Three Phase Induction Motor

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
An electric motor is a device, which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Motors
can operate on ac supply, single phase as well as three phase, called as ac motors.
Ac motors are further classified as synchronous motors, single phase & three phase induction
motors and some special purpose motors.
Out of all these types, three phase induction motors are commonly used for various
applications in industries. The principle of operation of three phase induction motors is based
on the production of rotating magnetic field.
Construction of Induction Motor:

Conversion of electrical power into mechanical power takes place in the rotating part of an
electric motor. In dc motors, electrical power is conducted directly to the armature (rotating
part) through brushes and commutator. Hence a dc motor can be called as a conduction
motor.
However, in ac motors the rotor does not receive electric power by conduction but by
induction in exactly the same way as the secondary of a 2-winding transformer receives its
power from the primary. That is why such motors are known as Induction motors.
An induction motor can be treated as a rotating transformer i.e., one in which primary winding
is stationary but the secondary is free to rotate.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. It has very simple and almost 1. Its speed cannot be varied without
unbreakable construction sacrificing some of its efficiency
2. Its cost is low and it is very reliable 2. Just like a dc shunt motor, its speed
decreases with increase in load
3. It has high efficiency 3. Its starting torque is inferior to that of
dc shunt motor
4. It requires minimum maintenance
5. It needs no extra starting motor for
starting
Construction:
An induction motor consists essentially of two main parts.
1. Stator
2. Rotor
Stator is the stationary part and rotor is the rotating part.
Lecture Notes 1 N.Srinivas

Stator:
Stator is made up of a number of stampings which are slotted to receive the windings. The
stator carries a 3- phase winding and is fed from a 3-phase supply. It is wound for a definite
number of poles, the exact number of poles being determined by the requirements of speed.
Greater the number of poles, lesser the speed and vice versa. The stator windings when
supplied with 3- currents produce a magnetic flux which is of constant magnitude but which
revolves at synchronous-speed given by Ns=120f/p. This revolving magnetic flux induces an
emf in the rotor by mutual induction.
Rotor:
a. Squirrel-Cage rotor: Motors employing this type of rotor are known as squirrel cage
induction motors.
b. Phase-wound or wound rotor (Slip-Ring rotor): Motors employing this type of rotor
are known as phase-wound motors or wound motors or slip-ring motors.
Squirrel-Cage Rotor:
90% of induction motors are squirrel-cage type, because this type of rotor has the simplest
and most rugged construction. The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel
slots for carrying the rotor conductors and these slots are not wires but consists of heavy bars
of copper, aluminium or alloys. The rotor bars are permanently short-circuited on themselves.
Hence, it is not possible to add any external resistance in series with rotor circuit for staring
purposes. One bar is placed in each slot. The rotor bars are brazed or electrically welded or
bolted to two heavy and stout short circuiting end rings thus giving a squirrel-cage
construction.
The rotor slots are usually not quite parallel to the shaft but are purposely given a slight skew.
This is useful as:
a) it helps to make the motor run quietly by reducing the magnetic hum
b) it helps in reducing the locking tendency of the rotor i.e., the tendency of the rotor teeth
to remain under the stator teeth due to direct magnetic attraction between the two.
Phase-wound Rotor(or) Slip-Ring motor:
This type of rotor is provided with 3-, double-layer, distributed winding consisting of coils.
The rotor is wound for as many poles as the number of stator poles and is always wound 3-
phase even when the stator is wound two-phase. The three-phases are starred internally and
the construction is complicated.
The slip rings are mounted on the shaft. One end of each phase winding, after connecting the
winding in star or delta is connected to the slip ring. Thus there are three slip rings mounted
on the shaft with brushes resting on them. These three brushes are further externally
connected to three phase star connected rheostat. This makes possible the introduction of
additional resistance in the rotor circuit during the starting period for increasing the starting
torque of the motor. When running under normal conditions, the slip-rings are automatically
short-circuited by means of a metal collar which is pushed along the shaft and connects all the
rings together. Next, the brushes are automatically lifted from the slip rings to reduce the
frictional losses & the wear & tear & hence under normal running conditions, the wound rotor
is short-circuited on itself just like the squirrel cage rotor.
The main parts of a slip-ring motor are:
1. Frame-made of cast-iron
2. Stator and Rotor core made of high quality low loss silicon steel laminations and with
enhanced insulation.
3. Stator and rotor windings- More moisture proof insulation embodying mica and high
quality varnish.
4. Shafts and bearings: Ball and roller bearings are used to suit heavy duty trouble free
running.
5. Fans: Light aluminium fans are used for adequate circulation of cooling air.
6. Slip-rings and Slip ring enclosures: Slip-rings are made of high quality phosphor-bronze
and are of moulded construction.
Principle of operation:
When the 3- stator windings are fed by 3- supply then a rotating magnetic field of constant
magnitude is produced. This field rotates at synchronous speed Ns. This rotating flux cuts the
rotor conductors which are stationary and due to relative speed between the rotating flux and
the stationary conductors, an emf is induced in the latter according to Faraday’s law of
Electro-magnetic induction.
The frequency of the induced emf is the same as the supply frequency. Its magnitude is
proportional to the relative velocity between the flux and the conductors and its direction is
given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
Since the rotor bars or conductors form a closed circuit, rotor current is produced in the rotor
bars in case of squirrel cage or in the rotor phases in the case of slip ring whose direction as
given by Lenz’s law is such as to oppose the very cause producing it.
The rotor currents and the stator magnetic field interact with each other to produce a torque
and hence the rotor rotates.
Hence, the very cause of producing the current is the relative speed between the rotating field
and the stationary rotor and to reduce this relative speed, the motor starts running in the
same direction as that of the flux and tries to catch up.
Rotating Magnetic Field (RMF):
It is defined as the field or flux having constant amplitude but whose axis rotates in a plane at
a certain speed eg. permanent magnet rotating in a space produces a rotating magnetic field.
If an arrangement is made to rotate the poles, with constant excitation supplied, the resulting
field is rotating magnetic field. Such a rotating magnetic field can also be produced by exciting
a set of stationary coils or windings with the help of ac supply. The resultant flux produced in
such a case has constant magnitude and its axis rotates in space without physically rotating
the windings. The rotating flux or rotating magnetic field also bears a fixed relationship
between number of poles, frequency of ac supply and speed of rotation.

120 f
Ns 
P
Hence rotating magnetic field always rotates with a speed equal to synchronous speed. When
three phase supply is given to the stationary three phase winding, the resultant flux produced
is rotating in space having constant amplitude and with synchronous speed Ns which depends
on frequency of three phase supply and the number of poles for which the three phase
stationary winding is wound. This flux is rotating magnetic field.
Production of Rotating Field:
When the stationary coils, wound for two or three phases, are supplied by two or three-phase
supply respectively, a uniformly-rotating (revolving) magnetic flux of constant value is
produced.
Two-phase supply:
The principle of a 2-, 2-pole stator having two identical windings 90 space degrees apart is
shown:
The flux due to the current flowing in each phase winding is assumed sinusoidal and is shown
below. The assigned positive directions of fluxes are shown below.
Three-phase Supply:
When three-phase windings are displaced in time by 120 0, then they produce a resultant
magnetic flux, which rotates in space as if actual magnetic poles were being rotated
mechanically. The principle of a 3- two-pole stator having three identical windings placed
1200 space degrees apart is shown.
1200 1200
1200
Hence, we conclude that:
1. The resultant flux is of constant value = 3/2 m i.e., 1.5 times the maximum value of the
flux due to any phase.
2. The resultant flux rotates around the stator at synchronous speed given by
Ns = 120 f / p
Slip:
The rotor never succeeds in catching up with the stator field because if it really did so, then
there would be no relative speed, no emf, no rotor current and hence no torque. The rotor falls
back behind the magnetic field by a certain speed which is necessary for the operation of an
induction motor and the difference in speed depends upon the load on the motor.
The difference between the synchronous speed Ns and the actual speed N of the rotor is known
as slip speed.
NS  N
% slip s =
NS
Ns - N = slip speed
N = Ns (1 - s)
The revolving flux is rotating synchronously relative to the stator (i.e., stationary space) but at
slip speed relative to the rotor.
Frequency of rotor current:
When the rotor is stationary the frequency of rotor current is the same as the supply
frequency. But when the rotor starts revolving, then the frequency depends upon the relative
speed or on slip-speed.
Let at any slip–speed, the frequency of the rotor current be f. Then
Ns - N = 120 f/P
Ns = 120 f/P
f/f = Ns - N/Ns = s
f= sf
Motor current has a frequency of f= sf and when flowing through the individual phases of
rotating winding give rise to rotor magnetic fields.
These individual rotor magnetic fields produce a combined rotating field whose speed relative
to rotor is
120f/P = 120Sf/P = SNs
However, the rotor itself is rotating at speed N with respect to space. Hence speed of rotor
field in space = speed of field relative to rotor + speed of rotor relative to space:
= SNs + N = SNs + Ns (1-S) = Ns
what ever may be the value of slip, rotor current and stator currents each produce a
sinusoidally distributed magnetic field of Ns.
That is, both the rotor and stator fields rotate synchronously which means that they are
stationary w.r.t. each other.

PROBLEMS:
1. A 3 –phase I. M. is wound for 4 poles and is supplied from 50 Hz system. Calculate (1)
Synchronous-speed (2) rotor speed, when slip is 4% (3) rotor frequency when rotor
runs at 600 rpm.
Ns = 120f/P = 120 x 50/4 = 1500 rpm
Ns = Ns (1-s) = 1500 (1-0.04) = 1440 rpm
When rotor speed is 600 rpm, slip is

s = (Ns – N)/Ns = (1500-600)/1500 = 0.6
Rotor current frequency f’ = sf = 0.6 x 50 = 30Hz
2. A 3- 6-pole 50Hz induction motor has a slip of 1% at no load and of 3% at full
load. Find (A) synchronous speed (B) no – load speed (C) full-load speed.
(D) frequency of rotor–current at stand still and (E) frequency of rotor-current at
full-load
P = 6, f = 50Hz S = 0.01 at no load, S = 0.03 at full load
A) Synchronous speed Ns = 120f/P = 120 x 50/60 = 1000 rpm

B) No-load speed N = Ns (1-s) = 1000 (1-0.01) = 990 rpm
C) Full load speed = N = Ns (1-s) = 1000 (1-0.03) = 970 rpm
D) At standstill, S= 1 therefore, the rotor-current frequency fr = f.S. = 50x
1=50 Hz
E) At full-load S = 0.03, fr = f S = 50 x 0.03 = 1.5 Hz
3. A 12-pole 50 Hz 3. I. M. runs at 485 rpm what is the frequency of rotor – current.
P = 12, f = 50, N = 485 rpm

Ns = 120f/P = 120x50/P = 500 rpm
S = Ns-N = 500-485/500 = 0.03 = 3%
fr = S.f. = 50 x 0.03 = 1.5 Hz
Relation between Torque and Rotor Power factor:
In case of dc motor, the torque Ta is proportional to the product of armature current and flux
per pole i.e. Ta  Ia.
In case of an Induction motors the torque is also proportional to the product of flux per stator
pole and the rotor current. There is one more factor that has to be taken into account i.e., the
power factor of rotor.
T   I 2 cos  2
or T = K  I2 cos 2
Where I2 = rotor current at stand still

2 = angle between rotor emf and rotor current
k = constant
let the rotor emf at stand still be E 2.

E2  
T  E2 I2 cos2
T = k1 E2 I2 cos2
The effect of rotor power factor on motor torque for various values of 2 is shown from the
above equation of torque, it is clear that as 2 increases then cos2 decreases & hence torque
decreases and vice versa.

Starting Torque:
Torque = Turning or twisting moment force about an axis.

T
he torque developed by the motor at the instant of starting is called starting torque.
In some cases, it is greater than the normal running torque whereas in some other cases it is
somewhat less.
Let E2 = rotor emf per phase at standstill

R2 = rotor resistance / phase
X2 = rotor reactance/ phase at standstill.
Z2 = R22 + X22 = rotor impedance / phase at standstill.
I2 = E2/Z2 = E2/R22+X22;
cos 2 = (R2/Z2) = R2/(R22 + X22)
Starting torque Tst = K1 E2 I2 cos 2.
If supply voltage V is constant, then the flux  and hence E2 both are constant
Tst = K2 R2/R22 + x22 = K2/R2 Z2 where k2 is some other constant.
Starting torque of a squirrel cage motor:
The resistance of a squirrel-cage rotor is fixed & small as compared to its reactance which is
very large especially at the start because at stand till, the frequency of the motor currents
equals the supply frequency. Hence the starting current I 2 of the rotor though very large in
magnitude lags by a very large angle behind E2, with the result that the starting torque per
ampere is very poor. It is roughly 1.5 times the full load torque although the starting current
is 5 to 7 times the full-load current. Hence, such motors are not useful where the motor has to
start against heavy loads.
Starting torque of a slip-ring motor:
The starting torque of such a motor is increased by increasing its power factor by adding
external resistance in the rotor circuit from the star connected rheostat, the rheostat
resistance being progressively cut out as the motor gains speed.
Addition of external resistance, however, increases the rotor impedance and so reduces the
rotor current. At first, the effect of improved power factor predominates the current-
decreasing effect of impedance. Hence, starting torque is increased.
But after a certain point, the effect of increased impedance predominates the effect of
improved power factor and so the torque starts decreases.
Torque – Slip Characteristics:
As an induction motor is loaded from no load to full load, its speed decreases hence slip
increases. Due to increased load, motor has to produce motor torque to satisfy load demand.
The torque ultimately depends on slip as explained earlier. The behavior of motor can be
easily judged by sketching a curve obtained by plotting torque produced against slip of
induction motor. The curve obtained by plotting torque against slip from S = 1 at start) to S =
0 (at synchronous speed) is called torque – slip characteristics of the induction motor. It is
very interesting to study the nature of torque – slip characteristics.

We have seen that for a constant supply voltage E2 is also constant. So we can write torque
sR2
equations as, T 
R2  sX 2 
2 2
Now to judge the nature of torque – slip characteristics let us divide the slip range (S = 0 to S
= 1) into two parts and analyse them independently.
Stator Current
Maximum Torque
Torque Torque
T∞1/S
T∞S
S=0 Slip S=1

Speed
i) Low slip region: In low slip region, ‘S’ is very very small. Due to this, the term (SX 2)2 is so
small as compared to R22 that it can be neglected.
SR2
T  S as R2 is constant
R22
Hence in low slip region, torque is directly proportional to slip. So as load increases, speed
decreases, increasing the slip. This increases the torque which satisfies the load demand.
Hence, the graph is straight line in nature.
At N = Ns, s = 0 hence T = 0. As no torque is generated at N = Ns, motor stops if it tries to

achieve the synchronous speed. Torque increases linearly in this region of low slip values.
ii) High slip region: In this region, slip is high i.e. slip value is approaching to 1. Here it can be
assumed that the term R22 is very very small as compared (s X2)2. Hence neglecting the term
R22 from the denominator, we get,
SR2 1
T  where R2 and X2 are constants.
S X2 
2 S
So in this region, torque is inversely proportional to the slip. Hence its nature is like
rectangular hyperbola.
Now when load increases, load demand increases but speed decreases. As speed decreases,
slip increases. In high slip region as T  1/S, torque decreases as slip increases. But torque
must increase to satisfy the load demand. As torque decreases due to extra loading effect
speed further decreases and slip further increases. Again torque decreases as T  1/S hence
same load act as an extra load due to reduction in torque produced. Hence speed further
drops. Eventually motor comes to standstill condition. The motor cannot continue to rotate at
any point in this high slip region. Hence this region is called unstable region of operations.
So torque – slip characteristics has two parts,
i) straight line called stable region of operation

ii) Rectangular hyperbola called unstable region of operation.
Losses in an Induction Motor:
The various power losses in an induction motor can be classified as
a) Constant losses
b) Variable losses
Constant Losses:
These can be further classified as Core losses or mechanical losses. Core losses occur in stator
core and rotor core. These are also called as iron losses. These losses include eddy current
losses and hysteresis losses.
The eddy current losses are minimized by using laminated construction while hysteresis losses
are minimized by selecting high grade silicon steel as the material for stator and rotor.
Mechanical Losses include frictional losses at the bearings and windage losses.
Variable Losses:
This includes the copper losses in stator and rotor winding due to current flowing in the
winding. As current changes when load changes these losses are said to be variable losses.
Power distribution diagram of an I.M:
M otor input in stator P 1
Stator Cu & iron rotor input or stator output (P 2 )

los s es (P C u & P i )
rotor Cu los s (P C U ) M ec hinc al p o w er d e velo p e d, P m

or gr os s rotor output, P g
win d a g e & friction los s rotor output or m otor

output (P o ut )
Torque developed by an I.M:
An induction motor develops gross torque Tg due to gross rotor output Pm.
Its value can be expressed either in terms of rotor input P2 or rotor output Pm
p2
Tg= P2/ws = in terms of rotor input
2N
pm p
= = m in terms of rotor output
w 2N
The starting torque Tsh is due to output power Pout which is less than Pm because of rotor
friction and windage losses.
pout pout
 Ts h  
w 2N
The difference between Tg and Tsh equals the torque lost due to friction and windage loss in
the motor.

P2 60 P P
Tg =  X 2  9.55 2 N  m
2Ns / 60 2 Ns Ns
Pm 60 Pm Pm
=  X  9.55 Nm
2N / 60 2 N N
Pout 60 Pout P
Tsh=  X  9.55 out N  m
2N / 60 2 N N
Torque, mechanical power and Rotor output:
Stator input P1 = stator output + stator losses

Rotor input P2= stator output
Rotor gross output, Pm= rotor input P2 – rotor losses
This rotor output is converted into mechanical energy and gives rise to gross torque T g
Out of this gross torque developed, some is lost due to windage and friction losses in the rotor
and the rest appears as the useful or shaft torque Tsh. Let N rps be the actual speed of the
rotor and if Tg is in N-m, then
Tg x 2N = rotor gross output in watts Pm
rotor gross output in watts

Tg =  (1)
2N
If these were no Cu losses in the rotor, then rotor output will equal rotor input and the rotor
will run at synchronous speed,
rotor input P2
Tg = 2Ns  (2)
From (1) and (2), we get
Rotor gross output Pm= Tg 2N
Rotor input = P2= Tgws= Tg x 2Ns  (3)
The difference of the two equals rotor Cu loss.
 rotor Cu loss = P2 - Pm = T x 2(Ns – N)  (4)
rotor Cu loss N s  N
Form (3) and (4)  S
rotor input Ns
rotor Cu loss = S X rotor input
= S X power across air gap = SP2
rotorCu loss
Rotor input =
S
Rotor gross output Pm= input P2- rotor Cu loss
= input – S X rotor input
= (1-S) input P2
rotor gross output Pm= (1-S) rotor input P2

rotor gross output Pm N
1 S 
rotor input P2 Ns
Pm N

P2 Ns
N
rotor efficiency =
Ns
And
rotor Cu loss S

rotor gross output 1  S
If some power P2 is delivered to rotor, then a part SP2 is lost in the rotor itself as copper loss
and the remaining (1-S) P2 appears as gross mechanical power Pm
P2: Pm : I2R :: 1: (1-S) : S
or P2: Pm : Pc :: 1: (1-S) : S
The rotor input power will always divide itself in this ratio, hence it is advantageous to run the
motor with as small ship as possible.
Problems:
1. The motor emf of a 3-, 6-pole, 400V, 50 Hz I.M alternates at 3Hz. Compute the
speed and percentage slip of the motor. Find the rotor Cu loss per phase if the full
input to the motor is 119.9 kw.
fr 3
S=   0.06 or 6%
f 50
50
Ns= 120 X  1000 rpm
6
N= (1-S) Ns = (1-0.06) 1000= 940 rpm
Rotor input = 111.9 kw
Rotor Cu loss= s X rotor input
= 0.06 X 111,900
= 6715 w
6715
loss/phase=  2238w
3

Lecture Notes BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
INTRODUCTION:
An Electric circuit is an interconnection of various elements in which there is at

least one closed path in which current can flow. An Electric circuit is used as a
component for any engineering system.
The performance of any electrical device or machine is always studied by

drawing its electrical equivalent circuit. By simulating an electric circuit, any type of
system can be studied for e.g., mechanical, hydraulic thermal, nuclear, traffic flow,
weather prediction etc.
All control systems are studied by representing them in the form of electric circuits. The
analysis, of any system can be learnt by mastering the techniques of circuit theory.
Voltage: Potential difference in electrical terminology is known as voltage, and is

denoted either by V or 𝑣. It is expressed in terms of energy (w) per unit charge(Q).
W dw
V= or V =
Q dq
𝑑𝑤 is the small change in energy
𝑑𝑞 is the small change in charge.
Where energy (W) is expressed in Joules (J), charge (Q) in coulombs (C), and voltage
(V) in volts(V). One volt is the potential difference between two points when one joule
of energy is used to pass one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.
Current: Current is defined as the rate of flow of electrons in a conductive or semi

conductive material. It is measured by the number of electrons that flow past a point in
unit time.
Q
I=
t
Where I is the current, Q is the charge of electrons, and t is the time
dq
i=
dt
𝑑𝑞 is the small change in charge
𝑑𝑡 is the small change in time.
In practice, the unit ampere is used to measure current, denoted by A.
Power and Energy: Energy is nothing but stored work. Energy may exist in many
forms such as mechanical, chemical, electrical and so on.
Vardhaman College of Engineering 1 Department of EEE

Power is the rate of change of energy, and is denoted by either P or p. if certain amount
of energy over a certain length of time, then
Power (P) = energy / time= W/t

dw
P=
dt
Were 𝑑𝑤 is the charge in energy and 𝑑𝑡 is the charge in time.
dw dw dq
P= = X
dt dq dt
P= V x I =VI= I2R
w
V= q
W=vq
d(vq) dq
P= =v
dt dt
P=VI Watts
W= ∫ pdt Joules
1.1.1. Elements of an Electric circuit:
An Electric circuit consists of two types of elements

a) Active elements or sources
b) Passive elements or sinks
Active elements are the elements of a circuit which possess energy of their own
and can impart it to other element of the circuit.
Active elements are of two types
a) Voltage source b) Current source
A Voltage source has a specified voltage across its terminals, independent of

current flowing through it.
A current source has a specified current through it independent of the voltage

appearing across it.
1.2 Independent & Dependent sources
If the voltage of the voltage source is completely independent source of current

and the current of the current source is completely independent of the voltage, then the
sources are called as independent sources.
The special kind of sources in which the source voltage or current depends on
some other quantity in the circuit which may be either a voltage or a current anywhere
in the circuit are called Dependent sources or Controlled sources.

There are four possible dependent sources.
a) Voltage dependent Voltage source

b) Current dependent Current source
c) Voltage dependent Current source
d) Current dependent Current source
The constants of proportionalities are written as B, g, a, r in which B & a has no

units, r has units ohm & g has units mhos.
Independent sources actually exist as physical entities such as battery, a dc

generator & an alternator. But dependent sources are used to represent electrical
properties of electronic devices such as OP-AMPS & Transistors.
1.3 Ideal & Practical sources
An ideal voltage source is one which delivers energy to the load at a constant
terminal voltage, irrespective of the current drawn by the load.
An ideal current source is one, which delivers energy with a constant current to
the load, irrespective of the terminal voltage across the load.
A Practical source always possesses a very small value of internal resistance r.

The internal resistance of a voltage source is always connected in series with it & for a
current source, it is always connected in parallel with it.
As the value of the internal resistance of a practical voltage source is very small,
its terminal voltage is assumed to be almost constant within a certain limit of current
flowing through the load.

A practical current source is also assumed to deliver a constant current,

irrespective of the terminal voltage across the load connected to it.
Ideal voltage source connected in series
The equivalent single ideal voltage some is given by V= V 1 + V2
Any number of ideal voltage sources connected in series can be represented by a

single ideal voltage some taking in to account the polarities connected together in to
consideration.
Practical voltage source connected in series:

Ideal voltage source connected in parallel:
When two ideal voltage source of emf’s V 1 & V2 are connected in parallel, what
voltage appears across its terminals is ambiguous. Hence such connections should not
be made.
However if V1 = V2= V, then the equivalent voltage some is represented by V.
In that case also, such a connection is unnecessary as only one voltage source
serves the purpose.
Practical voltage sources connected in parallel:
Ideal current sources connected in series:

When ideal current sources are connected in series, what current flows through
the line is ambiguous. Hence such a connection is not permissible.
However, it I1 = I2 = I, then the current in the line is I.
But, such a connection is not necessary as only one current source serves the purpose.
Practical current sources connected in series:
Ideal current sources connected in parallel:
Two ideal current sources in parallel can be replaced by a single equivalent ideal current
source.
Practical current sources connected in parallel:

1.4 Source transformation
A current source or a voltage source drives current through its load resistance
and the magnitude of the current depends on the value of the load resistance.
Consider a practical voltage source and a practical current source connected to

the same load resistance RL as shown in the figure.
Fig. a Fig. b
R1’s in figure represents the internal resistance of the voltage source V S and current
source IS.

Two sources are said to be identical, when they produce identical terminal
voltage VL and load current IL. The circuits in figure represents a practical voltage source
& a practical current source respectively, with load connected to both the sources. The
terminal voltage VL and load current IL across their terminals are same. Hence the
practical voltage source & practical current source shown in the dotted box of figure are
equal.
The two equivalent sources should also provide the same open circuit voltage &
short circuit current.
From fig (a) From fig (b)
𝑉𝑠 𝑟
IL = IL = I
𝑅+𝑅𝐿 𝑅+𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑠 𝑟
∴ 𝑅+𝑅 = I
𝑅+𝑅𝐿
𝐿
𝑉𝑠
VS = IR or I =
𝑅
Hence a voltage source Vs in series with its internal resistance R can be

𝑉𝑠
converted into a current source I = , with its internal resistance R connected in parallel
𝑅
with it. Similarly a current source I in parallel with its internal resistance R can be
converted into a voltage source V = IR in series with its internal resistance R.
1.5 Passive Elements:
The passive elements of an electric circuit do not possess energy of their own.
They receive energy from the sources. The passive elements are the resistance, the
inductance and the capacitance. When electrical energy is supplied to a circuit element,
it will respond in one and more of the following ways.
If the energy is consumed, then the circuit element is a pure resistor.
If the energy is stored in a magnetic field, the element is a pure inductor.
And if the energy is stored in an electric field, the element is a pure capacitor.

1.5.1 Linear and Non-Linear Elements.
Linear elements show the linear characteristics of voltage & current. That is its
voltage-current characteristics are at all-times a straight-line through the origin.
For example, the current passing through a resistor is proportional to the voltage
applied through its and the relation is expressed as V ∝ I or V = IR. A linear element or
network is one which satisfies the principle of superposition, i.e., the principle of
homogeneity and additivity.
Resistors, inductors and capacitors are the examples of the linear elements and
their properties do not change with a change in the applied voltage and the circuit
current.
Non linear element’s V-I characteristics do not follow the linear pattern i.e. the
current passing through it does not change linearly with the linear change in the voltage
across it. Examples are the semiconductor devices such as diode, transistor.
1.5.2 Bilateral and Unilateral Elements:
An element is said to be bilateral, when the same relation exists between voltage
and current for the current flowing in both directions.
Ex: Voltage source, Current source, resistance, inductance & capacitance.
The circuits containing them are called bilateral circuits.
An element is said to be unilateral, when the same relation does not exist
between voltage and current when current flowing in both directions. The circuits
containing them are called unilateral circuits.
Ex: Vacuum diodes, Silicon Diodes, Selenium Rectifiers etc.
1.5.3. Lumped and Distributed Elements
Lumped elements are those elements which are very small in size & in which
simultaneous actions takes place. Typical lumped elements are capacitors, resistors,
inductors.
Distributed elements are those which are not electrically separable for analytical
purposes.
For example a transmission line has distributed parameters along its length and
may extend for hundreds of miles.
The circuits containing them are called unilateral circuits.

1.6 Voltage Current Relationship for passive elements
Resistance
Resistance is that property of a circuit element which opposes the flow of electric
current and in doing so converts electrical energy into heat energy.
It is the proportionality factor in ohm’s law relating voltage and current.
Ohm’s law states that the voltage drop across a conductor of given length and
area of cross section is directly proportional to the current flowing through it.
vœI
VR= RI
𝑣
R= ohms= GV
𝐼
Where the reciprocal of resistance is called conductance G. The unit of resistance

is ohm and the unit of conductance is mho or Siemens.
When current flows through any resistive material, heat is generated by the
collision of electrons with other atomic particles. The power absorbed by the resistor is
converted to heat and is given by the expression
P= VI=I2R watts
𝑉 𝑉2
= V( ) = watts
𝑅 𝑅
Where I is the resistor in amps, and V is the voltage across the resistor in volts.
Energy lost in a resistance in time t is given by
t V 2
W =∫0 Pdt = Pt = i2 Rt = t Joules
R

Resistance in series:
Series: V=V1+V2+V3
V= IR1+IR2+IR3 = I(R1+R2+R3) -------(1)
V = IReq-------(2)
From (1) & (2)
IReq = I(R1+R2+R3)
Req = R1+R2+R3
Resistance in parallel:
Apply KCL at P
I =I1+I2
V V 1 1
I= + =v [ + ] …..(1)
R1 R2 R1 R2
v
I= …..(2)
Req
From (1) =(2)

V 1 1
= v[ + ]
Req R1 R2
1 1 1
= +
Req R1 R2
R 1 R2
R eq =
R1 +R2

Inductance :
Inductance is the property of a material by virtue of which it opposes any change

of magnitude and direction of electric current passing through conductor. A wire of
certain length, when twisted into a coil becomes a basic conductor. A change in the
magnitude of the current changes the electromagnetic field.
Increase in current expands the field & decrease in current reduces it.A change
in current produces change in the electromagnetic field. This induces a voltage across
the coil according to Faradays laws of Electromagnetic Induction.
𝑑𝑖
Induced Voltage V = L 𝑑𝑡
V = Voltage across inductor in volts

I = Current through inductor in amps
1
di = v dt
𝐿
Integrating both sides,
t t
1
∫ di = ∫ vdt
L
0 0
di
Power absorbed by the inductor P = Vi = Li Watt
dt
Energy stored by the inductor
t t di Li2
W=∫0 P dt = ∫0 Li dt =
dt 2
Li2
W= Joules
2

Conclusions:
di
1) V=L
dt
The induced voltage across an inductor is zero if the current through it is
constant. That means an inductor acts as short circuit to dc.
2) For minute change in current within zero time (dt = 0) gives an infinite voltage
across the inductor which is physically not at all feasible.
In an inductor, the current cannot change abruptly. An inductor behaves as open

circuit just after switching across dc voltage.
3) The inductor can store finite amount of energy, even if the voltage across the
inductor is zero.
4) A pure inductor never dissipates energy, it only stores it. Hence it is also called
as a non–dissipative passive element. However, physical inductor dissipate
power due to internal resistance.
1.) The current in a 2H inductor raises at a rate of 2A/s .Find the voltage across the
inductor & the energy stored in the magnetic field at after 2sec.
di
V=L
dt
= 2X2 = 4V
1 1
W= Li2 = X 2 X (4)2 = 16 J
2 2
Inductance in series:
V(t) = V1 (t) + V2 (t)

𝑑𝑖 di
= L1 + L2
𝑑𝑡 dt
di di
= (L1 + L2 ) = Leq
dt dt
∴ Leq = L1 + L2
In `n` inductances are in series, then the equivalent inductance
Leq = L1 + L2 + ………..+Ln

Inductances in parallel:
I (t) = I1 (t) + I2 (t)

1 1 1 1
=
L1
∫ vdt + L2
∫ vdt = (L + L ) ∫ vdt
1 2
1
=
Leq
∫ vdt
1 1 1
∴ = ( + )
Leq L1 L2
In `n` Inductances are connected in parallel, then
1 1 1 1
= + + ……….+ Henrys
Leq L1 L2 Ln
Capacitance:
 A capacitor consists of two metallic surfaces or conducting surfaces separated by

a dielectric medium.
 It is a circuit element which is capable of storing electrical energy in its electric

field.
 Capacitance is its capacity to store electrical energy.

 Capacitance is the proportionality constant relating the charge on the conducting
plates to the potential.
Charge on the capacitor q α V

q = CV
Where `C` is the capacitance in farads, if q is charge in coulombs and V is the potential
difference across the capacitor in volts.
The current flowing in the circuit is rate of flow of charge

dq dv dv
i= =C ∴i= c amps
dt dt dt
The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the dielectric medium & the physical
dimensions. For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance
€𝐴 𝐴
C= = €0 €r
𝐷 𝐷
A is the surface area of plates
D is the separation between plates
€ is the absolute permeability of medium
€0 is the absolute permeability of free space
€r is the relative permeability of medium
dq dv
I= =C
dt dt
dv i
=
dt c
1
V=
c
∫ idt Volts
dv
The power absorbed by the capacitor P = vi = vc watt
dt
t t dv
Energy stored in the capacitor W = ∫0 Pdt = ∫0 vc dt
dt
t 1
= C∫ vdv =
0
cv 2 Joules
2
This energy is stored in the electric field set up by the voltage across capacitor.
Capacitance in series:
Let C1 , C2 be the two capacitances connected in series and let V1,V2 be the p.ds
across the two capacitors. Let V be the applied voltage across the combination and C,
the combined or equivalent capacitance. For a series circuit, charge on all capacitors is
same but P.d across each is different.
V=V1+V2

1 1
V= ∫ Idt +C ∫ Idt
C1 2
1 1
V =( + ) ∫ Idt -----(1)
C1 C2
1
V= ∫ Idt -----(2)
Ceq
1 1 1
= +
Ceq C1 C2
C1 C2
Ceq =
C1 + C2
C n series
Capacitance in parallel:
Conclusions:
The current in a capacitor is zero, if the voltage across it is constant, that means
the capacitor acts as an open circuit to dc
1. A small change in voltage across a capacitance within zero time gives an infinite
current through the capacitor, which is physically impossible.
∴ In a fixed capacitor, the voltage cannot change abruptly

∴ A capacitor behaves as short circuit just after switching across dc voltage.
2. The capacitor can store a finite amount of energy, even if the current through it is
zero.
3. A pure capacitor never dissipates energy but only stores it hence it is called non-
dissipative element.

V-I Relation of circuit elements

Elements, Power Energy Physical
Voltage Current Basic
Symbol (W) (W) Dimension
(V) (A) Formula
and Units Watts Joules Formula
Resistor R R= WL=
𝜌𝑙
𝑎
(Ohms Ω)
S=Specific
W=I Rt 2
VαI
V=RI I=𝑅
𝑉
P =i2R 𝑉2
Resistivity
= t l= Length of (Ohm’s Law)
𝑅
material
a=area of C.S
Inductor L
𝑁2 𝜇𝑎 −𝑑𝜓
Vα
(Henry H) L=
𝑑𝑖 I 𝑑𝑖 1 𝑙 𝑑𝑡
V=L 1
= ∫ vdt +io
P =Li 𝑑𝑡 WL=2 𝐿𝐼2
𝜇- (Faraday’s
𝑑𝑡 L Second law)
Permeability=𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
(Lenz’s Law)
𝜇0 =4∏x10-7H/m
Capacitor 1
C I=𝐶 ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 +
𝜀𝐴
(Farad F) v0 C =
where v0 is 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 1 𝑑
I =C 𝑑𝑡 P =C𝑉 𝑑𝑡 WC=2 𝐶𝑉 2 𝜀=Permitivity=𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 qαV
the initial
voltage 𝜀0 =8.854x10-
across
12
F/m
capacitor
Problems:
1. The Current function shown below is a repeating square wave. With this
current existing in a pure resistor of 10Ω, plot voltage V(t) & power P(t)
V(t) = R i(t) P = Vi
= 10X5 = 50 = 50X5 = 250w

2. The current function for a pure resistor of 5 Ω is a repeating saw tooth

as shown below. Find v(t), P(t).
V(t) = R i(t) = 5 X 10 = 50 V
0‹t‹2ms
𝑖 10
= = 5𝑋103 𝑖 = 5𝑋103 𝑡
𝑡 2𝑋10−3
V=5X5X103t =25X103
P=125X106t2
P (watts) 10V (Volts)
3. A pure inductance L = 0.02H has an applied voltage V(t) = 150 sin 1000t
volts. Determine the current i(t), & draw their wave forms
V(t) = 150 sin 1000t L = 0.02H

1 1
I(t) = ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 150 sin 1000tdt
𝐿 0.02
150 –cos 1000𝑡

( )
0.02 1000
∴i(t)= -7.5 cos 1000t Amps

1
P=V(t) i(t) =(-150) (7.5) sin 2000𝑡 = -562.5 sin 2000t
2

Kirchhoff`s Laws
Kirchhoff’s laws are more comprehensive than Ohm's law and are used for
solving electrical networks which may not be readily solved by the latter.
Kirchhoff`s laws, two in number, are particularly useful in determining the

equivalent resistance of a complicated network of conductors and for calculating the
currents flowing in the various conductors.
1. Kirchhoff`s Point Law or Current Law (KCL):
In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point
(or junction) is Zero.
That is the total current entering a junction is equal to the total current leaving
that junction.
Consider the case of a network shown in Fig
I1+(-I2)+(I3)+(+I4)+(-I5) = 0
I1+I4-I2-I3-I5 = 0
Or I1+I4 = I2+I3+I5
Or Incoming currents =Outgoing currents
2. Kirchhoff's Mesh Law or Voltage Law (KVL):
In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the products of currents and
resistances in each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the
algebraic sum of the e.m.f.’s. in that path is zero.
That is, ∑IR + ∑e.m.f = 0 round a mesh
It should be noted that algebraic sum is the sum which takes into account the
polarities of the voltage drops.

That is, if we start from a particular junction and go round the mesh till we come
back to the starting point, then we must be at the same potential with which we
started.
Hence, it means that all the sources of emf met on the way must necessarily be
equal to the voltage drops in the resistances, every voltage being given its proper sign,
plus or minus.
Determination of Voltage Sign
In applying Kirchhoff's laws to specific problems, particular attention should be

paid to the algebraic signs of voltage drops and e.m.fs.
(a) Sign of Battery E.M.F.
A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a -ve sign. That
is, if we go from the -ve terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal there is a rise in
potential, hence this voltage should be given a + ve sign. And on the other hand, we go
from +ve terminal to -ve terminal, then there is a fall in potential, hence this voltage
should be preceded by a -ve sign.
The sign of the battery e.m.f is independent of the direction of the current
through that branch.
(b) Sign of IR Drop
Now, take the case of a resistor (Fig. 2.4). If we go through a resistor in the
same direction as the current, then there is a fall in potential because current flows
from a higher to a lower potential.
Hence, this voltage fall should be taken -ve. However, if we go in a direction

opposite to that of thecurrent, then there is a rise in voltage. Hence, this voltage rise
should be given a positive sign.
Consider the closed path ABCDA in Fig .

As we travel around the mesh in the clockwise direction, different voltage drops will
have the following signs :
I1R1 is - ve (fall in potential)

I3R3 is + ve (rise in potential)
E2 is - ve (fall in potential)
E1 is + ve (rise in potential)
Using Kirchhoff's voltage law, we get
-I1R1 – I2R2 – I3R3 – I4 R4 – E2 + E1 = 0

Or I1R1 + I2R2 – I3R3 + I4R4 = E1 –E2
Assumed Direction of Current:
In applying Kirchhoff's laws to electrical networks, the direction of current flow

may be assumed either clockwise or anticlockwise. If the assumed direction of current is
not the actual direction, then on solving the question, the current will be found to have
a minus sign.
If the answer is positive, then assumed direction is the same as actual direction.
However, the important point is that once a particular direction has been assumed, the
same should be used throughout the solution of the question.
Kirchhoff's laws are applicable both to d.c. and a.c. voltages and currents.
However, in the case of alternating currents and voltages, any e.m.f. of self-inductance
or that existing across a capacitor should be also taken into account.

NETWORK REDUCTION TECHNIQUES:
Resistance in series:
If three conductors having resistances R1, R2 and R3 are joined end on end as
shown in fig below, then they are said to be connected in series. It can be proved that
the equivalent resistance between points A & D is equal to the sum of the three
individual resistances.
For a series circuit, the current is same through all the three conductors but
voltage drop across each is different due to its different values of resistances and is
given by ohm`s Law and the sum of the three voltage drops is equal to the voltage
supplied across the three conductors.
∴ V= V1+V2+V3 = IR1+IR2+IR3
But V= IR
where R is the equivalent resistance of the series combination.
IR = IR1+IR2+IR3
or R = R1 + R2+ R3
The main characteristics of a series circuit are
1. Same current flows through all parts of the circuit.

2. Different resistors have their individual voltage drops.
3. Voltage drops are additive.
4. Applied voltage equals the sum of different voltage drops.
5. Resistances are additive.
6. Powers are additive
Voltage Divider Rule

In a series circuit, same current flows through each of the given resistors and the
voltage drop varies directly with its resistance.

Q.) Consider a circuit in which, a 24- V battery is connected across a series

combination of three resistors of 2Ω, 4Ω and 6Ω. Determine the voltage drops
across each resistor?
Ans) Total resistance R = R 1 + R2 + R3= 12 Ω
According to Voltage Divider Rule, voltages divide in the ratio of their resistances
and hence the various voltage drops are
𝑅1 2
𝑉1 = 𝑉 = 24 𝑋 = 4𝑉
𝑅 12
𝑅2 4
𝑉2 = 𝑉 𝑅
= 24 𝑋 12
= 8𝑉
𝑅3 6
𝑉3 = 𝑉 = 24 𝑋 = 12𝑉
𝑅 12
Resistances in Parallel:
Three resistances, as joined in Fig are said to be connected in parallel. In this case
(I) Potential difference across all resistances is the same

(ii) Current in each resistor is different and is given by Ohm's Law And
(iii) The total current is the sum of the three separate currents.
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
I = I1+I2 +I3 = + +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑉
I = where V is the applied voltage.
𝑅
R = equivalent resistance of the parallel combination.

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
1 1 1 1
𝑅
= 𝑅1 + 𝑅 + 𝑅
2 3
G = GI + G2+ G3
The main characteristics of a parallel circuit are:
1. Same voltage acts across all parts of the circuit

2. Different resistors have their individual current.
3. Branch currents are additive.
4. Conductances are additive.
5. Powers are additive
Division of Current in Parallel Circuits
Two resistances are joined in parallel across a voltage V. The current in each
branch, given by Ohm’s law, is
𝑉 𝑉
I1= and I2=
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐼1 𝑅2
=
𝐼2 𝑅1
1 1
As = 𝐺1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝐺2
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐼1 𝐺1
=
𝐼2 𝐺2
Hence, the division of current in the branches of a parallel circuit is directly
proportional to the conductance of the branches or inversely proportional to their
resistances.
The branch currents are also expressed in terms of the total circuit current
𝐼1 𝑅2
Now 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼; ∴ 𝐼2 = 𝐼 − 𝐼1 ∴ = or 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 (𝐼 − 𝐼1 )
𝐼−𝐼1 𝑅12
𝑅1 𝐺1 𝑅1 𝐺1
𝐼1 = 𝐼 =𝐼 and 𝐼2 =𝐼 =𝐼
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝐺1 +𝐺2 𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝐺1 +𝐺2
This Current Divider Rule has direct application in solving electric circuits by
Norton's theorem
Take the case of three resistors in parallel connected across a voltage V
Total current is I=I1+I2+I3

Let the equivalent resistance be R. Then

V = IR
Also V = I1R, lR = I1R

𝐼 𝑅1 𝐼𝑅
Or = 𝑜𝑟 𝐼1 =
𝐼1 𝑅 𝑅1
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
R=
𝑅1 𝑅3 +𝑅2𝑅3 +𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐺1
From …. (i) above, I1 = I[ ] = 𝐼.
𝑅1 𝑅3 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐺1 +𝐺2 +𝐺3
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐺2
I2= I[ ] = 𝐼.
𝑅1 𝑅3+𝑅2𝑅3+𝑅1𝑅2 𝐺1 +𝐺2 +𝐺3
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐺3
I3 = I[ ] = 𝐼.
𝑅1 𝑅3 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐺1 +𝐺2 +𝐺3

ANALYSIS OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Introduction
Basic Terms used in a Circuit
1. Circuit: A circuit is a closed conducting path through which an electric current

either flows or is intended flow.
2. Network: A combination of various electric elements, connected in any manner.
3. Linear Circuit: A linear circuit is one whose parameters are constant i.e. they
do not change with voltage or current.
4. Non-linear Circuit: It is that circuit whose parameters change with voltage or
current.
5. Bilateral Circuit: A bilateral circuit is one whose properties or characteristics
are the same in either direction. The usual transmission line is bilateral, because
it can be made to perform its function equally well in either direction.
6. Unilateral Circuit: It is that circuit whose properties or characteristics change
with the direction of its operation. A diode rectifier is a unilateral circuit, because
it cannot perform rectification in both directions.
7. Parameters: The various elements of an electric circuit are called its
parameters like resistance, inductance and capacitance. These parameters may
be lumped or distributed.
8. Passive Network is one which contains no source of e.m.f. in it.
9. Active Network is one which contains one or more than one source of e.m.f.
10. Node: I t is a junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements are
connected together.
11. Branch: It is that part of a network which lies between two junctions.
12. Loop: It is a close path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered
more than once.
13. Mesh: It is a loop that contains no other loop within it.
Consider the circuit of Fig. (a).
It has seven branches, six nodes, three loops and two meshes and the circuit of
Fig (b) has four branches, two nodes, six loops and three meshes.

2. MESH ANALYSIS AND NODAL ANALYSIS
The simple series & parallel circuits can be solved by using ohm`s law &
Kirchhoff’s law.
If the circuits are complex with several sources & a large number of elements,
they may be simplified using star-delta transformation. There are also other effective
solving methods of complex electric circuits.
Mesh current or loop current analysis & node voltage analysis are the two very
effective methods of solving complex electric circuits. We have various network
theorems which are also effective alternate methods to solve complex electrical circuits
1) Mesh current or loop current analysis

2) Node voltage analysis
2.1 Mesh Analysis:
It is combination of KVL (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law) and Ohms law
This method which is particularly applied to complete networks employs a

system of loop or mesh currents instead of branch currents as in Kirchhoff`s law. Here,
the currents in different meshes are assigned another path so that they do not split at a
junction in to branch currents. This method eliminates a great deal of tedious work
involved in the branch-current method and is best suited when energy sources are
voltage sources rather than current sources. Basically, this method consists of writing
loop voltage equations by Kirchhoff’s voltage law in terms of unknown loop currents.
If `b` is the number of branches & j is the number of junctions in a given

network, then the total number of independent equations to be solved reduces from `b`
by Kirchhoff`s law to b-(j-1) for loop current method.
Fig. shows two batteries E1 and E2 connected in a network consisting of five resistors.
Let the loop currents for the three meshes be I1, I2 and I3. It is obvious that current
through R4 (when considered as a part of the first loop) is (I1 −I2) and that through R5 is

(I2 −I3). However, when R4 is considered part of the second loop, current through it is
(I2 − I1). Similarly, when R5 is considered part of the third loop, current through it is (I3
−I2).
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the three loops, we get,
E1 −I1R1 −R4 (I1 −I2) = 0 or I1 (R1 + R4) −I2 R4 −E1 = 0 ……Loop (1)
Similarly, −I2R2 −R5 (I2 −I3) −R4 (I2 −I1) = 0
or I2 R4 −I2 (R2 + R4 + R5) + I3R5 = 0 ……Loop(2)
Also −I3R3 −E2 −R5 (I3 −I2) = 0 or I2R5 −I3 (R3 + R5) −E2 = 0 ….Loop (3)
The above three equations can be solved not only to find loop currents but branch
currents as well.
Example 1: Find the power dissipated in 2Ω resistor in the circuit given below.
Solution:
For mesh (1)
-10+4 I1+2(I1-I2) =0
6I1-2I2=10 ……………….. (1)
For mesh (2)
6 I2+1(I2-I3)+2(I2-I1) = 0
2 I1-9I2+ I3 =0…………………(2)
For mesh (3)
4(I3)+5+1(I3-I2) = 0
I2-5I3 = 5…………………….(3)
From (1), (2), (3)
10=6 I1-2 I2 +0 I3
0=2 I1-9 I2 + I3
5=0 I1+ I2 -5 I3

By Crammer’s rule
10 6  2 0  I1 
0    2  9 1  I 
     2
5  0 1  5  I 3 
1 2
I1= ; I2=
 
6 2 0
∆= 2  9 1  6(45  1)  2(10)  244
0 1 5
10  2 0
∆1= 0  9 1  10(45  1)  2(5)  430
5 1 5
6 10 0
∆2= 2 0 1  6(5)  10(10)  70
0 5 5
 1 430
I1= =  1.762 A
 244
2 70
I2= =  0.286 A
 244
| I1- I2|= 1.476
P2Ω=(| I1- I2| )2 *2=(1.476)2*2= 4.357 watts
Therefore Power dissipated across 2Ω resistor is 4.357 watts.
Example 2: Find the energy dissipated across 3Ω resistor for the duration of 42
seconds in the given network as shown in fig.

Solution:
For mesh (1)
-10+2I1+2(I1-I2) =0
2I1- I2=5 ……………………………… (1)
For mesh (2)

3 I2+1(I2-I3)+2(I2-I1)=0
2I1-6I2+I3=0 …………………… (2)
For mesh (3)

I3=-I=-2A
Substituting I3 in (2)
2I1-6I2-2=0
2I1-6I2=2 ……………………… (3)
Solving (1) and (3)

2I1- I2=5
2I1-6I2=2
-----------------------
5 I2 =3
I2 =3/5=0.6 A
Power dissipated across 3Ω resistor is

P= I2R = (0.6)23=1.08 watt
Energy dissipated across 3Ω resistor for 42 seconds is

W=Pt = I2Rt= 1.08 X 42= 45.36 Joules
Therefore energy dissipated across 3Ω resistor for 42 seconds is 45.36 Joules.

2.1.1 Super mesh method

The super mesh method can be introduced for any given electrical network if any
two meshes are having common current source without parallel resistance (Ideal
current source). Then voltage across ideal current source cannot be defined, for this
condition to determine the mesh currents use super mesh method.
Steps in Solving the networks using super Mesh analysis:
Consider the below circuit as example for Mesh analysis
Step 1: Identify the two meshes where the common current source is present.
Assume the mesh currents as I1, I2,I3. Here mesh1 and mesh2 are having the
common current source.
Step 2: Assume that there is no ideal current source, then apply KVL for mesh 1 and
mesh 2 simultaneously writing one voltage equation.
-V+ I1 R1+ I2R2+( I2 - I3)R3=0

V= I1 R1+ I2 (R2+ R3) - I3R3 ……………………… (1)
Applying KVL for mesh 3

I3R4+ I3R5 +(I3 - I2)R3=0
- I2R3 +( R4+R5+ R3)I3 =0 ………………………… (2)
Step 3: Define common Ideal current source in terms of mesh currents.

i.e, I=(I2 - I1 ) …………………………………………. (3)
From equations (1), (2) and (3) get the values of I1, I2,I3.
Example 4: Find the voltage across 3Ω resistor in the circuit shown below.

Solution:
Let the mesh currents for three meshes be I 1, I2,& I3
Mesh 1 Mesh 2 are having common Ideal current source then to analyze the circuit
apply super mesh method.
By super mesh method
-10+3I1+2I2+4(I2-I3)=0
10=3I1+6I2-4I3 ………………………… (1)
For mesh (3) by KVL

4I3+20+4(I3- I2) =0
8I3-4I2=-20
I2-2I3=5 ……………………………. (2)
Defining the Ideal current source value
I1-I2 = 2 ……………………………… (3)
By Crammer’s method
10 3 6  4  I 1 
5   0 1  2  I 
     2
2  1  1 0   I 3 
3 6 4
∆= 0 1  2  3(2)  6(2)  4(1)  6  12  4  14
1 1 0
10 6  4
∆1= 5 1  2  10(2)  6(4)  4(5  2)  20  24  28  16
2 1 0
 1  16
I1= = 8/7
  14
Voltage across the 3Ω resistor V3 =R3I1 =3*8/7=3.428V
2.2 Nodal Analysis:
A node is a point in a network, where two or more elements meet. Nodal analysis
is a combination of KCL (Kirchhoff’s Current Law) and ohm’s law.
Steps in solving the networks using Nodal analysis:
Consider the below circuit as example for Mesh analysis

Step 1: Identify the number of principle nodes in the given circuit. (3 principle
nodes in this case).
Step 2: Assume the node voltage and consider one node as a reference node
which should be connected to the ground (potential as 0V)
Step 3: Apply KCL first and Ohm’s law next at every node, and obtain the current
equations.
At node V1 (assume V1>V, V1>V2)
I1+I2+I3 =0
𝑉1 −𝑉 𝑉1 −𝑉2 𝑉1 −0
+ + =0
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
1 1 1 𝑉2 𝑉
𝑉1 [ + + ] − = ……………………….. (1)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅2 𝑅1
At node V2 (assume V2>V, V2>V1)

I2’+I4 =I
V2 − V1 V2 − 0
+ =𝐼
R2 R4
1 1 𝑉1
𝑉2 [ + ] − = 𝐼 ……………………….. (2)
𝑅2 𝑅4 𝑅2
Step 4: Determine V1 and V2 by using the normal method or Matrix method.
Example 5: Find the voltage drop across 3 Ω resistance for a given network as
shown in figure.
Soln: At node V1
I= I1+I2
2= I1+I2
𝑉1 −0 𝑉1 −𝑉2
+ =2
2 3
𝑉1 𝑉1 −𝑉2
+ =2
2 3
1 1 𝑉2
𝑉1 (2 + 3) − =2
3

5V1-2V2=12 ………………………….. (1)

At node V1
I1’+I2’+I3’ =0
𝑉2 −10−0 𝑉2 −𝑉1 𝑉2 −0
+ + =0
4+2 3 4
1 1 1 10 𝑉1
𝑉2 ( + + ) − − =0
6 3 4 6 3
9𝑉2 − 4𝑉1 = 20……………………….. (2)
From (1) & (2)
20V1-8V2=48
-20V1+45V2=100
37V2=148
V2 = 4 V
From (1)
5V1-8=12
V1 = 4V
Voltage drop across 3 Ω resistor = |V1- V2| =|4-4|=0
Therefore 3 Ω resistor is short circuited and voltage drop across it is zero.
Example 5: Find the resistance value of the ‘R’ for the give circuit.
R
2 V 3
2A 19/6 A
6V 6 12V
Solution: By assuming the unknown principal voltage as V across the 6 Ω resistance

Applying KCL at node ‘V’
𝑉−6 𝑉−0 𝑉−12

+ + =0
2 6 3
1 1 1
𝑉( + + )−3−4 = 0
2 3 6
V(1)=7 ; V=7V
Let i be the current through (R)
At node 12V At node 6V
19/6= (12-6)/R + (12-7)/3 2 = (7-6)/2 + (12-6)/R
6/R = 19/6 – 10/6 6/R = 2- 1/2

R=4 R=4
Therefore The resistance for the given circuit ‘R’ = 4 Ω
2.2.1 Super node method
If two nodes in any electrical network are having common Ideal Voltage source
(A voltage source without series resistance) then between those two nodes we cannot
define the current, then use the super node to analyze the circuit.
Consider the below circuit as example for Super node analysis.
Step 1: Identify the two nodes which are having common Ideal voltage source.
Step 2: Assume that there is no voltage source in between them, apply KCL at
two nodes write down in common current equation.
Step 3: Define common Ideal voltage source value in terms of unknown nde
voltages.
Step 4: Solve the obtained equations to get the unknown values.
Nodes Va and Vb are having common Ideal voltage source

By KCL at Va and Vb (By considering no voltage source between Va and Vb )
𝑉𝑎 −𝑉1 −0 𝑉𝑎 −0 𝑉𝑏 −𝑉2 𝑉𝑏 −0
+ + + =0
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅4 𝑅3
1 1 1 1 𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑉𝑎 [ + ]+𝑉𝑏 [ + ]= + ………… (1)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅4 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅4
Define the Ideal voltage source

Va - Vb =V ………………………. (2)
From (1) and (2)solving Va and Vb can be found

Example 6: Find the value of I for the given circuit shown in the below fig.
Solution:
Let V1 and V2 be the nodes
V1 and V2 have common Ideal Voltage source (12V) By KCL at V1 and V2 writing down in
one equation.
𝑉1 −10 𝑉1 −0 𝑉2 −0
+ + + 2 =0
4 2 4
3 V1 + V2 =2 ………………… (1)
By defining the ideal voltage source

V1 - V2 =12 ……………………… (2)
From (1) and (2)
4 V1=14 V1 = 3.5V
V1 = 12+ V2
V2 = 3.5-12 = -8.5 V
I = V2 /4= -8.5/4 =-2.125 A
2.3. Star - Delta (Y- ∆ ) transformation

The methods of series, parallel and series – parallel combination of elements do not
always lead to simplification of networks. Such networks are handled by Star Delta
transformation.

Figure a shows three resistances Ra, Rb, Rc connected in star to three nodes A,B,C
and a common point N & figure b shows three resistances connected in delta between
the same three nodes A,B,C. If these two networks are to be equivalent then the
resistance between any pair of nodes of the delta connected network of a) must be the
same as that between the same pair of nodes of the star – connected network of fig b).
1.3.1. Star resistances in terms of delta
Equating resistance between node pair AB

𝑅𝑎𝑏 𝑅𝑏𝑐 +𝑅𝑎𝑏 𝑅𝑐𝑎
Ra + Rb = Rab // (Rbc + Rca ) = _ (1)
𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 +𝑅𝑐𝑎
Similarly for node pair BC

𝑅𝑏𝑐 𝑅𝑐𝑎 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑏
Rb + Rc = Rbc // (Rca + Rab ) = _ (2)
For Node pair CA
𝑅𝑐𝑎 𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑐𝑎 𝑅𝑏𝑐
Rc + Ra = Rca // (Rab + Rbc ) = _ (3)
Subtracting 2 from 3 gives
𝑅𝑐𝑎 𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑏

Ra – Rb = _ (4)
Adding 1 and 4 gives

𝑅𝑎𝑏 𝑅𝑐𝑎
Ra = _ (5)
Similarly
𝑅𝑏𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑏
Rb = _ (6)

𝑅𝑐𝑎 𝑅𝑏𝑐
Rc = _ (7)
Thus the equivalent star resistance connected to a node is equal to the product
of the two delta resistances connected to the same node decided by the sum of delta
resistances.
1.3.2. Delta resistances in terms of star resistances:
Dividing (5) by (6) gives

𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑐𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏𝑐
= ∴ 𝑅𝑐𝑎 =
𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑏𝑐 𝑅𝑏
Dividing (5) by (6) gives

𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎𝑏 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏𝑐
= ∴ 𝑅𝑎𝑏 =
𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑏𝑐 𝑅𝑐
Substituting for Rab & Rca in equation (5) simplifying gives

RaRbc RaRbc
Rc Rb
Ra = R R
a bc RaRbc
Rc
+ R +Rbc
b
Rbc2
Ra(R R )
b c
Ra =
R R R
Ra ( Rbc+ Rbc + Rbc )
c b a
Rbc Rbc Rbc Rbc 2

Ra ( + + ) = Ra ( )
Rc Rb Ra Rb Rc
Rbc (Rb Rc +Ra Rc +Ra Rb ) Rbc 2

=
Ra Rb Rc Ra R b Rc
(Rb Rc +Ra Rc +RaRb )

Rbc =
Ra
Rc Ra
= Rb + R c +
Rb
Rc Ra Ra Rb
Similarly Rca = Rc + Ra + and Rab = Ra + Rb +
Rb Rc
Thus the equivalent Delta resistance between two nodes is the sum of two star
resistances connected to those nodes plus the product of the same two star resistances
divided by the third star resistance.
RA RB R1 R2
R1 = RA = R1 + R2 +
RA +RB +RC R3
RA RC R1 R3
R2 = RB = R1 + R3 +
RA +RB +RC R2

RB RC R2 R3
R3 = RC = R2 + R3 +
RA +RB +RC R1
If all are similar resistors and equal to R

R2 R
R1 = = R A = 3R
3R 3
PROBLEMS:
1.) Convert the following circuit in to star circuit
RA RB
Sol.) R1= =13*12/(13+12+14)=4 ohm
RA +RB +RC
RA RC
R2= =13*14/(13+12+14)=4.66 ohm
RA +RB +RC
RB RC
R3= =12*14/(13+12+14)=4.31 ohm
RA +RB +RC
2.) Convert the following circuit in to delta circuit
R1 R2
Sol.) RA = R1 + R2 + =5+20+5*20/10=35 ohm
R3
R1 R3
RB = R 1 + R 3 + =20+10+20*10/5=70 ohm
R2
R2 R3
RC = R 2 + R 3 + =5+10+5*10/20=17.5 ohm
R1


GENERATION OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGES & CURRENTS
Alternating voltages may be generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic field & by

rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil.
The value of the voltage generated depends, in each coil, upon the no of turns on
the coil, strength of the field & the speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.
Equations of alternating voltages & Currents:
2𝜋
E(t) = Em sinθ = Em sin ( 𝑇 )t
2𝜋
I = Im sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = Im sin ( 𝑇 )
T = time – period of alternating voltage or Current = 1/f

∴ Induced emf varies as sine function of the time angle wt & when emf is plotted against
time, a curve simulated below is obtained.
Thus curve varies in this manner is known as sinusoidal.
Terms used for periodic functions
1. Alternating quantity: - It is one which is changing w.r.t time e.g., V(t) , i(t), p(t)
It is period i.e its variation repeats with certain periodicity.
Direct current quantity:

It is constant and is not changing w.r.t time e.g., V,I
2. Wave form or wave shape:

The graphical representation of the variation of ac quantity w.r.t to time
3. Cycle: One complete set of variations of an alternating quantity.
4. Time period (T): It is the time taken for completing one cycle. It is expressed in
seconds (or) radius.
5. Frequency (f): The number of cycles completed in one second is called frequency
& it is expressed in cycles/second or Hertz.
1 1
f= or T=
𝑇 𝑓
1 cycle = 2∏ radians, T sec = 2∏ radians

2∏
1 sec =
𝑇

6. Angular velocity: Angular traced at in one second is called angular velocity ω

2∏
= 2∏f (θ = ωt at t = 1 then θ = ω)
𝑇
7. Amplitude: The maximum value of alternating quantity is called an amplitude.
Root mean square value:
The R.M.S. value of an alternating current is given by that steady (dc) current
which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same heat as
produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the same
time. It is also known as the effective or virtual value of th4e alternating current.
For computing the R.M.S. value, of symmetrical sinusoidal alternating currents,

either mid-ordinate method or analytical method may be used, although for symmetrical
but non – sinusoidal wires, the mid ordinate method would be found more convenient.
Analytical method:
The standard form of a sinusoidal alternating current is I = I m sin ωt = Im sinθ.

The mean of the squares of the instantaneous values of current over one complete cycle
is (even the value over half a cycle will do).
2𝜋 𝑖 2 𝑑𝜃
= ∫0
2𝜋−0
2𝜋 𝑖 2 𝑑𝜃
The square root of this value is = √(∫0 )
2𝜋
Hence, the r.m.s value of the alternating current is
2𝜋 𝑖 2 𝑑𝜃 𝐼𝑚 2 2𝜋
I = √(∫0 ) = √( 2𝜋 ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 ) (put I = Im sin𝜃)
2𝜋
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
Now, cos 2𝜃 = 1- 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃 =
2
𝑖 2 2𝜋 𝑖𝑚 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 2𝜋
I=√
𝑚
∫0 (1 − cos 2𝜃 )𝑑𝜃 = √( 4𝜋 |𝜃 − | 0)
4𝜋 2
2 2
𝑖𝑚 𝑖 𝐼𝑚
= √( 4𝜋 𝑋2𝜋)= √ 𝑚2 ∴I= = 0.707𝐼𝑚
√2
Hence, we find that for a symmetrical sinusoidal current

RMS value of current = 0.707 X max. value of current.
𝐼𝑚 2 1 2
Average heating effect is produced during 1 cycle = I2 R = ( )𝑅 = 𝐼 𝑅
√2 2 𝑚
RMS value of a complex wave:
In case of complex wave also either mid – ordinate method (when equation of the
wave is not known) or analytical method ( when equation of the wave is known )

Let a current equation be given by
π
I =12sin ωt +6 sin (3 ωt – 9/6 ) + 4∫ (125ωt + 3) flow through a resistor of R ohm.
Then, in the time period T second of the wave, the effect due to each component is as
below
12 2
Fundamental – ( ) 𝑅𝑇 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
√2
6 2
3rd harmonic - ( ) 𝑅𝑇 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
√2
4 2
5th harmonic - ( ) 𝑅𝑇 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
√2
∴ Total heating effect of the complex wave, then equivalent heating effect is I 2RT
12 2 6 2 4 2
I2RT = RT [( ) + ( ) + ( ) ]
√2 √2 √2
If I is the rms value of complex wave, then equivalent heating effect is I 2RT.
12 2 6 2 4 2
I2RT = RT [( ) + ( ) + ( ) ]
√2 √2 √2
12 2 6 2 4 2
I = RT √[( ) + ( ) + ( ) ] = 9.74 A
√2 √2 √2
If a direct current of 5 amp flowing of flowing in the circuit also, then the rms value
would have been
12 2 6 2 4 2
√[( ) + ( ) + ( ) + 52 ] = 10.93
√2 √2 √2
∴ For a complex wave --- the rms value of a complex current wave is equal to the
square root of the sine of the squares of the rms value of its individual components.
# Calculate the rms value, form factor & of a periodic voltage having the following
values for equal time intervals changing suddenly from one value to next – 0, 5, 10, 20,
50, 60, 50, 20, 10, 5, -10 -20 -50-20-10-5-0
02 +52 +102 +202 +502 +602 +502 +202 +102 +52
VRMS =
10
= √965 = 31𝑉
0+5+10+20+50+60+50+20+10+5
VAV = = 23𝑉
10
RMS value 31
FF = = = 1.35
Average value 23

Average value:
The average value Ia of an alternating current is expressed by that steady current

which transforms across any circuit the same change as is transformed by that
alternating current during the same time.
Hence, in their case, the average value is obtained by adding or integrating the
instantaneous values of current over one half – cycle.
a) Mid – ordinate method

𝑖1+ 𝑖2+ 𝑖3+ 4…+𝑖𝑛
IAV =
𝑛
This method may be used for sinusoidal & non – sinusoidal waves.
b) Analytical method
The standard equation of an alternating current, I = Im sin𝜃
𝜋 𝑖𝑑𝜃 𝐼𝑚 𝜋
Iav = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0 ∫ (𝜋−0) 𝜋 0∫
𝐼𝑚 𝜋 𝐼 2𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
[− 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] = 𝑚 [+1 − (−1)] = =
𝜋 0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋/2
Twice the maximum current

π
𝐼𝑚
Iav = = 0.637 𝐼𝑚
1/2𝜋
[RMS value is always given than average value except in the case of a rectangular wave
when both are equal]
Form factor:
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 0.707 𝐼𝑚
Kf = = = 1.1
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 0.637 𝐼𝑚
Crest or peak or Amplitude factor:
maximum value Im
It is defined as the ratio Ka = = =√2 = 1.414(for sinusoidal a.c.
rms value Im /√2
only)
Em
For sinusoidal alternating voltage also Ka = = 1.414
Em /√2
Knowledge of this factor is of importance in dielectric insulation testing, because the

dielectric stress to which the insulation is subjected, is proportional to the maximum or

peak value of the applied voltage. The knowledge is also necessary when measuring
iron losses, because the iron loss depends on the value of maximum flux.
Single phase AC circuits:
In dc circuits, voltage applied & current flowing are constant w.r.t time & to the
solution to pure dc circuits can be analyzed simply by applying ohm`s law.
In ac circuits, voltage applied and currents flowing change from instant to instant.
If a single coil is rotated in a uniform magnetic field, the currents thus induces are
called single phase currents.
A.C. Through pure Ohmic resistance only:
The circuit is shown in Fig Let the applied voltage be given by the equation.
V = Vm 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
Let R = Ohmic resistance; I = instantaneous current.
Obviously, the applied voltage has to supply Ohmic voltage drop only. Hence for
equilibrium
V = iR (i)
𝑉𝑚
Putting the value of V from above, we get 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝑖𝑅; 𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 ( ii)
𝑅
Current `i` is maximum when sin𝜔𝑡 is unity

∴ Im = Vm/R
Hence, equation (ii) becomes,
I = Im sin 𝜔𝑡
Comparing (i) And (ii), we find that the alternating voltage and current are in phase
with each other as shown in fig. It is also shown vectorially by vectors VR and I in fig

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Power. Instantaneous power, P = Vi = - 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡
2 2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Power consists of a constant part and a fluctuating part 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡 of frequency
2 2
double that of voltage and current waves. For a complete cycle the average of
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡 is zero
Hence, power for the whole cycle is

𝑽𝒎 𝑰 𝒎 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= 𝟐
= =X
√𝟐 √𝟐
P = VI Watts
Where V = rms value of applied voltage.
I = rms value of the current.
It is seen from the fig that no part of the power cycle becomes negative at any
time. In other words, in a purely resistive circuit, power is never zero. This is so
because the instantaneous values of voltage and current are always either both positive
and negative and hence the product is always positive.
A.C. Through Pure Inductance Alone:
Whenever an alternating voltage is applied to a purely inductive coil, a back e.m.f.

is produced due to the self-inductance of the coil. As there is no Ohmic voltage drop,
the applied voltage has to overcome this self – induced e.m.f. Only. So at every step
𝑑𝑖
V=L
𝑑𝑡
Now V = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝐿 ∴ 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
𝑉𝑚
Integrating both sides we get, I = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿

𝑉𝑚
(− cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝜔𝐿
𝑉𝑚 𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝜋
(sin 𝜔𝑡 − ) = (sin 𝜔𝑡 − )
𝜔𝐿 2 𝑋𝐿 2
𝑉𝑚 𝜋
Max value of I is 𝐼𝑚 = 𝜔𝐿
when 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 2 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜋
Hence, the equation of the current becomes I = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 2 )
Clearly, the current lags behind the applied voltage by a quarter cycle (fig) or the
𝜋
phase deference between the two is with voltage leading. Vectors are shown in fig.
2
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
where voltage has been taken along the reference axis. We have seen that I m = = .
𝜔𝐿 𝑋𝐿
Here 𝜔𝐿 plays the part of `resistance`. It is called the (inductive) reactance X L of the
coil and is given in ohms if L is in Henry and 𝜔 is in radians/second.
Now, XL = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑙 𝑜ℎ𝑚. It is seen that XL depends directly on frequency of the

voltage Higher the value of f, greater the reactance offered and vice-versa.

𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Power: Instantaneous power = Vi = Vm Im 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − ) = − sin 2 𝜔𝑡
2 2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 2𝜋
Power for whole cycle is P = 2
∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
It is also clear from fig that the average demand of power from the supply for a
complex cycle is zero. Here again it is seen that power wave is a sine wave of frequency
double that of the voltage and current waves. The maximum value of the instantaneous
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
power is 2
A.C. Through pure capacitance alone :
When an alternating voltage is applied to the plates of a capacitor, the capacitor is

charged first in one direction and then in the opposite direction. When reference to fig.
V = p.d. developed between plates at any instant.
q = Charge on plates at that instant.
Then q = cv (where C is the capacitance)
= C Vm sin 𝜔𝑡. putting the value of v
Now, current I is given by the rate of flow of charge.

𝑑𝑞 𝑑 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝜋
∴i= 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡
(𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡) = 𝜔 𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 1/𝜔𝑐
cos 𝜔𝑡 = 1/𝜔𝑐
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 2 )
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝜋
Obviously,𝐼𝑚 = 1/𝜔𝑐
= 𝜔𝑐
∴ 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 2 )
The denominator Xc = 1/𝜔𝐶 is known as capacitive reactance and is in ohms if C

is in farad and 𝜔 in radian/second. It is seen that if the applied voltage is given by V =
𝜋
Vm sin 𝜔𝑡, then the current is given by I = I m sin (𝜔𝑡 + 2 ).
Hence we find that the current in a pure capacitor leads its voltage by a quarter
𝜋
cycle as shown in fig. or phase difference between its voltage and current is with the
2
current leading. Vector representation is given in fig. Note that V c is taken along the
reference axis.

Power Instantaneous power
P = Vm sin𝜔𝑡Im sin (𝜔𝑡 + 900 )

𝟏
= Vm Im sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 = V I sin2
𝟐 m m
𝜔𝑡
Power for the whole cycle

𝟏 2𝜋
= 𝟐 Vm Im ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
This fact is graphically illustrated in fig. we find that in a purely capacitive circuit.
the average demand of power from supply is zero ( as in a purely inductive circuit).
Again, it is seen that power wave is a sine wave of frequency double that of the voltage
Vm I m
and current waves. The maximum value of the instantaneous power is 2
.
A.C. Through Resistance and inductance:
A pure resistance R and a pure inductive coil of inductance L are shown connected
in series in fig.
Let V = r.m.s. value of the applied Voltage, I = r.m.s. value of the resultant
current VR = IR – Voltage drop across R ( in phase with I), VL = I.XL – voltage drop
across coil (ahead of I by 900)

These voltage drops are shown in voltage triangle OAB in fig. Vector OA represents
Ohmic drop VR and AB represents inductive drop VL. The applied V is the vector sum of
the two i.e. OB
𝑉
∴ V = √(𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 ) = √[(𝐼𝑅2 + (𝐼. 𝑋𝐿 )2 )] = 𝐼 √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 ,
2 2 2
=𝐼
√(𝑅)2 +𝑋𝐿 2
The quantity √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 , is known as the impedance (Z) of the circuit. As seen from the
impedance triangle ABC (fig,) Z2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2
i.e (impedance)2 = (resistance)2 + (Reactance)2
From fig. it is clear that the applied voltage V leads the current I by an angle Ф such
that
𝑉𝐿 𝐼 .𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿 𝜔𝐿 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑋𝐿
tanФ = = = = = ∴ ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑉𝑅 𝐼.𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅
The same fact is illustrated graphically in fig.
In other words, current I lags behind the applied voltage V by an angle ∅. Hence, if
applied voltage is given by v = Vm sin ωt, then current equation is
i = Im sin (ωt - ∅) where Im = Vm/Z
IIn fig. I has been resolved in to its two mutually perpendicular components, I cos
Ф along the applied voltage V and I sin Ф in quadrature (i.e. perpendicular) with V.

The mean power consumed by the circuit is given by the product of V and that
component of the current I which is in phase with V
So P = V X I cos Ф = r.m.s. voltage X r.m.s. current X cos Ф
The term cos Ф is called the power factor of the circuit
Remember that in an a.c. circuit, the product of r.m.s. amperes gives volt
ampere (VA) and not true power in watts. True power (W) = volt amperes (VA) power
factor.
Or Watts = VA cos Ф0 Or
It should be noted that power consumed is due to Ohmic resistance only because
pure inductance does not consume any power.
Now P = VI cos Ф = VI X (R/Z) = V/Z X IR = I2R (∵ cos Ф = R/Z) or P = I2R watt.

Graphical representation of the power consumed is shown in fig.
Let us calculate power in terms of instantaneous values.

Instantaneous power is = vi = vm sin ωt X Im sin (ωt – Ф ) = Vm Im sin ωt sin (ωt – Ф )
1
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 [𝑐𝑜𝑠Ф − cos(2ωt – Ф )]
Obviously this consists of two parts

1
A constant part 2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 of which contributes to real power
1
A pulsating component 2 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(2ωt – Ф ) which has a frequency twice that of the
voltage and current. It does not contribute to actual power since its average value over
a complete cycle is zero.
1 Vm I m
Hence, average power consumed 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ф = . cosФ = VI cosФ where V and I
2 √2 √2
represent rms values.
Symbolic notation
Impedance vector has numerical value of
Its phase angle with the reference axis is
It may also be expressed in the polar form as

i) Assuming
It shows that current vector is lagging behind the voltage vector by

The numerical value of current is

ii) However, If we assume that
It shows that voltage vector is a head of current vector is ccw direction as

shown in fig.
Power factor: it may be defined as

i) Cosine of the angle of lead or lag
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
ii) The ratio R/Z =
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
True power Watts W
iii) The ratio = = =
Apperent power Volt−amp VA
Active and reactive components of circuit current I :
Active component is that which is in phase with the applied voltage V i.e Icos Ф.
It is also known as ‘wattful’ component.
Reactive component is that which quadrature is with . it is also

known as ‘watt less’ or ‘idle’ component.
It should be noted that the product of volts and amperes in an a.c. circuit gives
voltamperes (VA). Out of this, the actual power is and reactive power is
expressing the values in KVA, we find that it has two regular components :
(1) Active component which is obtained by multiplying KVA by and this gives power
in KW.
(2) The reactive component known as reactive KVA and is obtained by multiplying
KVA by . It is written as KVAR(kilovar). The following relations can be
easily deduced.
These relationships can be easily understood by referring to the KVA triangle of

fig.13.10. where it should be noted that lagging KVAR has been taken as
negative.
For example, suppose a circuit draws a current of 1000A at a voltage of 20,000
V and has a power factor of 0.8. Then

ACTIVE, REACTIVE AND APPARENT POWER
Let a series circuit draw a current of when an alternating voltage of r.m.s value V is
applied to it. suppose that current lags behind the applied voltage by Ф. The three
powers drawn by the circuit are as under:
i) Apparent power(s): It is given by the product of rms values of applied

Voltage and circuit current.
S = VI = (IZ).I = I2Z volt-amperes (VA)
ii) Active power (P or W): It is the power which is actually dissipated in the
circuit resistance. P = I2R = VI cos Ф watts
iii) Reactive power (Q) : It is t he power developed in the inductive reactance

of the circuit.
Q = I2XL = I2.Z sin Ф = I . (IZ).sin Ф = VI sin Ф volt-amp reactive (VAR)
These three powers are shown in the power triangle of fig. from where it can
be seen that
S2 = P2 + Q2 or √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 .
A.C. Through Resistance and capacitance:
This circuit is shown in fig. here VR = IR = drop across R in phase with I.
As capacitive reactance Xc is taken negative, Vc is shown along negative direction

if Y- axis in the voltage triangle

The denominator is called the impedance of the circuit. So

Impedance triangle is shown in fig.
From fig. (b) it is found that I leads V by angle such that
Hence, it means that if the equation of the applied alternating voltage is v = V m

sinωt, the equation of the resultant current in the T-C circuit is I = Im sin (ωt + Ф ) so
that current leads the applied voltage by an angle . This fact is shown graphically in
fig.
Example: An A.C. voltage (80+j 600 volts is applied to a circuit and the current
flowing is (-4+j 10 ) amperes. Find (i) inpedance of the circuit (ii) power consumed and
(iii) phase angle.
Solution:
V=
Hence
(iii) Phase angle between voltage and current = 74.90 with current leading as shown.

Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in series:
The three are shown in fig. (a) Joined in series across an a.c. supply of r.m.s.
voltage V
Let VR = IR = Voltage drop across R ---- in phase with I

VL = I.XL = Voltage drop across L ---- Leading I by
VC = IXC = = Voltage drop across C ---- Lagging I by
Then the term is known as the impedance of the circuit. Obviously,

(impedance) = (resistance) + (net reactance)2
2 2
Where X is the net reactance (fig)

Phase angel Ф is given by net reactance /resistance
Power factor is
Hence, it is seen that if the equation of the applied voltage is then

equation of the resulting current in an R-L-C circuit is given by
The positive sign is to be used when current lags i,e,

The negative sign is to be used when current lags i.e when
In general, the current lags or leads the supply voltage by an angle Ф such that
Using symbolic notation, we have

Numerical value of impedance
Its phase is

TRANSFORMERS
Transformer is an ac machine; the main advantage of alternating currents over

direct currents is that, the alternating currents can be easily transferable from low
voltage to high or high voltage to low.
Alternating voltages can be raised or lowered as per the requirements in the

different stages of electrical network as generation, transmission, distribution and
utilization. This is possible with a device called transformer.
Definition:
Transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which electrical power is

transferred from one alternating current circuit to another with the desired
change in voltage or current and without any change in the frequency.
Principle of operation:
It is a static machine and it works on the principle of statically induced emf. It

consists of:
 Magnetic circuit and

 Electric circuit
Two separate electrical windings are linked through a common magnetic circuit.
The two electrical windings are isolated from each other.
The coil in which electrical energy is fed is called primary winding while the other
from which electrical energy is drawn out is called secondary winding.
The primary winding has N1 number of turns while secondary winding has N2
number of turns.
When primary winding is excited by alternating voltage say V 1, it circulates

alternating current I1 through it. This current produces an alternating flux ‘’
which completes its path through the common magnetic core.
Lecture Notes 1 Md.Asif

This flux links with both the windings. Because of this, it produces self induced
emf E1 in the primary winding while due to mutual induction i.e. due to flux
produced by primary linking with secondary, it produces induced emf E 2 in
secondary winding.
These emf’s are:

d d
E1   N1 E2   N2
dt dt
If now secondary circuit is closed through the load, the mutually induced emf in
the secondary winding circulates current through the load. Thus electrical energy
is transferred from primary to secondary with the help of magnetic core. A
voltage V2 appears across the load. Hence V1 is the supply voltage, while V2 is the
secondary voltage when load is connected, then:
V1 N N 
 1 or V2  V1  2 
V2 N2  N1 
N2 E
k   2  Transformation ratio
N1 E1
If k > 1, then V2 > V1, transformer is called step up transformer.
If k < 1, then V2 < V1, transformers is called step down transformers.
If k = 1, then V2 = V1, then transformer is called one to one transformer.
The current flowing through primary is I 1 and when load is connected current I2
flows through secondary voltage. The power transfer from primary to secondary
remains the same. Assuming both primary and secondary power factor to be the
same, we can write:
Power input to primary = Power output from secondary
V1 N
V1 I1 = V2 I2  I 2  1  E1
V2 I1 N2 E 2
Construction of a transformer:
There are basic parts of a transformer:
(1) Magnetic core

(2) Windings or coils
(3) Tank or Body
(4) Conservator Tank
(5) Breather
(6) Radiator
(7) Bushings

Core: The transformer core is made of silicon steel or sheet steel with 4 %
silicon. The sheets are laminated and are coated with Oxide layer to reduce iron
losses. The thickness of lamination is 0.35mm for 60 Hz and 5mm for 25Hz.
The core of the transformer is either square or rectangular in size. It is

further divided in to two parts. The vertical portion on which coils are wound is
called limb while the top and bottom horizontal portion is called yoke of the core.
The core is made up of laminations. Because of laminated type of

construction, eddy current losses get minimized. Generally high-grade silicon
steel laminations are used. These laminations are insulated from each other by
using insulation like varnish.
The purpose of the core is to provide magnetic path of low reluctance between
the two windings so that the total flux produced by one of the winding will be
linked fully with the other winding without any leakage.
Windings: A transformer has two windings. The winding which receives

electrical energy is called Primary winding and the winding which delivers
electrical energy is called Secondary winding. Windings are generally made up of
High grade copper. The windings are provided with insulation so that one winding
may not come in contact with the other winding. Generally cotton, Paper and
Oxide layer is used as insulating medium.
Tank or Body: It is part which is meant to carry the transformer and the oil used
in the transformer. The tank used for a transformer should be air tight so that
moisture should also not enter into the tank so as to maintain the properties of
the transformer oil.
Transformer Oil: It is the most important part of a transformer which decides

the life of a transformer. The oil that is used in a transformer should be safe
guarded properly so as to have a good life for a transformer.

Conservator Tank: When a transformer is oil filled and self cooled the oil in the
tank is subjected to heat and thus will naturally expand and contract due to
variations in the load current and is also subjected to seasonal variations. The
conservator tank provides the means for the oil to settle down by expanding
under heavy loads.
Breather: Transformer oil should not be exposed to atmosphere directly because

it may absorb
Moisture and dust from the environment and may loose its electrical properties in
a very short time. To avoid this from happening a breather is provided. The
breather completely prevents the moisture and dust from coming into contact
with the oil in the conservator tank when it expands or contracts.
Bushings: The purpose of Bushings is to provide proper insulation for the output
leads to be taken out from the transformer tank. Bushings are generally of two
types.
a)Porcelain type which are used for voltage ratings uptp33kv
b)Condensor type and Oil filled type are used for rating above 33kv
Radiator: These are meant to increase the surface area of the tank also to
provide a path for the circulating of the transformer oil.
Types Of Transformers:
The transformers are classified based on the relative position or arrangement of

the core & the windings, based on cooling and based on Voltage.
a)Based on arrangement of the core & the windings transformers are classified as
 Core type
 Shell type
Core type Transformer
It has a single magnetic circuit. In this type, winding encircles the core, coils used
are of cylindrical type. Such coils are wound in helical layers with different layers
insulated from each other by paper, cloth, mica, etc. Core is made up of large
number of thin laminations to reduce eddy current losses.
The windings are uniformly distributed over two limbs and hence natural cooling
is more effective.
The coils can be easily removed by removing laminations of top yoke for
maintenance.

Shell type transformer
It has a double magnetic circuit. In this type core encircles the most part of the
winding. The core is again laminated one and while arranging the laminations,
care is taken that all joints at alternate layers are staggered.
This is done to avoid narrow air gap at the joint, right through the cross section of
the core.Such joints are called as overlapped. The coils are multi-layered disc
type or sandwich type coils and are placed on only one limb and are surrounded
by the core. So natural cooling does not exist.
b)Based on Voltage
 Step up
 Step Down
Step up transformer is a transformer where the Output Voltage is greater

than input Voltage i,e V2>V1
Step down transformer is a transformer where the Output Voltage is less
than input Voltage i,e V2<V1
Transformation Ratio =V2/V1=N2/N1

Where N2,N1 are number of turns in secondary and primary windings.
c)Based on cooling:
 Oil cooled
 Oil filled water cooled
 Air cooled
EMF equation of a transformer:
Primary winding is excited by a voltage, which is alternating in nature. This

circulates current through primary, which is also alternating and hence the flux
produced is also sinusoidal in nature.

Let  = flux in the core
 m = Bm X A
N1 = number of turns in the primary winding
N2 = number of turns in the secondary winding
f = frequency of ac input in Hz.
The flux increases from its zero value to maximum value m in one quarter of the
cycle i.e., in ¼ f second.

Average rate of change of flux = m = 4 f  m wb/sec
¼f
Rate of change of flux per turn means induced emf in volts
Average emf / turn = 4 f m volt.
If flux  varies sinusoidally then rms value of induced emf is obtained by

multiplying the average value with the form factor.
rms vaue
Form factor =  1.11
average value
rms value of emf/ turn = 1.11 x 4 f m = 4.44 f m
Now rms value of induced emf

in the whole of primary winding = induced emf / turn x number of primary turns
E1 = 4.44 f N1 m = 4.44 f N1 Bm A
Similarly, rms value of emf induced in secondary is:
E2 = 4.44 f N2 m = 4.44 f N2 Bm A
E1 E
 2  4.44f m
N1 N2
That is, emf/ turn is same in both primary and secondary windings.

In an ideal transformers on no load V1 = E1 & E2 = V2
Where, V2 is the terminal voltage.
Ideal transformers
Transformer is called ideal if it satisfies the following properties:
1. It has no losses
2. Its windings have zero resistance
3. Leakage flux is zero i.e. 100% flux produced by primary links with the
secondary
4. Permeability of core is so high that negligible current is required to

establish the flux in it.
An ideal transformer is one which has no loses i.e., its windings have no ohmic
resistance, there is no magnetic leakage and hence which has no I 2R and core
losses. In other words, an ideal transformer consists of two purely
inductive coils wound on a loss free core.
Problems:
1. The maximum flux density in the core of a 250/3000 volts, 50 Hz single

phase transformer is 1.2 wb/m2. If the emf per turn in 8 volt, determine
a) primary and secondary turns B) area of the core
Solution: a) E1 = N1 x emf induced / turn

N1 = 250/8 = 32 N2 = 3000/8 = 375
b) E2 = 4.44 f N2 Bm A
3000 = 4.44 x 50 x 375 x 1.2 x A
A = 0.03 m2.
2. A single phase transformer has 400 primary and 1000 secondary turns. The
net cross sectional area of the core is 60 cm 2. If the primary winding be
connected to a 50 Hz supply at 520 V, calculate:
a) peak value of flux density in the core

b) the voltage induced in the secondary winding.
Solution: K = N2/N1 = 1000/400 = 2.5
a) E2/E1 = k E2 = k E1= 2.5 x 520 = 1300 V
b) E1 = 4.44 f N1 Bm A 520 = 4.44 x 50 x 400 x Bm x 60 x 10-4.

Bm = 0.976 wb/m2.
3. A 25 KVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the
secondary winding. The primary is connected to 3000V, 50 Hz supply. Find
the full load primary and secondary currents, the secondary emf and the
maximum flux in the core. (Neglect leakage drops and no load primary

current).
N 2 50 1
Solution: K   
N 1 500 10
25000
Full load I1   8.33 A
3000
Full load I2 = I1/K = 10 x 8.33 = 83.3 A
emf per turn on primary side = 3000/500 = 6V
Secondary emf = 6 x 50 = 300 v

(or E2 = KE1 = 3000 x 1/10 = 300 v)
E1 = 4.44 fN1 m
3000 = 4.44 x 50 x 500 x m
m = 27 mwb
Transformer on No-load:
An ideal transformer is one in which there were no core losses and copper losses.
But practical conditions require that certain modifications be made in the
foregoing theory. When an actual transformer is put on load, there is iron loss in
the core and copper loss in the winding (both primary and secondary) and these
losses are not entirely negligible.
Even when the transformer is on no-load the primary input current in not wholly
reactive.
The primary input current under no load conditions has to supply (1) iron losses
in the core i.e. hysteresis loss and eddy current loss and (2) a very small amount
of copper loss in primary (there being no copper loss in secondary as it is open).
Hence, the no load primary input current I o is not at 90o behind V1 but lags it by
an angle 0< 90o. No load input power Wo = V1 Io coso, Where coso is primary
power factor under no load condition.

The primary current Io has two components:
(1) One in phase with V1. This is known as active or working or iron loss
component Io because it mainly supplies the iron loss plus a small quantity
of primary copper loss.
Iw = Io cos o.
(2) The other component is in quadrature with V 1 and is known as

magnetizing component I because its function is to sustain the alternating
flux in the core. It is watt-less.
I = Io sin o
Obviously, Io is the vector sum of Iw and I, hence Io = I 2  Iw2
The following points should be noted carefully.
1. The no-load primary current Io is very small as compared to the full-load

primary current. It is about 1 percent of the full load current.
2. Owing to the fact that the permeability of the core varies with the
instantaneous value of the exciting or magnetizing current is not truly
sinusiodal. As such, it should not be represented by a vector because only
sinusoidally varying quantities are represented by rotating vectors.
3. As Io is very small, the no load primary copper loss is negligibly small

which means that no load primary input is practically equal to the
iron loss in the transformer.
4. As it is principally, the core loss which is responsible for shift in the current
vector, angle o is known as hysteresis angle of advance.
Problem:
a) A 2,200/200–V transformer draws a no load primary current of 0.6 A and

absorbs 400 watts. Find the magnetizing and iron loss currents.
b) A 2200 / 250-V transformer takes 0.5 A at a p.f. of 0.3 on open circuit.

Find magnetizing and working component of no-load primary current.
no  load input in watts V1 I o cos  0

a) Iron – loss current =
primary voltage V1
Iw = 400/2200 = 0.182 A
Now I02  Iw2  I 2
Magnetizing component I = 0.62  0.182 2  0.572 A
c) Io = 0.5
cos0 = 0.3
Iw = I0 cos 0 = 0.5 x 0.3 = 0.15 A
I = 0.52  0.152  0.476 A

Transformer on load:
When the secondary is loaded, the secondary current I 2 is set up. The magnitude
and phase of I2 w.r.t. V2 is determined by the characteristics of load. Current I 2 is
in phase with V2 if load is non-inductive, it lags if load is inductive and it leads if
load is capacitive. The secondary current sets up its own mmf (N2I2) and hence its
own flux 2 which is in opposition to the main flux  which is due to I0.
The secondary ampere turns N2 I2 are known as demagnetizing ampere turns.

The opposing secondary flux 2 weakens the primary flux  hence primary back
emf E1 tends to be reduced. For a moment V 1 gains the upper hand over E1 and
hence causes more current to flow in primary. Let the additional primary current
be I21. It is known as load component of primary current. This current is in
antiphase with I2.
The additional primary mmf N1 I21 sets up its own flux 2l which is in opposition to
2 (but is in the same directions as ) and is equal to it in magnitude. Hence, the
two cancel each outer out. So, the magnetic effects of secondary current I 2 are
immediately neutralized by the additional primary current I 2l which is brought into
existence exactly at the same instant as I2. Hence whatever the load
conditions, the net flux passing through the core is approximately the
same as at no load.
2 = 2l
N2 I2 = N1 I2l
N2
I2l  xI2  kI 2
N1
Hence, when transformer is on load the primary winding has two currents in it;
one is I0 and at the other is I21which is anti-phase with I2 and k times in
magnitude. The total primary current is the vector sum of I 0 and I21.

I1
I 2’ = K I 2 I0
I Iw
The vector diagrams for a loaded transformer when load is non-inductive,

inductive and when it is capacitive is shown. Voltage transformation ratio of unity
is assumed so that primary vectors are equal to secondary vectors.
With reference to the fig. (a) I2 is secondary current in phase with E 2 (it should be
v2). It causes primary current I2l which is anti-phase with it and equal to it in
magnitude (k = 1). The total primary current I 1 is the vector sum of I0 and I2l and
lags behind V1 by an angle 1.
In (b) vectors are drawn for an inductive load. Here I 2 lags E2 (actually V2) by 2.
Current I21 is again in anti-phase with I2 and equal to it in magnitude. I 1 is the
vector sum of I21 and I0 and lags behind V 1 by 1. In (c) vectors are drawn for a
capacitive load.
Problems:
A single phase transformer with a ratio of 440/110-V takes a no-load current of
5A at 0.2 p.f. lagging. If the secondary supplies a current of 120 A at a p.f. of 0.8
lagging, estimate the current taken by the primary.

Cos 2 = 0.8
2 = cos-1 (0.8) = 360 54l
Cos 0 = 0.2
o = Cos (0.2) = 780 30l
Now K = V2 / V1 = 110/440 = 1/4
I2l = K I2 = 120 x 1/4 = 30 A
I0 = 5A
Angle between I0 x I2l
780 30l – 360 54l = 410 36l
Using parallelogram law of vectors, we get
I1 = 52  302  2 x 5 x 30 x cos 410 36| = 34.45 A
Transformer with winding resistance but no magnetic leakage:
An ideal transformer posses no resistance, but in an actual transformer, there is

always present some resistance of the primary and secondary windings. Due to
this resistance, there is some voltage drop in the two windings. The result is that
1. The secondary terminal voltage V2 is vectorially less than the secondary

inducted emf E2 by an amount I2 R2 where R2 is the resistance of the
secondary winding. Hence, V2 is equal to vector difference of E 2 and
resistance voltage drop I2 R2.
V2 = E2 – I2 R2.
2. Similarly primary induced emf E 1 is equal to the vector difference of V 1 and

I1 R1 where R1 is the resistance of the primary winding.
E1 = V1 – I1R1
Transformer with resistance and leakage reactance:
The primary impedance: Z1  R12  x12
The secondary impedance: Z2  R22  x22
The resistance and leakage reactance of each winding is responsible for some
voltage drop in each winding.
In primary, the leakage reactance drop is I 1 X1, hence
V1 = E1 + I1 (R1 + jX1) = E1 + I1 Z1. E1 = V1 – I1 Z1.

Similarly E2 = V1 + I2 (R2 + jX2)
= V2 + I2 Z2 V2 = E2 - I2 Z2.
The vector diagrams for such a transformer for different kinds of loads are shown,
in the diagrams, vectors for resistive drops are drawn parallel to current vectors
where as reactive drops are drawn perpendicular to current vectors.

Vector Diagram
Steps to draw vector diagram:
1. Draw a horizontal line to represent flux line and a vertical line to represent
voltage axis.
2. Draw a line OA in the III quadrant at some inclination to represent V 2 the

terminal voltage.
3. Let I2 be the load current in line with V2 (resistive load)
4. At the tip of V2, draw AB parallel to I2 to represent I2 R2 drop (in line with
V2)
5. At ‘B’ draw BC at right angles to AB to represent I 2 X2 meeting the vertical

line at ‘C’ then OC is equal to secondary induced emf E 2.
6. Produce ‘O’ backwards to ‘D’ such that OD = OC/k then OD represents the
primary induced emf.
7. Produce the current line I2 backwards to F such that OF = KI2. Let ‘OE’ be
equal to the load current ‘I0’ at angle of ‘0’ from E1.
8. Construct the parallelogram OEGF then OG represents the primary current

I1.
9. At the tip of E1 i.e. at D, draw DH equal to I1R1, parallel to OG. At ‘H’ draw
‘HJ’ perpendicular to DH to I1X1 drop
10. V1 is obtained by adding vectorially the impedance drop I 2Z2 to -E1.
Equivalent Resistance:
A transformer with primary and secondary winding resistance of R 1 and R2 can be

transferred to any one of the two windings. The advantage of concentrating both

the resistances in one winding is that it makes calculations very simple and easy
because one has then to work in one winding only.
A resistance of R2 in secondary is equivalent to R2/k2 in primary. The value R2/K2

will be denoted by R2l – the equivalent secondary resistance as referred to
primary.
The copper loss in the secondary is I22 R2. This loss is supplied by the primary
which takes a current of I1. Hence, if R2l is the equivalent resistance in primary
which would have caused the same loss as R2 in secondary, then
I12 R2l = I22 R2

R2l = (I2/I1)2 R2.
If no load current I0 is neglected, then I2/I1 = 1/k
Hence, R2l = R2/k2
Similarly equivalent primary resistance as refereed to secondary is R11 = k2 R1.
The resistance R1 + R2l = R1 + R2/K2 is known as the equivalent or effective

resistance of the transformer as referred to primary and is designated as
R01 = R1 + R21 = R1 + R2/k2.
Similarly the equivalent resistance of the transformer as refereed to secondary
R02 = R2 + R11 = R2 + k2 R1.
1. When shifting resistance to secondary multiply it by k 2.

2. When shifting resistance to primary, divide by k2.
Leakage Reactance:
Leakage Reactance can also be transferred from one winding to the other in the
same way as resistance.
X X
X 2'  22 and X1'  k 2 X1 X 01  X1  X 2'  X1  22
k k
X 02  X 2  X1'  X 2  k 2 X1
Total impedance
2 2 2 2
Z0 1  R0 1  X 0 1 Z0 2  R0 2  X 0 2

Total impedance transferred to primary and secondary side
Example: A 30 KVA, 2400/120 V, 50 Hz transformer has a high voltage winding

resistance of 0.1  and leakage reactance of 0.22  the low voltage winding
resistance is 0.035  and the leakage reactance is 0.012 , find the equivalent
winding resistance, reactance and impedance as referred to
(a) high voltage side (b) low-voltage side
K = 120/2400 = 1/20
R1 = 0.1  X1 = 0.22  R2 = 0.035  and X2 = 0.012 
a) high voltage side is the primary side
Hence values as refereed to primary side are
R2 0.035
Ro1  R1  R21  R1   0.1   14 .1 
k 2
1 / 20 2
X2 0.12
X o1  X1  X 21  X1   0.22   5.02 
k2 1 / 20 2
2 2
Z01  R01  X 01  14.12  5.022  15 
Ro2  R2  R11  R2  k 2 R1  0.035  1 / 20 x 0.1 =

2
b) 0.03525 
X o2  X 2  X11  X 2  k 2 X1  0.012  1 / 20 x 0.22 = 0.01255 

2
2 2
Z02  R02  X 02  0.325 2  0.01255 2
 0.0374 
Z02  k 2 Z01  1 / 20 x 15  0.0375 

2
Equivalent circuit:
The transformer shown in (a) is resolved into an equivalent circuit in which the
resistance and leakage reactance of the transformer are imagined to be external
to the winding whose only function is to transform the voltage. The no-load
current I0 consists of two components, Iw and I therefore, I0 is splitted into two
parallel branches. The current I accounts for the core-loss and hence is shown to
flow through resistance R0.The current I represents magnetizing component and

is shown to flow through a pure reactance X 0 .The value of E1 is obtained by
subtracting vectorially I1Z1 from V1.
Xo = E1/I and Ro = E1/Iw
E1 & E2 are related to each other by the expression E 2 / E1 = N2/N1 = k
Further simplification may be achieved by omitting I 0 altogether as shown below:

W = V1 Io cos o.
Cos o = W/V1Io

I = Io sin o
Iw = Io cos o
Xo = V1/I & Ro = V1/Iw.
I o = V 1 Yo
Yo = Io/V1
Go is given equation W = V12 Go
Go = W/V12
Bo = Y2  G2
0 0
Short-circuit or Impedance Test:
In this test, one winding usually the low-voltage winding is solidly short –
circuited by a thick conductor.
This method is used to find the following parameters.
1. Equivalent impedance (Zo1 or Zo2), leakage reactance (Xo1 or Xo2) and total
resistance (Ro1 or Ro2) of the transformer as refereed to the winding in
which the measuring instruments are placed.
2. Cu loss at full-load (at any desired load). This loss is used in calculating
the efficiency of the transformer.
3. Knowing Z01 or Z02, the total voltage drop in the transformer as referred to
primary or secondary can be calculated and hence regulation of the
transformer determined.
A low voltage at correct frequency is applied to the primary and is cautiously

increased till full-load currents are flowing both in primary and secondary. Since,
in this test the applied voltage is a small percentage of the normal voltage, the
mutual flux  produced is also a small percentage of its normal value.
Hence, core losses are very small with the result that the wattmeter reading
represents the full load copper loss or I2 R loss for the whole transformer i.e. both
primary copper loss and secondary copper loss.
If Vsc is the voltage required to circulate rated load currents, then Z 01 = Vsc / I1

Also, W = I12 R01 R01 = W/I12
2 2
X01 = Z0 1  R0 1
Losses in the transformer:
Losses that occur in a transformer are:
 Core or iron losses

 Copper losses
Core losses:
It includes both the hysteresis loss and eddy current loss. These losses are
minimized by using steel of high silicon content for the core and by using very
thin laminations.
Iron or core loss is found from the O.C test. The input of the transformer when on
no-load measures the core loss.
Hysteresis loss:
When a magnetic material is subjected to repeated cycles of magnetization and

demagnetization it results into disturbance and there will be loss of energy and
this loss of energy appears as heat in the magnetic material. This is called as
hysteresis loss.
Hysteresis loss = kh Bm1.6 f x volume, watts
Where, Kh = constant
Bm = maximum flux density
f = frequency
The hysteresis loss can be reduced by using thin laminations for the core.
Eddy current loss:
Due to alternating fluxes linking with the core, eddy currents get induced in the
laminations of the core. Such eddy currents cause the eddy current loss in the
core and heat up the core.
Eddy current loss can be reduced by selecting high resistivity material like silicon.
The most commonly used method to reduce this loss is to use laminated
construction to construct the core. Core is constructed by stacking thin pieces
known as laminations. The laminations are insulated from each other by thin
layers of insulating material like varnish, paper, mica. This restricts the paths of
eddy currents, to respective laminations only. So area through which currents
flow decreases, increasing the resistance and magnitude of currents gets reduced.
Eddy current loss = Ke Bm2 f2 t2 , watts
Where, Ke = constant
Bm = maximum flux density

f = frequency
t = thickness of the laminations
Copper loss:
This loss is due to the ohmic resistance of the transformer windings.
Total copper loss = I12 R1 + I22 R2 = I12 R01 = I22 R02
Copper loss is proportional to (current)2 or (KVA)2
Copper loss at half the full-load is one fourth of that at full-load.
Efficiency:
output output

input output  cu. loss  ironloss
input  losses losses

 1
input input
Copper loss = I12 R01 or I22R02 = Wcu
Iron losses = hysteresis loss + eddy current loss = Wh + We = Wi
primary input = V1 I1 cos 1
V1 I1 cos 1  losses V1 I1 cos 1  I12 R01  Wi

  =
V1 I1 cos 1 V1 I1 cos 1
I1 R01 Wi
1  
V1 cos 1 V1 I1 cos 1
Differentiating both sides with respect to I 1, we get
d R0 1 Wi
 0 
dI1 V1 cos 1 V1 I12 cos 1
d
For  to be maximum,  0 . Hence
dI1
R0 1 Wi
 or Wi = I12 R01 or I22 R02
V1 cos 1 V1 I12 cos 1
Cu loss = Iron loss

 Wi 
The output current corresponding to maximum efficiency is I 2 =  
 R0 2 
It is this value of output current, which will make the Cu-loss equal to the iron
loss.

1. If we are given iron loss and full load Cu loss, then the load at which two
losses would be equal
Iron loss
Full load x
F. L. cu loss
2. Efficiency at any load
x * full  load kVA * p. f

 X 100
(x * full  load kVA * p. f .)  Wcu.  Wi
Transformer rating in KVA:
Cu loss of a transformer depends on current and iron loss on voltage. Hence, total
transformer loss depends on volt-ampere (VA) and not on phase angle between
voltage and current i.e., it is independent of load power factor. That is why rating
of transformer is in KVA and not in KW.
Regulation of a Transformer
(1) When a transformer is loaded with a constant primary voltage, the

secondary voltage decreases because of its internal resistance and leakage
reactance.
Let, 0V2 = secondary terminal voltage at no-load = E2 = KE1 = KV1

because at no-load the impedance drop is negligible.
V2 = secondary terminal voltage on full-load
The change in secondary terminal voltage from no - load to full-load is

0V2 – V2. This change divided by 0V2 is known as regulation ‘down’. If this
change is divided by V2 i.e., full-load secondary terminal voltage, then it is
called regulation ‘up’.
0 V2  V2
% regulation ‘down’ = x 100
0 V2
0 V2 V2
% regulation ‘up’ = x 100
V2
In further treatment, unless stated otherwise, regulation is to be taken as
regulation ‘down’.
The change in secondary terminal voltage from no-load to full-load,

expressed as a percentage of no-load secondary voltage, is:
= Vr cos   Vx sin  (approximately)
where Vr= percent resistive drop = 100 x I 2 R0 2

0V 2
Vx = percent reactive drop = 100 x I 2 X 0 2

0V 2
or more accurately = (Vr cos   Vx sin) + 1/200 (Vx cos   Vr sin )2

% regulation = Vr cos   Vx sin 
(2) The regulation may also be explained in terms of primary values.
The secondary no-load terminal voltage as referred to primary is

E2| = E2/K = E1 = V1 and if the secondary full-load voltage as referred to
primary is V2| (= V2/K)
V1  V21
% regulation = x 100
V1
If angle between V1 and V2| is neglected, then the value of numerical

difference V1 – V2| is given by (I1 R01 cos  + I1 X01 sin ) for lagging p.f.
I1 R01 cos   I1 X 01 sin 

% regulation = x 100  v r cos   v x sin 
V1
where,
I1 R0 1 x 100 I1 X 0 1 X 100
 vr and  vx
V1 V1
if angle between V1 and V21 is not negligible, then
1
% regulation = v r cos   v x sin    v x cos  v r sin  2
200
Problem 1:
Obtain the equivalent circuit of a 200/400-V,50Hz, 1-phase transformer from the

following test data.
O.C. test: 200V, 0.7A, 70 W on low voltage side

S.C. test: 15V, 10A, 85 W on high voltage side
Calculate the secondary voltage when delivering 5KW at 0.5 p.f. lagging, the
primary voltage being 200V.
Solution:
V1I0cos0 = W0
200 x 0.7 x cos0 = 70w
cos0 = 0.5 sin 0 = 0.866
Iw = I0 cos0 =0.7x 0.5 = 0.35A
I = I0 sin0 =0.7x 0.866 = 0.606A
R0=V1/ Iw =200/0.35 = 571.4 
X0=V1/ I =200/0.606=330 

From S.C. Test:
Z02=Vsc/I2 = 15/10 = 1.5 
Z01=Z02/K2 = 1.5/4 = 0.375 
I22R02 = W; R02 = 85/100 = 0.85 
2 2
X01 = Z0 1  R0 1 = 0.31 
2 2
X02 = Z0 2  R0 2 = 1.24 
Total transformer drop as referred to secondary = I 2 (R02cos2 + X02 sin2)
= 15.6 (0.85 x 0.8 + 1.24 x 0.6) = 22.2V
 V2 = 400 – 22.2 = 377.8 V
Problem 2:
A 100 KVA, transformer has an iron loss of 1KW and a Cu loss on normal output
current of 1.5 KW. Calculate the KVA loading at which the efficiency is maximum
and its efficiency at this loading (a) at unity p.f (b) at 0.8 p.f. lagging
Solution:
iron loss
Load KVA corresponding to maximum efficiency = full-load KVA X
F.L.Cu loss
1
= 100 X
1 .5
= 82.3 kVA
(a) Total loss = 2 KW
x * full  load kVA * p. f

 X 100 ;
(x * full  load kVA * p. f .)  Wcu.  Wi
where x = ratio of actual to full load KVA ;  x = 1;
82.3 * 1
= = 97.63 %
(82.3 * 1)  2
(b) At 0.8 p.f lagging
82.3 * 0.8
= = 97.05 %
(82.3 * 0.8)  2

Three Phase Induction Motor

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Three Phase Induction Motor

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THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Construction of Induction Motor:

An induction motor consists essentially of two main parts.

Stator is the stationary part and rotor is the rotating part.

Lecture Notes 1 N.Srinivas

Phase-wound Rotor(or) Slip-Ring motor:

The main parts of a slip-ring motor are:

Rotating Magnetic Field (RMF):

Lecture Notes 3 N.Srinivas

Production of Rotating Field:

Hence, we conclude that:

Frequency of rotor current:

120f/P = 120Sf/P = SNs

= SNs + N = SNs + Ns (1-S) = Ns

Lecture Notes 5 N.Srinivas

Ns = 120f/P = 120 x 50/4 = 1500 rpm

Ns = Ns (1-s) = 1500 (1-0.04) = 1440 rpm

When rotor speed is 600 rpm, slip is

Rotor current frequency f’ = sf = 0.6 x 50 = 30Hz

P = 6, f = 50Hz S = 0.01 at no load, S = 0.03 at full load

A) Synchronous speed Ns = 120f/P = 120 x 50/60 = 1000 rpm

P = 12, f = 50, N = 485 rpm

Relation between Torque and Rotor Power factor:

Where I2 = rotor current at stand still

let the rotor emf at stand still be E 2.

Lecture Notes 6 N.Srinivas

Torque = Turning or twisting moment force about an axis.

Let E2 = rotor emf per phase at standstill

Starting torque of a squirrel cage motor:

Starting torque of a slip-ring motor:

Torque – Slip Characteristics:

Lecture Notes 7 N.Srinivas

S=0 Slip S=1

At N = Ns, s = 0 hence T = 0. As no torque is generated at N = Ns, motor stops if it tries to

So torque – slip characteristics has two parts,

i) straight line called stable region of operation

The various power losses in an induction motor can be classified as

Power distribution diagram of an I.M:

M otor input in stator P 1

Stator Cu & iron rotor input or stator output (P 2 )

rotor Cu los s (P C U ) M ec hinc al p o w er d e velo p e d, P m

win d a g e & friction los s rotor output or m otor

Torque developed by an I.M:

Lecture Notes 9 N.Srinivas

Torque, mechanical power and Rotor output:

Stator input P1 = stator output + stator losses

Tg x 2N = rotor gross output in watts Pm

rotor gross output in watts

From (1) and (2), we get

Rotor gross output Pm= Tg 2N

Rotor input = P2= Tgws= Tg x 2Ns  (3)

The difference of the two equals rotor Cu loss.

 rotor Cu loss = P2 - Pm = T x 2(Ns – N)  (4)

rotor Cu loss = S X rotor input

= S X power across air gap = SP2

Rotor gross output Pm= input P2- rotor Cu loss

= input – S X rotor input

rotor gross output Pm= (1-S) rotor input P2

Lecture Notes 10 N.Srinivas

P2: Pm : I2R :: 1: (1-S) : S

N= (1-S) Ns = (1-0.06) 1000= 940 rpm

Rotor input = 111.9 kw