1993). In addition, despite the fact
that compared with individuals who score high on the other two Dark Triad personaltiy
traits, people who score high on Machiavellianism often have a higher level of
executive functioning (Jones and Paulhus 2011; Jones and Paulhus 2017), they are
not good at enduring and coping with stress (Birkás et al. 2016; Petrides et al. 2011).
Therefore, individuals with a high level of Machiavellianism may miss the opportunity
to derive meaning through challenging situations.
In summary, this study was designed to explore the relationships between the Dark
Triad personality traits, patience, and meaning in life. Based on the post-traumatic growth
model and findings from previous studies, we expected to find the following: (a) negative
correlations between the Dark Triad personality traits and meaning in life, (b) a positive
correlation between patience and meaning in life, and (c) evidence that patience serves as a
mediator between the Dark Triad personality traits and meaning in life.

Materials and Methods

Participants

The 434 participants in this study (78% female) were employees from a company in
Qingdao, China. Among the participants, 85% were Atheist, 10% Buddhists, and 5%
BOther^, and they ranged from 19 to 56 years in age (M = 30.47, SD = 5.97).

Measures

The Dark Triad Dark Triad personality traits were measured using the 12-item Dirty
Dozen Scale (D12; Jonason and Webster 2010). The D12 consists of three dimensions:
Machiavellianism (e.g., BI tend to manipulate others to get my way.^), narcissism (e.g.,
BI tend to want others to admire me.^), and psychopathy (e.g., BI tend to be uncon-
cerned with the morality of my actions.^). The measures were translated into Chinese,
and each item was rated on a Likert scale ranging from 1 = extremely unlikely to 6 =
532 J. Wang et al.

highly likely. In this study, Cronbach alphas were high across all three dimensions:
Machiavellianism (α = .91), narcissism (α = .92), and psychopathy (α = .88).

Meaning in Life Meaning in life was assessed using the presence subscale of the Meaning
in Life Questionnaire (MFQ; Steger et al. 2006). The scale was translated into Chinese. The
subscale contains five items (e.g., BI have discovered a satisfying life purpose.^), and each
item was rated on a Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree. The
subscale scores had adequate reliability, with an internal consistency of .81 and a test-retest
reliability of .70 (Steger et al. 2006). In this study, results yielded a Cronbach alpha of .80.

Patience Patience was measured using the Buddhist Patience Questionnaire (BPQ; Deng
and Li 2017). The BPQ is an 18-item scale covering three dimensions, each dimension is
measured based on a scenario with 6 items. The first dimension is the Patience to Not
Retaliate Against Harm (PNH). An example is an interaction between patient and doctor:
At lunchtime on Monday, dozens of patients are in the waiting room in Dr. Li’s clinic.
Suddenly, a patient bursts into Dr. Li’s office, rushes towards Dr. Li in a great rage, and
punches him in the face. Dr. Li has two options: to stay calm and try to figure out what is
going on or to punch back in anger and get into a fight with the patient. What is the
likelihood that Dr. Li will choose the first option? The second dimension is the Patience to
Endure Suffering (PES). An example is a scenario in which a restaurant catches fire: Gao
was having dinner at a restaurant. Suddenly, terrified shouts came from the kitchen: ‘Run!
Gas leak! It’s going to blow up!’ In no time, more than 40 customers in the restaurant
rushed out the door. After the blast, Gao’s hands were disabled, causing him difficulty in
handling tasks in his daily life and at work. Gao then has two options: to endure
difficulties and consistently keep an optimistic and broad-minded outlook, or to give in
to difficulties and feel depressed and unhappy. What is the likelihood Gao will choose the
second option? The third is the Patience to Thoroughly Scrutinize Phenomena (PSP). An
example is a scenario about studying medical science: Lee, who has little knowledge about
medical science, has been trying hard to read books on medicine in order to understand its
main principles. One day, a friend recommends to Lee a classic 10-volume medical work
written in Sanskrit. However, Lee has never studied Sanskrit. Lee then has two options: to
visit experts in Sanskrit and study the language systematically or to give in to the thought
that Sanskrit is too difficult to learn. What is the likelihood that Lee will choose the second
option? Half of the items are reversed with questions asking the participants the likelihood
of the second option.
Participants’ responses were rated on a Likert scale ranging from 1 = extremely
unlikely to 6 = highly likely. The 14-day test-retest reliability of the BPQ scores were
.72, .72, and .68 for PES, PNR, and PSP, respectively (Deng and Li 2017). In the
present study, the three subscale scores yielded adequate Cronbach alphas: PES (α =
.72), PNR (α = .85), and PSP (α = .72).

Procedure

After informed consent was obtained from participants, pen-and-paper surveys were
administered in person at the company. Participants were asked not to converse with
others while completing the survey and to hand in the survey within two hours.
Patience as a Mediator Between the Dark Triad and Meaning in Life 533

Results

Descriptive Statistics

Table 1 displays the intercorrelations among the studied variables. First, Machiavel-
lianism, narcissism, and psychopathy were significantly and negatively correlated with
meaning in life with coefficients ranging from −.36 to −.45, ps < .001. Second, the Dark
Triad personality traits and the three dimensions of patience were all significantly and
negatively correlated with coefficients ranging from −.23 to −.51, ps < .001. Third, the
dimensions of patience and meaning in life were significantly and positively correlated
with coefficients ranging from .24 to .41, ps < .001.

Structural Equation Modeling

To examine the mediation effect, we tested six structural equation models using the
AMOS 22.0 program and maximum likelihood estimation with each one of the Dark
Triad personalities as the predictor variables, meaning in life as the outcome variable, and
patience as the mediator. The model fit indices are shown in Table 2: models 1a-3a were
initially proposed as partially-mediated models. Then we removed the non-significant
pathways thereby creating models 1b-3b, which are fully-mediated models. Results
indicated that the chi-squares between the fully-mediated models and partially-mediated
models did not significantly differ (M1: Δχ2(df = 1) = .572, p > 0.5; M2: Δχ2(df =
1) = .652, p > 0.5; M3: Δχ2(df = 1) = .503, p > 0.5). Therefore, because of parsimony, we
used models 1b-3b as the final models, which are displayed in Figs. 1, 2 and 3.
As shown in Figs. 1, 2 and 3, Mchiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy all had
indirect effects on meaning in life. In addition, patience mediated the links between the
Dark Triad personalities and meaning in life.
To further examine the mediation effects, we performed a bootstrap analysis (Tarrés
et al. 2010). We generated 2000 bootstrap samples from the original sample set (N =
434) through random sampling. If the 95% CI for the estimates of the mediation effect
does not include zero, then the mediation effects were significant. The results are

Table 1 Descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation matrix of study variables (N = 434)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 M S.D.

1.Machiavellianism 1 1.65 0.93

2.Narcissism .65*** 1 2.15 1.12
3.Psychopathy .67*** .71*** 1 2.16 1.13
4.PNH −.23*** −.33*** −.37*** 1 4.07 1.00
5.PES −.37*** −.40*** −.49*** .46*** 1 4.23 0.98
6.PSP −.42*** −.42*** −.51*** .23*** .42*** 1 4.95 0.99
7.Meaning in life −.38*** −.36*** −.45*** .24*** .41*** .35*** 1 4.14 1.05

PNH = The patience of not retaliating harm; PES = The patience to endure suffering willingly; PSP = The
patience to thoroughly scrutinize phenomena
***p < .001
534 J. Wang et al.

Table 2 Fit indices for mediated models

Model χ2 df RMSEA CFI GFI

1a 111.091 39 .066 .961 .959

1b 112.343 40 .065 .961 .959
2a 84.490 39 .052 .975 .970
2b 85.068 40 .051 .975 .970
3a 69.075 39 .042 .984 .975
3b 69.578 40 .041 .984 .975

RMSEA root mean square error of approximation, CFI comparative fit index, GFI general fit index

shown in Table 3. The results indicated that patience exerted significant indirect effects
on the links between meaning in life and the three Dark Triad personality traits.

Discussion

The present study is one of the first to examine the relationship between the Dark Triad
personality traits and meaning in life. It has revealed the inner mechanism whereby the
lack of patience hinders people with the Dark Triad personality traits from experiencing
meaning in their lives. Moreover, these findings have highlighted the importance and
utility of patience in experiencing meaning in life, which further extends the dialogue
between modern psychology and Buddhism.
The first hypothesis of this study was supported by the finding that the Dark Triad
personality traits were negatively associated with meaning in life. This finding contrib-
utes new knowledge to the literature on the relationship between personality and
meaning in life. The finding is in line with the notion that psychopathic personality
traits are negatively correlated with meaning in life (Durand 2016), and that Machia-
vellianism and psychopathy are negatively associated with meaning (Aghababaei and

-.76 .72
Machiavellianism Patience MIL

.54 .76 .83 .84 .81 .75 .63 .39 .57

DT1 DT2 DT3 DT4 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5

.61 .54 .32

PSP PES PNH

Fig. 1 The mediation model (1b) of patience between Machiavellianism and meaning in life. Note. DT1-
DT4 = four items of Machiavellianism; M1-M5 = five items of meaning in life; PSP = The patience to
thoroughly scrutinize phenomena; PES = The patience to endure suffering willingly; PNH = The patience of
not retaliating harm; MIL = Meaning in life
Patience as a Mediator Between the Dark Triad and Meaning in Life 535

-.77 .69
Narcissism Patience MIL

.66 .56 .80 .86 .76 .77 .66 .40 .58

DT5 DT6 DT7 DT8 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5

.60 .57 .42

PSP PES PNH

Fig. 2 The mediated model (2b) of patience between narcissism and meaning in Life. Note. DT5-DT8 =
four items of Narcissism; M1-M5 = five items of meaning in life; PSP = The patience to thoroughly scrutinize
phenomena; PES = The patience to endure suffering willingly; PNH = The patience of not retaliating harm;
MIL = Meaning in life

Błachnio 2015; Egan et al. 2014; Bartels and Pizarro 2011), and so is narcissism in a
collectivistic context (Zondag et al. 2009). Because aggression is a core attribution to
the Dark Triad (Paulhus and Williams 2002), the findings also support the argument
that aggressiveness is inversely related to meaning in life (Black and Gregson 1973).
According to Frankl (2000), there are three roads that could lead to meaning: the first
is Bcreating a work or doing a deed^ (p. 141), which is supported by the finding that
meaning is positively related with work engagement (Acuff and Allen 1970;
Bonebright et al. 2000); the second is love, which is supported by the finding that
meaning in life has a significant positive correlation with nourishing relationships (Ryff
1989; Steger et al. 2006; Steger et al. 2008b); and the last is enduring unavoidable
suffering, which is supported by the finding that through patience and adaptive coping,
individuals can obtain meaning even in bereavement and serious life crises (Jim et al.
2006; Stevens et al. 1987; Thompson and Pitts 1994).
However, according to a meta-analysis study, Machiavellians are more likely to behave
in a negative way that is less engaged and less productive in their work, regardless of the

-.93 .66
Psychopathy Patience MIL

.41 .84 .78 .76 .80 .76 .64 .38 .58

DT9 DT10 DT11 DT12 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5

.61 .59 .41

PSP PES PNH

Fig. 3 The mediated model (3c) of patience between psychopathy and meaning in life. Note. DT9-
DT12 = four items of Psychopathy; M1-M5 = five items of meaning in life; PSP = The patience to thoroughly
scrutinize phenomena; PES = The patience to endure suffering willingly; PNH = The patience of not retaliating
harm; MIL = Meaning in life
536 J. Wang et al.

Table 3 Results from bootstrap analysis

Pathways of models Standard indirect effect 95%Confidence interval

LL UL

Machiavellianism →Patience → MIL −0.51 −0.65 −0.40

Narcissism → Patience → MIL −0.40 −0.53 −0.29
Psychopathy → Patience → MIL −0.47 −0.61 −0.36

MIL Meaning in life, LL Lower Level, UL Upper Level

level of their authority (O'Boyle et al. 2012). Moreover, individuals with higher levels of the
Dark Triad traits are more likely to have counterproductive work behaviors in general,
which suggests they are less likely to experience meaningfulness through the first path.
Despite evidence showing that narcissists may obtain meaning from external rewards
(Abeyta et al. 2017), results from this study showed otherwise. In the Chinese context,
where indifference to fame and wealth is valued (Zeng and Guo 2012), it is possible that for
narcissists, meaning is weakly linked to extrinsic goals.
As for the second path, a growing body of evidence shows that people with relatively
higher level of the Dark Triad personality traits tend to adopt short-term mating
strategies that minimizing commitment while pursuing a purely sexual relationship
(Jonason and Buss 2012). Hence it may be difficult for them to experience meaning
through love as well. As for the third path, those who score relatively high on the Dark
Triad are aggressive in threatening situations (Brewer et al. 2015; Goncalves and
Campbell 2014; Jones and Paulhus 2010; Richardson and Boag 2016), suggesting that
they are probably not so good at tolerating suffering, and making meaning out of it.
The second hypothesis was also supported in the positive correlation found between
patience and meaning in life. As mentioned earlier, patience is similar to resilience
(Deng and Li 2017), and shares some common features with conscientiousness (Deng
2014). The finding corresponds to previous studies regarding the positive associations
between patience and subjective well-being (Li et al. 2016), between resilience and
meaningfulness (Richardson 2002; Omidi-Pour et al. 2015), and between conscientious-
ness and meaning (Schmutte and Ryff 1997; Steger et al. 2006; Steger et al. 2008b).
Additionally, patience entails inner composure and the capacity to bear with an ever-
broadening and wholesome view of reality that might cause uncertainty and a sense of
insecurity (Wright 2009). These results are in line with recent research findings sug-
gesting that individuals who are emotionally stable and tolerant to uncertainty experi-
ence more meaning than those who are less stable and tolerant (Garrison and Lee 2017).
On the other hand, patience better prepares people to calmly deal with daily annoy-
ances, which is found be negatively correlated with meaning (Zika and Chamberlain
1987), suggesting that patient people may be less disturbed by annoyances and
experience more meaning. Furthermore, as Frankl (2000) repeatedly mentions, when
encountering sufferings that are impossible for one to elude, endurance can lead to
meaning in life, thereby demonstrating that patiently coping with unavoidable suffering
may enhance meaningfulness (Thompson and Pitts 1994). A plausible explanation for
the critical role of patience in dire circumstances may be that with a peaceful state of
mind, highly patient individuals are able to adjust their attitudes to deal with the
Patience as a Mediator Between the Dark Triad and Meaning in Life 537

problems they face without consuming their energy in destructive ways of coping
(Tsomo 2015), which may lead to a loss of meaning (Jim et al. 2006). In other words,
patience may predispose individuals to cope effectively with a wide range of situations,
making it possible for them to experience meaning even in difficult circumstances (Jim
et al. 2006; Stevens et al. 1987; Thompson and Pitts 1994).
The third hypothesis of this study that patience may have a mediating effect on the
relationships between the Dark Traid personality traits (i.e., Machiavellianism, narcis-
sism, and psychopathy) and meaning in life. The hypothesis was confirmed by the
results that patience fully mediates the links between all three of the Dark Triad
personalities and meaning in life. This is in line with the findings suggesting that
patience is positively correlated with life satisfaction and mediates the relationship
between Dark Triad personality traits and subjective well-being (Mei 2016).
The full mediation of patience in the links between the Dark Triad personalities and
meaning in life further suggests that lack of patience may be the reason why individuals who
score high on the Dark Triad traits experience less meaning in life. Tedeschi and Calhoun
(2004) argue that endurance and patience can help people obtain positive results from
challenging and stressful situations, corresponding to the idea that patiently endure suffering
can result in meaning in life (Frankl 2000). In contrast, people with high levels of the Dark
Triad personality traits are more prone to acting-out and become aggressive in the face of
stress, provocations, and threatening situations (Bettencourt et al. 2006; Jones and Paulhus
2010; Paulhus et al. 2018; Petrides et al. 2011; Richardson and Boag 2016), which can result
in experiencing less meaning in life. Moreover, those who score high on the Dark Triad traits
lack the patience to refrain from retaliating against perceived harm in romantic relationships,
and thus are more likely to seek revenge when feeling betrayed (Brewer et al. 2015). This
kind of revenge can rupture intimate relationships (Boon et al. 2011), a major source of
meaning in life (Frankl 2000; Ryff 1989; Steger et al. 2006, 2008b).
In contrast, when caught in challenging situations, highly patient people are
equipped with the ability to thoroughly evaluate the situation and to cope effectively
with the challenges (Bommarito 2014; Tsomo 2015; Wright 2009), which leads to
meaning (Debats et al. 1995; Folkman 1997; Jim et al. 2006; Stevens et al. 1987).
Therefore, when darkness lingers, patience may be a way out.
To some extent, the present study has filled in a theoretical gap concerning the relation-
ships between the dark side of personality and meaning in life by discovering that not only
do individuals with relatively higher levels of the Dark Triad personality traits experience
less meaning, but also that the main reason lies in their lack of patience. Our findings are in
line with the posttraumatic growth model (Tedeschi and Calhoun 2004), which posited the
idea that enduring inevitable suffering contributes to various positive psychological out-
comes, including meaning in life. Further, our findings extended the model by confirming
that personality traits may serve as antecedents that also influence the outcome of suffering.
Moreover, the findings also supported the idea that showing patience and tolerance is
considered an adaptive coping strategy in the work environment (Selmer 1999).
Aside from the potential theoretical contributions, our findings also have some
practical utility in that the results suggest a new direction for enhancing employees’
meaning in life, which might be a protecting factor against suicide (Kleiman et al.
2013). The mediating role that patience plays between the Dark Triad and meaning in
life suggests that patience could be a preventive factor of suicidal ideation because it
allows people to think comprehensively before they act.
538 J. Wang et al.

The present study has a few noteworthy limitations, which suggest directions for
future research. First, it was a cross-sectional design, and thus causal effect could not be
concluded. Future studies may adopt longitudinal or experimental designs to further
examine the cause-and-effect relationships. Second, the negative association between
narcissism and meaning in life in this study should be further examined. More cross-
cultural studies are needed to investigate whether covert narcissism is more prevalent in
collectivistic societies and to examine the differences in narcissists’ perceptions of
meaning across cultural contexts.
Buddhist literature states that the Buddha nature—including patience—exists in all
human beings without exception. However, as the participants in this study were
mainly atheists, further studies bringing in more participants from different religious
and cultural backgrounds are needed to provide more concrete evidence that patience is
a psychological attribute every human being possesses, regardless of his or her religious
beliefs. Identifying the cultural factors that may influence an individual’s level of
patience through cross-cultural studies is a promising direction.
In addition, although patience has already been proven to share similarities with
resilience and conscientiousness (Deng 2014; Deng and Li 2017), future studies
thoroughly exploring the relationships between patience and other related variables
aside from resilience and conscientiousness—like mindfulness, grit, hardiness, emo-
tional regulation, executive functioning, delay of gratification and reappraisal—can
provide a clearer understanding of the unique nature of patience. Lastly, participants
may have tended to avoid self-reporting their possession of Dark Traits. Thus, future
studies may also consider including social desirability as a covariate.
Despite these limitations, we did make an attempt to take a closer look at the links
between the Dark Triad, patience, and meaning in life. By doing so, we explored the
richness of Buddhist resources for cultivating character and traits as well as obtaining
meaning in life. Our attempt to incorporate this part of Buddhist literature into modern
psychology may be just a small drop in the vast ocean of Buddhist teachings. However,
slowly but surely, this kind of cross-fields integrative work will prove its own value,
and may provide another new direction for positive psychology.

Acknowledgements The authors appreciate all the contributions that the participants made to this study.

Funding This work was supported by Travis Research Institute, Fuller Graduate School of Psychology
(Grant no. FP03LTA).

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Conflicts of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

References

Abeyta, A. A., Routledge, C., & Sedikides, C. (2017). Material meaning: narcissists gain existential benefits
from extrinsic goals. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8(2), 219–228. https://doi.
org/10.1177/1948550616667618.
Patience as a Mediator Between the Dark Triad and Meaning in Life 539

Acuff, G., & Allen, D. (1970). Hiatus in Bmeaning^: disengagement for retired professors. Journal of
Gerontology, 25, 126–128. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/25.2.126.
Aghababaei, N., & Błachnio, A. (2015). Well-being and the Dark Triad. Personality and Individual
Differences, 86, 365–368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.043.
Bartels, D. M., & Pizarro, D. A. (2011). The mismeasure of morals: Antisocial personality traits predict
utilitarian responses to moral dilemmas. Cognition, 121(1), 154–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cognition.2011.05.010.
Baumert, J., Schneider, B., Lukaschek, K., Emeny, R. T., Meisinger, C., Erazo, N., … Ladwig, K. H. (2014).
Adverse conditions at the workplace are associated with increased suicide risk. Journal of Psychiatric
Research, 57(1), 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.06.007.
Bettencourt, B. A., Talley, A., Benjamin, A. J., & Valentine, J. (2006). Personality and aggressive behavior
under provoking and neutral conditions: a meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 132(5), 751.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.5.751.
Birkás, B., Gács, B., & Csathó, Á. (2016). Keep calm and don't worry: different Dark Triad traits predict
distinct coping preferences. Personality and Individual Differences, 88, 134–138. https://doi.org/10.1016
/j.paid.2015.09.007.
Black, W. A. M., & Gregson, R. A. M. (1973). Time perspective, purpose in life, extraversion and neuroticism
in New Zealand prisoners. British Journal of Social Psychology, 12(1), 50–60. https://doi.org/10.1111
/j.2044-8260.1973.tb00845.x.
Bommarito, N. (2014). Patience and Perspective. Philosophy East and West, 64(2), 269–286. https://doi.
org/10.1353/pew.2014.0021.
Bonebright, C. A., Clay, D. L., & Ankenmann, R. D. (2000). The relationship of workaholism with work–life
conflict, life satisfaction, and purpose in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47(4), 469–477.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.47.4.469.
Boon, S. D., Alibhai, A. M., & Deveau, V. L. (2011). Reflections on the costs and benefits of exacting revenge
in romantic relationships. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 43(2), 128–137. https://doi.
org/10.1037/a0022367.
Brewer, G., Hunt, D., James, G., & Abell, L. (2015). Dark Triad traits, infidelity and romantic revenge.
Personality and Individual Differences, 83, 122–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.04.007.
Cheng, F. K., & Tse, S. (2014). A bodhisattva-spirit-oriented counselling framework: inspired by Vimalakīrti
wisdom. International Journal of Dharma Studies, 2(1), 6 Retrieved from http://www.
internationaljournaldharmastudies.com/content/2/1/6.
Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2003). Development of a new resilience scale: the Connor-Davidson
Resilience scale (CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 18(2), 76–82. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.10113.
Costa, P. T., McCrae, R. R., & Dye, D. A. (1991). Facet scales for agreeableness and conscientiousness: A
revision of the NEO Personality Inventory. Personality and Individual Differences, 12(9), 887–898.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(91)90177-D.
Curry, O. S., Price, M. E., & Price, J. G. (2008). Patience is a virtue: cooperative people have lower discount
rates. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(3), 780–785. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.09.023.
De Klerk, J. J. (2005). Spirituality, meaning in life, and work wellness: a research agenda. International
Journal of Organizational Analysis, 13(1), 64–68. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb028998.
Debats, D. L., Drost, J., & Hansen, P. (1995). Experiences of meaning in life: a combined qualitative and
quantitative approach. British Journal of Psychology, 86, 359–375. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-
8295.1995.tb02758.x.
Deng, J. J. (2014). The mediating effect of the enduring coping between the big five personality and job
burnout. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.
Deng, J. J., & Li, T. A. (2017). Development and validation of the Buddhist patience questionnaire. Mental
Health, Religion and Culture, 19(8), 807–817. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2016.1266473.
Doğan, T., Sapmaz, F., Tel, F. D., Sapmaz, S., & Temizel, S. (2012). Meaning in life and subjective well-being
among Turkish university students. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 55, 612–617. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.09.543.
Durand, G. (2016). Demystification of the relationship between psychopathy and happiness. Journal of
Happiness Studies, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9823-0.
Egan, V., Chan, S., & Shorter, G. W. (2014). The Dark Triad, happiness and subjective wellbeing. Personality
and Individual Differences, 67, 17–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.004.
Folkman, S. (1997). Positive psychological states and coping with severe stress. Social Science and Medicine,
45(8), 1207–1221. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(97)00040-3.
540 J. Wang et al.

Foster, J. D., Campbell, W. K., & Twenge, J. M. (2003). Individual differences in narcissism: Inflated self-
views across the lifespan and around the world. Journal of Research in Personality, 37(6), 469–486.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(03)00026-6.
Frankl, V. E. (2000). Man’s search for ultimate meaning. Cambridge: Perseus Publishing.
Garrison, Y. L., & Lee, K. H. (2017). Emotionality and tolerance of uncertainty and their associations with
meaning in life among Korean college students. Personality and Individual Differences, 112, 26–30.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.02.044.
Goncalves, M. K., & Campbell, L. (2014). The dark triad and the derogation of mating competitors.
Personality and Individual Differences, 67, 42–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.02.003.
Halama, P. (2005). Relationship between meaning in life and the big five personality traits in young adults and
the elderly. Studia Psychologica, 47, 167–178 Retrieved from http://katpsych.truni.
sk/osobne/halama/Meaning%20and%20Big%20five%20SP%202005.pdf.
Heisel, M. J., & Flett, G. L. (2008). Psychological resilience to suicide ideation among older adults. Clinical
Gerontologist, 31(4), 51–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/07317110801947177.
Heisel, M. J., & Flett, G. L. (2014). Do meaning in life and purpose in life protect against suicide ideation
among community-residing older adults? In A. Batthyany & P. Russo-Netzer (Eds.), Meaning in positive
and existential psychology (pp. 303–324). New York: Springer.
Heisel, M. J., & Flett, G. L. (2016). Investigating the psychometric properties of the Geriatric Suicide Ideation
Scale (GSIS) among community-residing older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 20(2), 208–221.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07317110801947177.
Heisel, M. J., Neufeld, E., & Flett, G. L. (2016). Reasons for living, meaning in life, and suicide ideation:
investigating the roles of key positive psychological factors in reducing suicide risk in community-
residing older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 20(2), 195–207. https://doi.org/10.1080
/13607863.2015.1078279.
Ho, M. Y., Cheung, F. M., & Cheung, S. F. (2010). The role of meaning in life and optimism in promoting
well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(5), 658–663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
paid.2010.01.008.
Isik, S., & Uzbe, N. (2015). Personality traits and positive/negative affects: an analysis of meaning in life
among adults. Educational Sciences-Theory & Practice, 15(3), 587–595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
paid.2005.07.006.
Jakobwitz, S., & Egan, V. (2006). The dark triad and normal personality traits. Personality and Individual
Differences, 40(2), 331–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.07.006.
Jim, H. S., Richardson, S. A., Golden-Kreutz, D. M., & Andersen, B. L. (2006). Strategies used in coping with
a cancer diagnosis predict meaning in life for survivors. Health Psychology, 25(6), 753–761. https://doi.
org/10.1037/0278-6133.25.6.753.
Jonason, P. K., & Buss, D. M. (2012). Avoiding entangling commitments: Tactics for implementing a short-
term mating strategy. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(5), 606–610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
paid.2011.12.015.
Jonason, P. K., & Webster, G. D. (2010). The dirty dozen: A concise measure of the dark triad. Psychological
Assessment, 22(2), 420–432. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019265.
Jones, D. N., & Paulhus, D. L. (2010). Different provocations trigger aggression in narcissists and psycho-
paths. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1(1), 12–18. https://doi.org/10.1177
/1948550609347591.
Jones, D. N., & Paulhus, D. L. (2011). The role of impulsivity in the Dark Triad of personality. Personality
and Individual Differences, 51(5), 679–682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.04.011.
Jones, D. N., & Paulhus, D. L. (2017). Duplicity among the dark triad: three faces of deceit. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 113(2), 329. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000139.
Kleiman, E. M., & Beaver, J. K. (2013). A meaningful life is worth living: meaning in life as a suicide
resiliency factor. Psychiatry Research, 210(3), 934–939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2013.08.002.
Kleiman, E. M., Adams, L. M., Kashdan, T. B., & Riskind, J. H. (2013). Gratitude and grit indirectly reduce
risk of suicidal ideations by enhancing meaning in life: evidence for a mediated moderation model.
Journal of Research in Personality, 47(5), 539–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2013.04.007.
Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2005). Psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism in the five-factor model and
the HEXACO model of personality structure. Personality and Individual Differences, 38(7), 1571–1582.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2004.09.016.
Li, S., Li, T. A., Zhang, Z. H., & Liu, X. D. (2016). Mediating role of patience in the relationship between
alcohol abstinence self-efficacy and subjective well-being among civil servants. Report and Opinion,
8(12), 26–40. https://doi.org/10.7537/marsroj081216.06.
Patience as a Mediator Between the Dark Triad and Meaning in Life 541

Littman-Ovadia, H., & Steger, M. (2010). Character strengths and well-being among volunteers and em-
ployees: toward an integrative model. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5(6), 419–430. https://doi.
org/10.1080/17439760.2010.516765.
Liu, Y., Zhang, J., Zhang, X., Wang, C., & Zhang, J. (2013). The Mechanism of new generation employees'
suicide ideation. Advances in Psychological Science, 21(7), 1150–1161. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.
J.1042.2013.01150.
Malesza, M., & Ostaszewski, P. (2016). Dark side of impulsivity — associations between the dark triad, self-
report and behavioral measures of impulsivity. Personality and Individual Differences, 88, 197–201.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.09.016.
Mei, K. M. (2016). The cross - cultural study of dark triad, patience and subjective well-being: Taking Han,
Hani, Yao and Tibetan middle school students as examples. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Beijing
Normal University, Beijing, China
Moomal, Z. (1999). The relationship between meaning in life and mental well-being. South Africa Journal of
Psychology, 29(1), 36–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/008124639902900106.
Ng, H. K., Cheung, R. Y. H., & Tam, K. P. (2014). Unraveling the link between narcissism and psychological
health: new evidence from coping flexibility. Personality and Individual Differences, 70, 7–10. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.06.006.
O'Boyle, E. H., Forsyth, D. R., Banks, G. C., & Mcdaniel, M. A. (2012). A meta-analysis of the dark triad and
work behavior: a social exchange perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(97), 557–579.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025679.
Omidi-Pour, K., Nofarast, M. G., Hoseyn, S. F., & Amiralsadat, F. (2015). The relationship among optimism,
resiliency and life's meaningfulness in students. Journal of Psychology & Behavioral Studies, 3(7), 215–
222 Retrieved from http://www.jpbsjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/paper76.pdf.
Paulhus, D. L., & Williams, K. M. (2002). The dark triad of personality: narcissism, Machiavellianism,
and psychopathy. Journal of Research in Personality, 36(6), 556–563. https://doi.org/10.1016
/S0092-6566(02)00505-6.
Paulhus, D. L., Curtis, S. R., & Jones, D. N. (2018). Aggression as a trait: the Dark Tetrad alternative. Current
Opinion in Psychology, 19, 88–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.04.007.
Pearson, P. R., & Sheffield, B. F. (1989). Psychoticism and purpose in life. Personality and Individual
Differences, 10(12), 1321–1322. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(89)90245-6.
Petrides, K. V., Vernon, P. A., Schermer, J. A., & Veselka, L. (2011). Trait emotional intelligence and the dark
triad traits of personality. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 14(1), 35–41. https://doi.org/10.1375
/twin.14.1.35.
Richardson, G. E. (2002). The metatheory of resilience and resiliency. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(3),
307. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10020.
Richardson, E. N., & Boag, S. (2016). Offensive defenses: the mind beneath the mask of the dark triad traits.
Personality and Individual Differences, 92, 148–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.12.039.
Roberts, B. W., & Helson, R. (1997). Changes in culture, changes in personality: the influence of individu-
alism in a longitudinal study of women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(3), 641.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.641.
Rose, P. (2002). The happy and unhappy faces of narcissism. Personality and Individual Differences, 33(3),
379–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00162-3.
Ruiz, J. M., Smith, T. W., & Rhodewalt, F. (2001). Distinguishing narcissism and hostility: similarities and
differences in interpersonal circumplex and five-factor correlates. Journal of Personality Assessment,
76(3), 537–555. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327752JPA7603_12.
Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,
57(3), 316. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1987.tb03541.x.
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069.
Scheier, L. M., & Newcomb, M. D. (1993). Multiple dimensions of affective and cognitive disturbance: latent-
variable models in a community sample. Psychological Assessment, 5(2), 230. https://doi.org/10.1037
/1040-3590.5.2.230.
Schmutte, P. S., & Ryff, C. D. (1997). Personality and well-being: reexamining methods and meanings.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(3), 549–559. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-
3514.73.3.549.
Schnell, T., & Becker, P. (2006). Personality and meaning in life. Personality and Individual Differences,
41(1), 117–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.030.
Seligman, M. E. (2012). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. New York:
Free Press.
542 J. Wang et al.

Selmer, J. (1999). Effects of coping strategies on sociocultural and psychological adjustment of Western
expatriate managers in the PRC. Journal of World Business, 34(1), 41–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-
9516(99)00006-1.
Shek, D. T. (1992). Meaning in life and psychological well-being: an empirical study using the Chinese
version of the purpose in life questionnaire. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 153(2), 185. https://doi.
org/10.1080/00221325.1992.10753712.
Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). The emerging role of Buddhism in clinical
psychology: Toward effective integration. Psychology of Religion & Spirituality, 6(2), 123–137.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035859.
Sinclair, S., Bryan, C. J., & Bryan, A. O. (2016). Meaning in life as a protective factor for the emergence of
suicide ideation that leads to suicide attempts among military personnel and veterans with elevated PTSD
and depression. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 9(1), 87–98. https://doi.org/10.1521
/ijct.2016.9.1.87.
Steger, M. F. (2012). Experiencing meaning in life: Optimal functioning at the nexus of spirituality,
psychopathology, and well-being. In P. T. P. Wong (Ed.), The human quest for meaning (2nd ed., pp.
165–184). New York: Routledge.
Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006). The meaning in life questionnaire: Assessing the
presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(1), 80–93. https://doi.
org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.80.
Steger, M. F., Kawabata, Y., Shimai, S., & Otake, K. (2008a). The meaningful life in Japan and the United
States: levels and correlates of meaning in life. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(3), 660–678.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2007.09.003.
Steger, M. F., Kashdan, T. B., Sullivan, B. A., & Lorentz, D. (2008b). Understanding the search for meaning in
life: Personality, cognitive style, and the dynamic between seeking and experiencing meaning. Journal of
Personality, 76(2), 199–228. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00484.x.
Steger, M. F., Mann, J. R., Michels, P., & Cooper, T. C. (2009). Meaning in life, anxiety, depression, and
general health among smoking cessation patients. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 67(4), 353–358.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2009.02.006.
Stevens, J. R., & Stephens, D. W. (2008). Patience. Current Biology, 18(1), R11–R12. https://doi.org/10.1016
/j.cub.2007.11.021.
Stevens, M. J., Pfost, K. S., & Wessels, A. B. (1987). The relationship of purpose in life to coping strategies
and time since the death of a significant other. Journal of Counseling & Development, 65(8), 424–426.
https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.1987.tb00747.x.
Tarrés, J., Fina, M., & Piedrafita, J. (2010). Parametric bootstrap for testing model fitting of threshold and
grouped data models: an application to the analysis of calving ease of Bruna dels Pirineus beef cattle.
Journal of Animal Science, 88(9), 2920–2931. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2009-2720.
Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2004). Posttraumatic growth: conceptual foundations and empirical
evidence. Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1501_01.
Thompson, S. C., & Pitts, J. (1994). Factors relating to a person's ability to find meaning after a diagnosis of
cancer. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 11(3), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1300/J077V11N03_01.
Thompson, N. J., Coker, J., Krause, J. S., & Henry, E. (2003). Purpose in life as a mediator of adjustment after
spinal cord injury. Rehabilitation Psychology, 48(2), 100–108. https://doi.org/10.1037/0090-
5550.48.2.100.
Tsomo, K. L. (2015). Mindfulness and the six perfections. In E. Shonin, W. Van Gordon, & N. N. Singh
(Eds.), Buddhist foundations of mindfulness (pp. 139–157). New York: Springer.
Wallace, B. A., & Shapiro, S. L. (2006). Mental balance and well-being: Building bridges between Buddhism
and Western psychology. American Psychologist, 61(7), 690–701. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066
X.61.7.690.
Wilson, D. S., Near, D., & Miller, R. R. (1996). Machiavellianism: A synthesis of the evolutionary and
psychological literatures. Psychology Bulletin, 119(2), 285–299. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-
2909.119.2.285.
Wink, P. (1991). Two faces of narcissism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(4), 590–597.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.4.590.
Wright, D. S. (2009). The six perfections: Buddhism and cultivation of character. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Zeng, H., & Guo, S. P. (2012). BLe^: the Chinese subjective well-being and the view of happiness in China
tradition culture. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 44(7), 986–994. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.
J.1041.2012.00986.
Zika, S., & Chamberlain, K. (1987). Relation of hassles and personality to subjective well-being. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 53(1), 155–162. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.1.155.
Patience as a Mediator Between the Dark Triad and Meaning in Life 543

Zika, S., & Chamberlain, K. (1992). On the relation between meaning in life and psychological well-being.
British Journal of Psychology, 83(1), 133–145. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1992.tb02429.x.
Zondag, H. (2005). Between imposing one’s will and protecting oneself. Narcissism and the meaning of life
among Dutch pastors. Journal of Religion and Health, 44(4), 413–426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-
005-7180-0.
Zondag, H. J., Van Halen, C., & Wojtkowiak, J. (2009). Overt and covert narcissism in Poland and the
Netherlands. Psychological Reports, 104(3), 833–843. https://doi.org/10.2466/PR0.104.3.833-843.