1.

(a) (i) Northern Andes 1

(ii) Amazon Basin 1

(iii) Overall figures are high [1]/high productivity [1].../... and

structural complexity of tropical ecosystems [1];
Northern Andes high biodiversity due to genetic isolation on
mountain summits and in remote valleys [1]/range of
environments due to altitudinal variation [1]/Amazon Basin
a relatively homogeneous environment [1];
Any reasonable alternative. [Must have something more than
‘tropical forest ecosystems are complex’ for both marks.] 2

(b) (i) A species of organism, of which numbers are so low that there
is a likelihood of its becoming extinct in the near future/owtte [1];
named species [1];
[IUCN definition = taxa in danger of extinction and whose
survival is unlikely if causal factors continue operating.
Includes taxa with numbers at a critical level; those with
drastically reduced habitats; and those not seen in the wild in
the past 50 years.] 2

(ii) Any three of: small numbers [1]/restricted distribution [1]/

complex migration patterns [1]/complex breeding cycle [1]/
reduced habitat [1]/low rate of reproduction [1]/hunting
pressure [1]/economic value [1]/or reasonable alternatives. 3

(c) Any 3 ways with examples [1] each, e.g.

Protective legislation (koala in Australia in early 20th century) [1];
International treaty (CITES) (Green Amazon parrots) [1];
Breeding programmes (numbats in Australia/pandas) [1]/protection
of habitats (whooping crane in USA) [1];
Any reasonable alternative
(2 ways, but no examples = [1]) 3

(d) Natural selection = a mechanism of evolution [1]/caused by removal

of ill-adapted individuals and survival of those adapted to the
environment [1]; evolution in long term → biodiversity by filling
available niches [1]; isolation (cutting off islands/formation of
mountains etc.) separates populations [1]/changing environment
may create isolated populations [1]/climatic change may trigger
adaptation to new conditions [1]. 3
[15]

1
2. (a) Long-term increase/period of stability for several hundred million years/
equilibrium?/major decline around 200 million/several smaller
extinction periods [1]; possibly due to catastrophic events/changes
in environment causing mass extinctions [1]; long-term increase
possibly due to increase in diversity of environment, e.g. as land
colonised by plants [1]. max 2

(b) (i) Mammals 1

(ii) The highest proportion of extinctions in relation to total

number of species. (Allow an answer such as mammals
are often large, conspicuous and sometimes hunted.
Some require large area to support individual or pair.) max 1

(c) It is caused by human activities [1]; it has been over a much

shorter period/earlier extinctions over longer period (millions
of years) due to natural causes (meteoritic impact/competition
as new groups evolve/environmental change) [1]. max 2

(d) Any two of: Small numbers/end-member of food chain/complex

migration pattern/complex breeding cycle/restricted distribution/
slow rate of reproduction/of value for some portion of its anatomy/
hunted/large and conspicuous/specialised habitat/low genetic
diversity/destruction of habitat. max 2

(e) Any two of: Aesthetic (no longer able to see tigers, elephants)/
may be important ecologically/may be important economically
(might be useful for food/fibre/drugs/biological control/medical
research)/good effect, e.g. extinction of smallpox/people/stock
less likely to be attacked by top predators/greater area or less
competition for food for humans/any reasonable answer. max 2

(f) Any three of: Breeding programmes in zoos (panda)/protected areas

and habitats (Orang-Utan in Sabah and Sumatra)/international
agreements (CITES, Whaling Convention)/gene banks (Herbarium at
Kew).
(Any reasonable alternative must have an example to get the mark.) max 3

(g) Any reasonable example: e.g. Dodo on Mauritius [1]: unafraid of

humans, confined to island, flightless, killed for food by visiting
seamen [1]. 2
[15]

2
3. (a) Biodiversity is the variety of forms of life on earth [1];
encompasses species, habitat and genetic diversity [1]/generic
term for the abundance of and number of species on earth. 2 max

(b) Habitat diversity – if the habitat is destroyed, there is nowhere

for the species to live [1]/conservation of habitats leads to
conservation of species and genetic diversity [1]. 1 max

(c) (i) Disturbance by humans reduces habitat diversity [1]/habitats

lost as humans clear vegetation/build cities [1];
most live in temperate forest zone so most disturbed here [1]/
most disturbed is temperate forests [1]; – logged and cleared
by humans for last few thousand years [1]/most converted
to crop land [1];
diversity much reduced as habitats lost [1];
tropical rainforest highest diversity [1]; as least limiting factors [1];
most threatened at present [1];
desert and tundra have lower diversity as conditions more
limiting [1];
tundra least threatened at present [1]; desert nearly half disturbed. 6 max

(ii) Accept any appropriate argument for any of the four ecosystems.
e.g. tropical rainforest – under most pressure from humans in
clearing and burning the forest [1]; highest species diversity/
many ecological niches [1];
e.g. desert - productivity easily damaged [1];
long recovery time [1]/more disturbed areas [1]. 2 max

(d) For named example award no marks, but award [1] for each
valid reason up to [2].
e.g. Dodo – ground-living/tame so vulnerable/small total
population/hunted by sailors as food. 2 max

(e) e.g. World Heritage sites to protect habitats such as south-west

Tasmania/coastline of north-east England [1]; education of the
public by conservation organisations – WWF publicising pandas [1]/
any valid example [1]. 2 max
[15]

3
4. (a) Description [1]; explanation [2]. Number of species inversely
proportional to altitude [1]/Lower the altitude, more bird species [1];
at higher altitudes, temperature decreases so less NPP and so less
food for birds [1]; less species at 3000 m and over as there is less
land at these heights [1]/less ecological niches at altitude so less
diversity [1]/low biological productivity of high altitude
ecosystems [1] 0–500 m may include sea birds [1]/any
reasonable explanation [1] 3 max

(b) Habitat diversity – the range of different habitats per unit area [1];
Species diversity – the heterogeneity of species in a given area [1] 2

(c) Award [1] for each of two reasons.

e.g. because it is morally right to do so/aesthetic reasons/because
humans use other species for medicine/crops/food/drugs/
resources/because the gene pool is reduced if species become
extinct/some uses of species not yet discovered 2 max

(d) Award [1] for each of three reasonable characteristics.

e.g. large enough area for a viable population of top carnivores [1]/
in one block of land/water that is not spread out but compact in
shape [1]/minimise edge:area ratio [1]/corridors between smaller
areas [1]/legislation/purchase of land to protect it [1]/agreement
of humans living in or around the area [1]/minimise harmful
edge effects [1]/variety of habitats [1] 3 max

(e) Award marks for any reasonable changes described (positive

or negative).
e.g. increase in landscape variation to increase range of habitats [1]/
planting of more trees/bushes [1]/digging of ponds [1]/active
management to prevent deterioration [1]/education of humans
living nearby [1]
or
spreading of exotic species from cultivated areas/towns
nearby (e.g. weeds, feral cats) [1]/farm land runoff causing water
pollution [1]/disturbance of wildlife by humans [1]/contamination
of forest ecosystems by pesticide [1]/burning and development
of fire-tolerant species and ecosystems [1]. 2 max

(f) Award [1] for brief description of named area and up to [2] for
management strategies. 3
[15]

4
5. (a) (i) right whale; 1
(ii) pollution of seas/overfishing/overexploitation of food species/
e.g. harvesting of krill in Antarctic/climate change – degradation
of habitats/distortion of food chains; 1 max

(iii) Any three of:

degree of specialisation/e.g. dietary needs too specialised;
distribution limited to some oceans;
slow reproductive rate/K-selected species/small number of young;
higher trophic levels – may accumulate toxins;
long migration routes; 3 max

(iv) difficult to monitor and estimate numbers;

easy for hunters to avoid detection;
no one’s property/“tragedy of the commons”;
difficult to keep open ocean species in captivity/OWTTE; 2 max

(b) Allow for any reasonable comparisons e.g.

Greenpeace – fast response to issues;
actively uses media/“stunts”/may break national laws;
UNEP – works more slowly;
has to get agreement of nations/national bodies may be in conflict;
capable of initiating international laws; 3 max

(c) named habitat;

importance of species/communities/habitat;
other arguments for preservation relevant to local example;
Allow an actual name or a habitat type e.g. name: Walberswick
National Nature Reserve, Suffolk/John Forrest National Park,
Western Australia or habitat type: (English lowland heathland/
Jarrah forest). 3 max
[13]

6. (a) a general term for diversity;

which includes species, habitat and genetic diversity;
per unit area; 2 max

(b) Allow [1] for each two arguments e.g.

ethical/aesthetic/genetic resource for humans/commercial
resources/life-support functions/maintain ecosystem stability/
conserve rare habitats; 2 max

5
 (c) Allow any three of the following.
isolation – geographic or reproductive;
changing environments;
variation in populations;
mutation in populations;
natural selection;
survival of the fittest;
competition; 3 max

(d) advantages
easier to involve humans in identification of attractive species/
e.g. WWF and pandas;
breeding programmes in zoos → increasing population numbers;
possible to control international trade/CITES;
disadvantages not protecting habitats;
organisms cannot survive if not in habitat;
only focuses on endangered/conspicuous/attractive species;
led by public opinion; 4 max

(e) Allow [1] for each pair considered. Allow for any reasoned argument.
might support greater species diversity/higher population numbers
of each species/greater productivity at each trophic level → longer
food chains;
edge effect increased in B → risk of disturbance/drift of pollutants/
greater productivity → more top carnivores in A/territory greater for
top carnivores in A/smaller units in B cannot support as high
biodiversity as A;
gene flow between reserves easier in A/movement of species
easier – top carnivores/can move between reserves in A;
edge effect lower in A/perimeter : area ratio lower in A (see also (2)
above)/smaller units in B cannot support as high diversity as A; 4
[15]

7. (a) (i) China; 1

(ii) 200 %; 1

6
(b) Award [1] for any of the following, up to [3 max].
Nigeria:
birth rate high;
medical care and sanitation improvements;
infant mortality decreasing;
death rate decreasing;
relatively little use of family planning methods;
social factors (e.g. young age of marriage);
religious beliefs (e.g. Islam encourages larger families);
children needed to work on land;
or
China:
birth rate high;
medical care and sanitation improvements;
infant mortality decreasing;
death rate decreasing;
recent efforts to control population growth (e.g. one child policy)/
improved access to contraception methods;
social factors (e.g. ratio male : female/preference for boys : girls); 3 max

(c) (i) the extent to which a given interaction with the environment
exploits and utilizes the natural income without causing
long-term deterioration to the natural capital/(improving
the quality of human life while) living within the carrying
capacity of supporting ecosystems/OWTTE; 1

(ii) Award [1] each for any two of the following.

level of technology (enables resources otherwise unavailable
to be used);
rate of energy use;
materials-goods consumption;
amount of imports-exports;
standard of living;
social and cultural changes;
fertility of soil;
availability of resources;
Accept any other reasonable points. 2 max

(d) open system;

Award [1] each for any two of the following.
the population of a city has both inputs and outputs;
a city has an exchange of matter and energy with its surroundings;
inputs = e.g. population immigrating, food imported;
outputs = e.g. population emigrating, heat lost by metabolism,
waste and rubbish (garbage) removed;
Accept any other valid point. 3 max
[11]

7
8. (a) 2.075 % (allow values between 2.0 and 2.1); 1
(b) (i) mammals;
(ii) invertebrates; 1
Both answers needed for [1].

(c) Award [1] each for two of the following.

mammals are often large/conspicuous;
and sometimes of economic value (fur, meat, skins);
large mammals require substantial area for their support;
many mammals feed at high trophic levels/are k-strategists and
have low reproductive potential;
and so are more vulnerable to extinction;
mammal species number lower, so loss of a few species more
significant;
knowledge of mammals and their extinctions is reasonably complete;
biodiversity of invertebrates is not well known;
many species of invertebrates may have become extinct without
being documented;
most insects are small/inconspicuous;
and are of little economic value; 2 max
Any other appropriate point.

(d) Award [1] each for five of the following.

with the exception of fishes and invertebrates, many more island
species have been rendered extinct than continental species;
island biotas are particularly vulnerable because of high degree
of endemism;
small size of populations on islands;
less genetic diversity in small island populations;
absence of predators on islands and therefore vulnerability of
organisms when these are introduced;
specialized nature of island forms;
small number of fish extinctions on islands due to rarity of suitable
habitats;
and small number of species originally; 5 max
Any other appropriate point.
[9]

9. (a) variety of species per unit area/OWTTE; 1

(b) Award [1] each for two of the following.
environmental pressures (e.g. predation, climate);
act on variations within a population (e.g. size, colour, resistance to disease);
to change the frequency of genetic traits/genes in a population;
where this reaches the point that the forms cannot interbreed,
speciation has occurred; 2 max
Any other appropriate point.

8
 (c) (i) Award [1] each for two of the following.
natural hazard events:
volcanic eruptions;
droughts;
floods;
global catastrophic events:
glaciation;
meteor impact;
change in climate; 2 max

(ii) Award [1] each for two of the following.

habitat fragmentation;
habitat destruction;
monoculture;
introduction of exotic species;
pollution;
hunting/collecting/overharvesting; 2 max
Any other appropriate point.
[7]

10. Award [1] each for four of the following. Reward detail, logical argument
and named examples.
large areas usually preferred to small;
as they can conserve a greater variety of habitats/microhabitats;
and higher numbers of individual organisms;
and thus greater genetic variability;
larger areas have smaller proportional length of perimeter;
and thus fewer edge effects than small areas;
e.g. disturbance, drift of pollutants;
similarly, compact areas preferred to elongate/irregular;
“corridors” sometimes useful for connecting isolated or small reserves; 4 max
Any other appropriate point.
[4]

9
11. (a) describe:
very low numbers of extinctions before 1650;
slightly higher number 1651 to 1850/approximately 0.5 species
per year;
rapid increase 1851 to 1950/approximately 2.5 per year;
decrease in extinction rate since 1951 to approximately one
species per annum; 2 max
explain:
extinction rate before 1850 low as human effect on biodiversity low
as population pressure on environment relatively low;
extinctions before 1850 not fully recorded;
extinction rate 1851 to 1950 much higher due to rapid human
population increase;
and rapid rate of habitat loss;
decrease in extinction rate since 1951 due to greater efforts to
protect endangered species and ecosystems;
or many vulnerable species already extinct;
any other reasonable points; 3 max

(b) low total numbers/long or complex migration route/specialised

habitat/specialised food sources/widely hunted or otherwise
used by humans/low reproduction rate/large number of
predators/susceptibility to disease/limited distribution/
catastrophe such as flooding or meteor impact;
any other reasonable points; 2 max
Responses need two factors per mark.
Factors must be specific to extinction of organisms. No credit for
vague answers such as “global warming” or “degradation of
environment”.

(c) endangered:
species in danger of becoming extinct in the immediate future
because their numbers have declined to a critical level;
extinct:
species believed to no longer exist alive; 2 max

10
(d) Any reasonable example: reasons must be appropriate to example.
[1] for name and [2] for reasons e.g.
name: Dodo;
reasons: confined to small island (Mauritius);
extreme tameness;
hunting as a source of food by visiting sailors;
destruction of forest habitats;
competition with introduced organisms, e.g. pigs; 3 max
Note: recent research has suggested that dodos were not very tame
and that the flesh was unpleasant to taste; thus habitat
destruction and introduction of pigs (and rats) were
probably most significant factors. However, the points
given above are widely mentioned in the literature and
may be considered acceptable responses.

(e) (i) [1] for name, [1] for brief description e.g.
Kakadu National Park, Northern Territory, Australia;
tropical savanna with extensive wetlands; 2 max

(ii) Any reasonable examples, but must have some evaluation

for full [5] marks.
For above example:
measures:
designation as World Heritage Area by UNESCO;
involvement of Aboriginal people in management;
concentration of visitor pressure, campsites, into limited areas;
strict protection of flora and fauna by law;
international agreements with Japan, China to protect migratory
birds;
attempts to eliminate introduced species; 3 max
evaluation:
considerable success, as measured by visitor numbers;
and protection of habitats and biodiversity;
success due to use of modern scientific techniques and
traditional land management;
and due to use of local, national and international measures; 2 max

(f) genetic diversity represents the variety of genetic material in a gene

pool or population, habitat diversity is the range of different habitats
or ecological niches in an ecosystem, community or biome/OWTTE 1 max
[20]

11
12. (a) Award [1] for name e.g. Peregrine falcon.
legislation (e.g. ban hunting);
cloning;
artificial breeding/zoos;
creating new reserves/parks;
protection of habitats;
reduction in use of toxic substances (e.g. DDT); 3 max
Any other reasonable suggestion.

(b) Answers only need to show one advantage and one disadvantage
for each of the listed approaches to conservation. 6 max

Advantage Disadvantage
Zoos controlled breeding; problems reintroducing
allow for research; animals to wild;
allow for education; prisons for animals;
extreme protection for sends wrong message –
individuals; “we don’t need to worry”;
tend to favour “popular”
animals;
small genetic pool;
Creation of conserves whole difficult to manage;
reserves or ecosystem; very expensive;
protected areas prevents hunting;
protects from humans;
Convention on signed by many countries; difficulty enforcing treaty;
International Trade protects many species; many countries have not
in Endangered signed it;
Species (CITES) implementation varies from
country to country;

Allow any other reasonable points.

(c) Award [1] for name and brief description e.g.

Coto Doñana – wetlands and coastal habitats in southern Spain;
Evaluation:
provides vital habitat and food for birds migrating between Europe
and Africa;
also plays an important role in education;
provides opportunity for ecological research; 3
[12]

13. (a) positive relationship/species diversity increases as island area

increases;
as island size increases, rate of increase in number of plant
species decreases/steepness of curve decreases; 2 max

(b) number of habitats increases with island area/larger islands more

12
 complex ecosystems;
larger islands have longer shores, therefore more likely to receive
drifting seeds, fruits, etc.;
larger islands more likely to be nesting sites for seabirds and
therefore to have seeds,
fruits brought from mainland;
larger islands more likely to be conserved;
larger islands can support larger populations of a given organism
and so extinction is less likely; 1 max
Any reasonable alternative explanation.

(c) reduction in plant biomass;

reduction in number of plant species;
increase in very low “ground-living” plant species;
competition with and decline of any other herbivorous species;
trampling and soil erosion;
accelerated turnover of nutrients (especially N, P) though herbivore
excretion; 2 max
Any reasonable alternative explanation.
Do not expect sophisticated ideas on island biogeography in this
question, but reward appropriately if they appear.
[5]

14. (a) loss of habitat;

logging of forests;
fragmentation of habitats;
pollution;
hunting;
natural hazards; 1 max
Two correct points required for [1].

(b) lack of data from many areas;

data predicted by models;
need for long time to observe changes/need to observe changes over
prolonged period;
birds are difficult to monitor because they are very mobile;
difficulties in taxonomy/identification; 2 max

(c) lack of international agreements;

regular hunting at any point in life cycle;
need for conservation in breeding and wintering areas
(and between them);
unpredictable losses due to hazards on long migration routes; 2 max
Credit any reasonable answer.
[5]

15. (a) agree:

risk of losing some medicinal plants;
biodiversity is needed to maintain ecological integrity;

13
 loss of beauty/aesthetic values;
study of wild species may help scientists understand events from
the past;
important from an ethical/spiritual/philosophical perspective;
non-natural processes, such as pollution, are increasing the loss
of biodiversity;
disagree:
evidence of past extinctions;
appropriate examples (dinosaurs, ammonites);
reasons for natural extinctions (meteorite impact, climatic change,
glaciation);
natural turnover of taxa through evolution; 2 max
Credit other appropriate reasons.

(b) (i) long-term goal of returning species to the wild;

possibility of using techniques such as artificial insemination;
allows for cross-fostering;
positive experiences, such as Arabian oryx; 2 max
Credit any reasonable answer.

(ii) risk of inbreeding;

unsuitable for large species;
zoos as prisons of once-wild animals;
not an economically feasible solution; 2 max
Credit any reasonable answer.

(c) strengths:
supported by many countries (145);
lists many species (almost 700);
bans commercialization of many products/species;
appropriate examples (rhinoceros horn, ivory, tiger parts);
weaknesses:
enforcement is difficult;
small fines;
many countries have not signed;
support by some countries has been lukewarm;
favours large/conspicuous/attractive organisms;
appropriate examples (poaching of ivory in Africa continues); 2 max
[8]

16. (a) (i) amphibians 16.7 %; (accept 16 to 17 %) 1

Both required for the mark.

14
 (ii) freshwater fish 4.9 %; (accept 4 to 5 %) 1
Both required for the mark.

(b) (i) facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future; 1
(ii) example of currently endangered species e.g. giant panda/blue whale; 1

(iii) Reasons: [3 max]

small population;
extremely specialized/specialized habitat;
restricted food source;
low reproductive potential;
accumulation of toxins;
a prominent predator, so killed by farmers protecting their stock;
migrates long distances;
Consequences: [2 max]
loss of species diversity;
loss of aesthetic value;
loss of habitat;
may be crucial to its food web/keystone species;
may have contributed to mankind as a medical, or other,
resource in the future; 5 max
Reasons must be appropriate for the species selected in (b)(ii).
[9]

17. (a) governmental: UNEP/United Nations Environment Programme;

Allow:
international (e.g. UNEP/United Nations Environment Programme)
national (e.g. United States National Parks Services/English Nature)
state (e.g. Victoria Parks and Wildlife Services)
non-governmental: Greenpeace/WWF/Worldwide Fund for Nature; 2

15
 (b)
Governmental
organization
use of media media liaison officers
prepare and read a written
statement
speed of response considered/slow/there must
be consensus between
member governments
political/diplomati considerable/activities are
c constraints hindered by political
decisions/there may be
disagreements between
political parties or member
nations (international
organizations)
enforceability international treaties and
national or state laws can
lead to prosecutions of
offenders
Non-governmental
organization
use footage of activities
(e.g. chasing whaling boats)
to gains media attention;
rapid;
unaffected by political
considerations/activities
may be illegal;
no power/use public
opinion to pressure
governments to act;

4 max
Allow any other reasonable points.
Comparisons must be made to gain full credit.
[6]

18. (a) (i) species diversity [1 max]:

the variety of species per unit area (this includes both the
number of species present and their relative abundance)/
OWTTE; (Glossary definition)
The response must have concept of unit area and/or
relative abundance for the mark. “Number of species”
is insufficient.
habitat diversity:
the range of different habitats in an ecosystem;
often associated with the variety of ecological niches/OWTTE; 2 max

16
 (ii) description [1 max]:
city has by far the highest biomass per square km;
city has highest density of population;
city has lowest biodiversity as absolute number of species
and expressed as index;
i.e. a small number of common species are very abundant;
forest has lowest biomass;
and population;
forest biodiversity is high, but not as high as farmland;
i.e. a wide variety of species, none of which is very abundant;
farmland has much lower biomass than city, higher than forest;
farmland has lower population than city, higher than forest;
explanation:
city is a specialized environment that a few species can
exploit very well;
food from gardens, rubbish (garbage) etc. may be available
to support some species;
city has low habitat diversity/low number of ecological
niches;
forest is a multi-layered habitat, with a variety of plant
species, so habitat diversity is high;
farmland may have highest habitat diversity of all,
having both natural and artificial habitats;
some food from human sources may be available in
farmland (crops);
the diversity index of the three environments takes account
of the species diversity and the relative abundance of the
species, hence farmland highest; 4 max
Any other appropriate point.
At least two “explain” points needed to achieve full marks.

(b) (i) the process through which new species form/OWTTE

(Glossary)/the process by which change in the frequency
of genetic trait occurs (in response to environmental pressures); 1

(ii) individual organisms in a population vary;

natural selection = the tendency of those organisms most
adapted to/fittest for environment to survive;
and therefore to pass their characteristics to their progeny;
thus organisms become increasingly adapted to their environment;
a changing environment may affect speciation/evolution;
mutations may affect rate of speciation;
appropriate example; 2 max
Reward any two of the above points or any other reasonable
points.

17
 (iii) isolation of a small sub-group of the original population may
encourage/accelerate speciation;
through impossibility of interbreeding/exchange of genetic
material with original population;
and adaptations to new environment;
entirely new endemic species/unique species not found
elsewhere may appear;
e.g. unique finches/tortoises/iguanas on Galapagos Islands; 2 max
Any other reasonable point.
[11]

19. (a) (i) name and brief description;

e.g. woodland near Underwood Avenue: a fragment of urban
bushland in Perth, Western Australia; 1
(ii) name of human activity;
e.g. threatened with clearance for housing development; 1 max

(iii) effect on biodiversity:

may destroy flowering trees/shrubs (e.g. Banksias) and
nectar-feeding birds dependent on them (e.g. honey-eaters,
wattle-birds); 1

(b) Convention on the International Trade in Endangered

Species (of Wild Fauna and Flora)/an international agreement/
treaty aimed at preventing trade in endangered species of plants
and animals;
thereby reducing demand;
and contributing to organisms’ conservation;
e.g. ivory/rhino horn/many marine turtle species/many
species of parrots; 3 max
Any other reasonable point.

(c) very small population numbers;

slow reproduction rate;
specialized habitat;
habitat under threat;
long/complex migration routes;
under human pressure from hunting/collecting/trade;
high in food pyramid;
appropriate example (whooping crane, Carnaby’s cockatoo,
Asian rhino); 3 max
Any other reasonable point.
Note: example not essential to receive full marks.
[9]

18
20. (a) number of native species in Continental Europe/Africa/Australia
is high because of large area;
number of native species is high in Continental Europe/Africa/
Australia because of wider range of habitats;
number of native species is high in Continental Europe/Africa/
Australia because of wider range of climate;
(Converse: NZ and Hawaii – smaller range of species because
of smaller area/range of habitats/climate)
number of native species high in Australia because of isolation
throughout evolutionary history;
number of native species low in NZ/Hawaii as few species can
colonise remote islands;
islands more liable to be colonised by introduced species;
high proportion/percentage of total species in NZ and Hawaii
are introduced;
because native species may be adapted to specialized environments
and are less resistant to competition; 4 max
Any other reasonable points

(b) (i) habitat diversity = the number of habitats/ecological niches

per unit area/in a certain area;
species diversity = the number of species of organism per
unit area/in a certain area; 2

(ii) habitat diversity is an indication of the ecological variety

of an ecosystem;
and therefore the number of species it can accommodate;
complex habitats provide more ecological niches for organisms;
habitat diversity may cause isolation of populations;
natural selection ensures organisms are adapted to
environment and way of life;
as environmental pressures influence frequency of genetic
traits in populations;
reproductive barriers may arise through (divergent) evolution;
so the more environments an ecosystem represents, the
greater the possibility of speciation;
e.g. an ecosystem with several layers such as tropical
forest is likely to have a higher diversity than single
layered ecosystems such as temperate scrub/heathland; 5 max
Any other reasonable points.

19
(c) name of species, e.g. dodo;
Factors will depend on example selected. E.g. for the dodo:
confined to small island/limited distribution (Mauritius);
small population;
useful source of food for visiting sailors;
extreme tameness;
large and conspicuous;
slow rate of reproduction;
habitat destruction;
competition with introduced organisms (e.g. pigs); 2 max
Any other reasonable points. Award [1] for two factors.
Note date (1600); be tolerant here. However, dinosaurs are not
acceptable.

(d) (i) name of area, e.g. Uluru (Ayers Rock, Northern Territory, Australia) 1
Always allow benefit of the doubt if you have not heard of the
protected area.
Google may be helpful.

(ii) Reasons will depend on area. For example, with respect to Uluru:
spectacular nature/aesthetic appeal of isolated monolith;
geological importance;
relatively undisturbed nature of surrounding habitats (at least
by western/European influences);
archaeological importance;
variety of organisms (plants, reptiles);
significance to indigenous peoples;
possibility of taking large areas into management without
disturbing longestablished ownerships; 3 max

20
 (iii) Evaluation of success again will depend on area chosen.
E.g., with respect to Uluru:
designation as a World Heritage Site;
therefore international recognition of its importance;
freehold of land transferred to indigenous (Aboriginal) people;
Aboriginal people involved in management of the area;
recreational pressure/accommodation concentrated in
limited locations;
plants/animals/landforms protected;
well drafted protective legislation;
funds from entry fees from visitors used for maintenance
of area;
some conflict between western/recreational/tourist values
and Aboriginal sacred site values;
thus climbing of Rock still allowed, contrary to Aboriginal
preference;
and has resulted in a number of casualties (some fatal); 3 max
A simple description of management does not answer the
question.
Candidates must evaluate the success, this implies at least
some comment on the management practise used.
Example: “Burning and grazing by sheep are used on
some of the heathland nature reserves of the East Suffolk
Sandlings” is not sufficient.
“Burning and sheep grazing are sometimes successfully
used to maintain the traditional ‘open landscape’ character
of the heather-dominated plant communities on some of the
East Suffolk Sandlings nature reserves, and to maintain
their characteristic biota, some species of which are
locally endangered” – full marks.
[20]

21. (a) reserve A would be more effective than reserve B;

reserve A has smaller perimeter than reserve B, so disturbance is
less likely/edge effects less pronounced;
reserve B has longer perimeter so edge effects more pronounced
which might increase biodiversity;
animals more likely to wander out of reserve B than reserve A
because of shape;
cropland is managed more intensively than forest;
drift of pollutants/crop sprays may affect reserve surrounded
by cropland;
in cropland, sowing, weeding/fertilizing and harvesting occur
at least once a year causing disturbance to reserve;
forest provides a better buffer zone than cropland;
forest provides wider variety of habitats/food sources for species
moving beyond reserve boundaries; 4 max
There must be at least one reference to shape and one to management
of surrounding land for full credit.

21
 (b) (i) rare;
vulnerable;
threatened;
endangered;
indeterminate/unknown;
extinct; 2 max
Award [2] for four correct, [1] for three or two correct and
[0] for one correct.

(ii) name of species: e.g. Sumatran tiger (no mark awarded for name)
reasons:
top predator and little energy reaches top of pyramid;
loss of habitat;
large area needed for viable population;
hunted because seen as danger to humans/livestock;
fragmentation of habitat makes breeding difficult;
high market value of body parts encourages poaching;
low genetic diversity with low numbers;
introduction of diseases; 3 max
Any other valid points.
Award [2 max] if name is not given.

(iii) species at trophic level below become more numerous;

species at trophic level above become less numerous;
shortened food chain produces imbalances at other trophic levels;
sick/weak animals no longer “culled”;
less fit individuals lower down food chain survive to breed;
decomposer organisms, etc. associated with dung eliminated; 3 max

(c) CITES is Convention on International Trade in Endangered

Species (of Wild Fauna and Flora);
countries agree to monitor trade in threatened species (and
their products) at ports and airports;
illegal imports/exports are confiscated to discourage illegal trade;
if trade in organism (or parts) can be reduced, pressure on wild
population reduced;
suitable example of CITES in action;
list of threatened species is formally agreed (in separate schedule); 2 max
[14]

22. (a) (i) genetic diversity represents the range of genetic material/
variability in a gene pool/population;
whereas habitat diversity represents the range of different
habitats/ecological niches in an ecosystem or biome
(based on glossary); 2 max

22
(ii) diversity at initial stage is low;
species diversity increases with colonisation through pioneer
stages and later stages of succession;
as plants grow, habitat diversity increases;
as habitat diversity increases, species diversity increases;
as productivity increases;
and food chains lengthen and insects and vertebrates colonise;
so a positive feedback link exists between habitat and species
diversity;
rise in populations and immigration may increase genetic diversity;
Any other reasonable point 4 max

(iii) islands represent isolated ecosystems;

and therefore support isolated populations;
immigration/incoming gene-flow is rare;
population of goats likely to be based on a small original
or “founder” population;
with very small genetic variety;
mixing of limited gene pool may have led to common
intermediate characteristics;
limited gene pool may have resulted in a population which was
very similar/homogenous;
natural selection;
may have caused adaptation;
to the characteristics of the island environment (e.g. camouflage); 3 max
Any other reasonable point

(iv) the higher the area of the reserve, the higher the population;
the higher the population the higher the genetic index;
with one slight exception (Addo);
because a large population can generally “hold” a greater variety
of genes/variation than a small one;
the density of population varies from 6 ha per animal to over
200 ha per animal;
the density may vary with habitat/vegetation/climate;
might reflect difference in wildlife management/conservation/
hunting;
Any other reasonable point 5 max

23
 (v) small, isolated populations contain a very limited range of genes;
and therefore cannot vary or evolve very much;
this increases the possibility that they will become extinct;
a larger area can contain larger, and therefore more stable
population;
other factors include the greater habitat and species diversity
that can be held in larger areas;
however, some argue that a number of small reserves are
preferable to a few large ones;
as the package of genes/habitats/species will be different;
and if one reserve is destroyed, others may survive; 2 max
Any other reasonable points Be tolerant, reward understanding
of ecological and conservation principles.

(b) Award [1] for each factor plus example.

volcanic eruption (e.g. Mount St Helens/Krakatoa);
glaciations (quaternary ice advances in northwest Europe);
meteorite impact (mesozoic impact in the Americas held by some
to be responsible for a major extinction event);
deforestation (northwest highlands of Scotland: “The Great Wood
of Caledon”);
monoculture (West Australian wheat belt/North American prairies);
introduction/escape of non-native species (New Zealand);
pollution (River Thames/reduction of predators through use of
pesticides in 1960s);
over-hunting/collecting (extinction of passenger pigeon in North
America/thyracine in Tasmania);
Any other reasonable suggestion 4 max
When marking be tolerant. Give benefit of the doubt to any apparently
reasonable examples.
Allow [2 max] for appropriate factors but without named examples.
[20]

23. (a) (i) species diversity = number of species of organisms per unit;
habitat diversity = number of habitats/ecological niches per
unit area/within an ecosystem; 2

(ii) generally the higher the habitat diversity, the higher the
species diversity;
generally in a high mountain range the complexity of
vegetation decreases with altitude;
complex tropical forest communities at base provides
variety of ecological niches for many species;
or
less complex vegetation at higher altitudes provides fewer
ecological niches;
and thus can support fewer bird species; 2 max
Any other appropriate points

(b) (i) animals with tusks/large tusks are more likely to be killed for

24
 their ivory;
natural selection results in the removal of “unfavourable”
genes from the population;
organisms carrying these genes tend to die before reaching
adulthood;
in modern Africa, genes for tusks/large tusks can be considered
unfavourable;
and thus animals with tusks/large tusks will be removed from
population/not pass their genes on to the next generation;
over time, therefore, fewer and fewer elephants will have
tusks; 2 max
Any other reasonable points

(ii) small populations become vulnerable because of poor social

structure (non-viable sex ratio, etc.);
low genetic diversity;
easily wiped out by disease/natural hazards/poaching;
however, an isolated population may become distinctively
different;
as it may carry a set of genes not typical of the parent
population; 3 max
Any other reasonable suggestion

(iii) Must name one purpose and one weakness:

Purpose [1 max]
reduction of international trade, so that demand will be reduced,
and the killing of rare and endangered species discouraged;
Weakness [1 max]
some countries are still outside the Convention;
provisions difficult to implement/enforce, particularly in
less economically developed countries;
cumbersome/lengthy procedures for modifying the Convention;
a number of “exceptions” exist e.g. import/export of
organisms for scientific purposes (Article III part 3 of the
Convention); 2 max
Any other reasonable suggestion

25
 (iv) name of organism/conservation scheme [1 max];
details of management programme;
response will depend on organisms or scheme selected [3 max]
For example
Chuditch/Western Quoll;
the largest marsupial predator in Western Australia;
at the time of European settlement, Chuditch occurred in
approximately 70% of the continent;
by the late 1980s they had become endangered (population
less than 6000);
Perth Zoo has bred more than 300 Chuditch for release in
the last decade;
since the breeding programme began, Chuditch have been
downlisted from endangered to vulnerable (E); 4 max
Must have one evaluation point for full marks.

(c) Humans interfere with ecosystems in the following ways:

removing some organisms for food or other uses (hunting,
timber-cutting);
habitat destruction e.g. forest clearance/wetland drainage;
and resultant substitution of artificial ecosystems for natural
systems;
artificial systems often have a single dominant food-chain;
e.g. grass → cow → human;
this contrasts with complex food-webs of forest ecosystems;
pesticides remove both target species and others;
artificial ecosystems have lower habitat diversity (farmland,
plantations);
and therefore lower species diversity;
crops/livestock have very low genetic diversity;
simplified systems have fewer energy/matter pathways/
feedback loops;
and may thus suffer changes from which recovery is impossible; 5 max
Any other reasonable suggestion
[2 max] for simple statement of activities
[20]

24. (a) (i) there may be more grassland habitat in total in the region;
commercial value of rainforests may be a disincentive for
protecting them;
grasslands may be easier to police than forests (e.g. against
poachers);
greater areas of forest may have already been destroyed
before protection programmes began;
grasslands may have more popular/“high status” organisms
(e.g. zebra, giraffe, large carnivores, etc.);
therefore may generate more tourist income per unit area; 2 max
Any other reasonable suggestions.

26
 (ii) Calculations:
150 km 2
Grassland: × 100 = 50% (allow 45–55 %);
300 km 2
50 km 2
Rainforest: × 100 = 100% (allow 95–105 %); 2 max
50 km 2

(iii) percentage increase in rainforest greater because:

it began with a smaller area (so a small increase represents a
larger percentage increase);
increased interest in ecotourism for rainforests;
pressure from environmental groups to “save the rainforest”; 1 max

(iv) rainforests contain high diversity of species;

these species are unique to the habitat;
and represent a high proportion of the total world biodiversity;
biodiversity of tropical rainforests less well-documented than
other ecosystems;
rainforests have significant effect on wider climate;
which affects the survival of many other species;
rainforests are diminishing globally at a considerable rate;
source of useful products/genes; 2 max

(b) Transition zone:

permanent settlements cause high impact;
by limiting their size, impact on boundary of buffer zone is reduced;
reduces impacts of pollution/disturbance on margins of buffer zone;
Buffer zone:
allowing research increases knowledge of species and ecosystems;
which can be used for better conservation;
tourism can provide revenue/raise public interest;
which can aid in further conservation;
sustainable exploitation by locals encourages their support for the project;
Core zone:
minimal immediate human activity protects the most vulnerable
species (even the most intensively conserved areas may need
occasional management e.g. control of bush fires, elimination
of exotic species);
maintains an untouched deposit of diversity that can feed into
buffer zone;
some ecological studies require natural/ near-natural environments;
At least one point from each zone to gain full marks. 4 max
[11]

27
25. (a) habitat diversity;
because different habitats tend to have different species;
so more habitats will generally include greater variety of species;
similarly, different species tend to have different genes;
so more species will generally include greater variety of genes;
Award [1 mark] each for any two explanations.
If “species diversity” is identified, no mark should be awarded for
it, but either of the last two marking points may be credited for [1]. 3 max

(b) Natural selection:

some genetic types will be better adapted and thus contribute to
next generation more than others;
hence gene frequencies/genetic types in a species will change over time;
Isolation:
plate tectonics (or other environmental events) may cause part of a
population to become isolated;
this isolated population may be exposed to different agents/pressures
of natural selection;
Speciation:
these isolated populations may undergo genetic change to a point that
they can no longer breed with those of their ancestors’ type;
by definition these will then be a new species;
Environmental change:
changes in environment lead to changes in direction of natural selection;
leading to new adaptations and possible further speciation (as above); 4 max
Any other reasonable points or valid examples can be credited.
Must mention at least two of the processes for full marks.

(c) Advantages: [1 max]

often it can generate great public appeal (e.g. pandas, tigers, etc.);
natural habitats may be so diminished/deteriorated that the species
is unlikely to survive;
it may support detailed scientific research/reintroduction programmes;
Disadvantages: [1 max]
maintenance of species may be difficult in captivity;
population and therefore gene pool of species will be very small;
it ignores the value of other species in the habitat/and the role it
would normally play in that habitat for other species;
difficulties of re-introduction to wild; 2 max
[9]

26. (a) (i) The Gaia philosophy envisages the entire planet
as a living, self regulating organism; 1

28
 (ii) an open system exchanges energy and material,
a closed system exchanges energy but not material; 1

(b) sunlight converted by producers;

producers eaten by consumers;
some energy released as heat;
consumers eaten by other consumers;
detrital decay; 3 max

(c) (i) For example coral reefs:

coral reefs increasingly seen as an economic
resource rather than a subsistence resource;
coral reefs have been used for increasingly
intensive fishing;
source of building materials;
sites for tourism;
pollution sink;
cultural and technological change for example
in fishing industry (dynamite fishing);
political motives behind promoting tourist opportunities;
under increasing population pressure;
has led to overfishing (unsustainable);
loss of biodiversity;
damage to extremely vulnerable polyps;
and knock-on effects throughout the ecosystem; 4 max

(ii) For example:

conservation areas / national parks;
restricting resource use or allowing resource
use at a sustainable level within the park;
will have economic implications;
can be difficult to police;
ocean is an open system;
indigenous people need to retain control;
victim of your own success; 3 max
[12]

29
27. (a)
H eat H eat L ig h t H 2O
C O 2
O 2

T is s u e to o th e r
TR EE tr o p h ic le v e ls

L itte r to s o il

N u trie n ts
W a te r 3 max
Award [1] for tree in box, [1] for two matter flows and [1] for two
energy flows.

(b) producers convert solar energy into chemical energy through

photosynthesis;
one of the main contributors to organic matter in soil;
through symbiotic bacteria, producers are significant in fixing
nitrogen;
provide habitat for other organisms; 2 max
Accept other reasonable statements that show ecological knowledge.

(c) e.g. Chilean matorral 3 max

p ro d u c e r p rim a ry c o n s u m e r se co n d a ry co n su m e r

A c a c ia c a v e n s
O c to d o n d e g u / F e lis g u ig n a /
C h ile a n th o rn
ro d en t C h ile a n w ild c a t
tre e

Award [1] for appropriately labelled trophic levels, [2] for three
appropriate species or [1] for two appropriate species.
Do not accept rabbit, fox etc., unless there is some identifying
feature i.e. snowshoe hare and arctic fox.

(d) long-term stability leading to speciation/complexity;

–2
high species number per unit area (South America 0.125 species km
–2
versus 0.0027 species km in temperate forests in North America);
high number of endemic species;
limiting factors low and so high productivity leading to high diversity; 3 max

30
 (e) decomposers break down tissue;
release nutrients for reabsorption by producers;
form basis of decomposer food chain (which may be energetically
more important in some ecosystems than grazing food chains);
as chemosynthetic autotrophs may form basis of food chain;
through incomplete breakdown of organic material contribute
to build up of humus and improve nutrient retention capacity in soil;
are vital in nitrogen cycle; 2 max

(f) primary productivity would decrease;

Award [2 max] for the following.
acid rain can damage foliage directly thus reducing photosynthesis;
increase in solubility of nutrients facilitates leaching with consequent
loss of productivity;
increases susceptibility of trees to stresses such as disease/
temperature/insects/fungal infection; 3 max
[16]

28. (a) amphibians: 0.05 %;

flowering plants: 0.15 %; 2

(b) need a large range to hunt;

habitat loss;
loss of prey species;
bioaccumulation and biomagnification;
hunting by humans;
small population size;
reduced genetic pools;
already endangered;
top trophic level; 2 max
Accept other reasonable answers.

(c) governmental: UNEP/EPA;

non-governmental: Greenpeace/WWF; 1
Both needed for [1].
Accept other reasonable answers.

31
 (d) With reference to a named example, the following points
should be considered.
community support;
funding and resources;
legal status and policing;
adequate research; 3 max
No credit for naming the protected area. However, if a named
area is not specified award [2 max].
[8]

–2
29. (a) (i) temperate forest: 12.4 + 18.5 + 18.4 = 49.3 g m ;
–2
tropical forest: 52.6 + 41.2 + 28.2 = 122.0/122 g m ; 1
Both needed for [1].

49.3
(ii) temperate forest: × 100 = 6.0%;
821.1
112
tropical forest: × 100 = 57.8%; 1
211 .2

730.9
(b) temperate forest: × 100 = 89.0 %;
821.1
85.3
tropical forest: × 100 = 40.4 %;
211 .2
temperate forests have a larger percentage of nitrogen stored in soil; 2
Award [0] if temperate forest is stated without supporting calculations.

(c) high temperatures and year-round availability of water in tropical

forests allow for continuous breakdown of nitrogen containing
compounds;
resulting in very rapid turn around and reabsorption;
presence of mycorrhizae in tropical rainforest tree roots increases
rate of organic matter breakdown;
leading to rapid reabsorption of nitrogen, so very little found in soil;
in temperate forests breakdown slows down significantly during
winter months, causing nitrogen build up in soil; 2 max

(d) temperate forest: 1. surface litter

2. biomass
3. soil
tropical forest: 1. surface litter
2. soil
3. biomass 1
Both lists needed for [1].

(e) tropical rainforest would suffer more from clear-cutting;

a larger proportion of nitrogen is stored in living tissue which

32
 would be lost through clear-cutting;
climatic conditions in tropical rainforests would wash away
soil quicker/leach the soil of nutrients; 2 max

(f) (temperate forests) because:

tropical forests have some of the highest rates of primary productivity
but have relatively poor soils;
temperate forests have lower primary productivity rates but far
more fertile soils;
climatic factors are not limiting in TRF but nutrients (nitrogen)
may be;
cleared land in tropics is exposed to washing away of thin soil
and leaching of nutrients;
temperate forests have higher nitrogen content in the soil;
temperate forests store nitrogen as a result of incomplete
breakdown of organic matter resulting in availability of nitrogen
for crops; 2 max
Do not credit final point if already given in (c). For “temperate
forest” on it’s own award [0].

(g) direct replacement of ecosystems with cropland and the resulting

loss of habitat;
monocultures reduce genetic diversity;
slash and burn techniques in TRF result in considerable impact
on diversity because of high diversity of these systems;
use of pesticides harms target and non-target insect species
and has an effect further up the food chain;
loss of hedgerows in England to facilitate plowing/accept
other valid example;
contamination of wild stock with modified genetic material
(hybridization); 3 max
Allow other valid points.

(h) (i) as population increases, forested area decreases and GNP

increases; 1
(ii) to produce land for housing for increasing population;
to provide land for agriculture to provide food for
increasing population;
for timber production, generating income from exports;
Accept other reasonable answers. 1 max

(iii) reduction in CO2 extraction by forests;

release of stored carbon through breakdown of forest biomass;
increased rates of breakdown in organic content in soils (due
to exposure to heat, water) resulting in release of CO 2;
CO2 is a greenhouse gas; 2 max

33
 (iv) biomes will shift north and south from the equator;
e.g. North America wheat belt shifting north;
biomes shifting with altitude (e.g. tree line creeping upwards);
direct loss of low-lying biomes (e.g. mangrove swamps); 2 max
Accept other contributions to global warming related to
deforestation.
[20]

30. (a) (i) 1920 accept answers between 1910 and 1940 1
(ii) exponential growth/rate of increase accelerates over time/
J curve (provided understanding of rate is demonstrated) 1
(iii) crude birth rate – crude death rate;
+ 10; 2

mammals  40(3) both needed for [1]

(b) (i) birds  48  1

(ii) both show exponential increase;
mammals’ rate of increase has been more irregular;
since 1650 more bird species extinct than mammal species; 2 max
Accept other reasonable answers
(iii) species is classified as extinct when there is no reasonable
doubt that the last individual has died;
when exhaustive surveys throughout its historic range
have failed to record an individual;
surveys should be over a time frame (diurnal, seasonal, annual)
appropriate to life cycle and life form;
Accept “none left” (or similar) for [1 max] 2 max

(c) Award [1 max] for relationship

human population growth and increasing extinctions are positively
correlated/OWTTE;
human population increase has caused increases in extinctions;
Award [3 max] for reasons
humans have caused (exponential) increase in extinctions through
habitat degradation/destruction/fragmentation;
pollution;
hunting/collecting/harvesting and thereby driving species
to extinction; 4 max
[13]

31. (a) 911 kg (units required) 1

(b) November 1

(c) introduction of disease to indigenous species;

34
 over predation of indigenous species who have little (evolutionary)
defence against new predator;
out competition of indigenous species in same niche;
hybridization of indigenous species; 3 max

(d) Any two of the following for [1]

natural hazards;
global catastrophe;
habitat loss;
pollution;
over exploitation; 1 max
Accept other appropriate answers.
[6]

32. (a) (i) insects; 1

(ii) fungi; 1

(b) (i) many species simply have not been discovered yet (large areas
of tropical forest/deep ocean unexplored for example);
rate of extinction is so rapid that some species become extinct
before we have discovered them;
small organisms hard to find/capture/identify; 1 max

(ii) vertebrates are larger, so are easier to find/catch and classify;

there are fewer species of vertebrate, so the chance of finding
all of them is higher; 1 max

(c) e.g. for insects, use a large sweep net to capture;

and then identify using keys the number of species;
count number of individuals in each species;
use Simpson’s diversity index (involves total number of insect
species and number of individuals);
number of species must be recorded within a given area (e.g.
number of species in a quadrat/hectare); 3 max

35
 (d) No mark for naming an ecosystem, but if no ecosystem is named
award [1 max].
e.g. Coral Reef off coast of Philippines
direct threats: [1 max]
aggressive fishing techniques e.g. dynamite fishing/cyanide fishing;
collecting shells/coral for souvenirs for tourist industry;
indirect threats: [1 max]
coral reefs then become more vulnerable to storm/cyclone
damage/disease/sea temperature changes (due to global warming);
siltation due to mangrove clearance and run-off from coast; 2 max
[9]

33. (a) from 1972 to 1975 both species show gradual increase trend;
from 1975 to 1976 moose numbers crash/fall;
wolf numbers continue to rise;
1978 to 1979 wolf numbers crash; 2 max

(b) poor climate conditions, winter deaths due to cold;

disturbance;
hunting/trapping;
disease;
loss of prey species/decline of moose earlier; 2 max
Accept other appropriate answers

(c) moose numbers may increase further;

leading to greater densities;
greater grazing and a change in habitat type;
vegetation change would occur as moose preferentially graze;
moose may ultimately outstrip their own food supply;
may cause a habitat shift;
decline in moose numbers; 2 max

(d) ethical arguments – wolves have a right to exist;

aesthetic arguments – beautiful creatures;
genetic arguments – loss of diversity once it is gone it cannot
be regained;
ecological arguments – role in food web, maintaining numbers
of prey species;
commercial arguments – pelts/wildlife tourism/trophy hunting; 3 max
Accept other reasonable arguments.
[9]

36
34. (a) as tractor use increase farm labour use goes down;
agriculture is becoming more mechanized;
agriculture may be more intensive;
less need for labour on farm;
farms becoming larger require more machinery;
farming/agriculture is becoming more technocentric; 2 max

(b) greater use of pesticides to protect crops and livestock;

use of high yielding crops and livestock;
the use of GM crops and livestock;
greater agricultural industrialization/mechanization;
improving irrigation;
soil management techniques e.g. terracing;
agroforestry; 2 max

(c) Award [1] for named agricultural system and associate impact.
e.g. prairie grassland US, loss of biodiversity;
e.g. Norfolk grasslands UK, loss of marshland from drainage;
e.g. slash and burn subsistence farming, loss of forest habitat;
e.g. extensive cattle farming east-Africa, introduction of disease; 1 max

(d) soil has become more valuable as it has become more scarce;
increasingly seen as a resource requiring protection with special
techniques e.g. shelter and salinisation of soil resource due to
poor management;
decline in soil quality due to poor management e.g. salinisation
(over irrigation);
loss of soil due to soil erosion;
soil degradation and lowered productivity; 2 max
Accept other reasonable responses.
[7]

35. (a) high profile/charismatic species catch public attention both nationally
and internationally (e.g. tiger – India);
however, species based conservation favours charismatic organisms
and is less successful in saving “non cuddly” species;
saving a named species requires preserving the animal’s habitat this
benefits all other organisms in that habitat;
however a species can be artificially preserved (e.g. in a zoo) whilst
its natural habitat is destroyed (e.g. Giant Panda); 3 max
Award any three of the above points [1] each or any other suitable
suggestions.

37
(b) area A: [1 max]
fragmented and small with a large perimeter area ratio/large edge
effect so lots of disturbance;
fragmented so difficult migration between fragments;
small size may limit species contained/limit population sizes;
Accept other reasonable responses.
area B: [1 max]
large perimeter area ratio/relatively small edge effect so less
disturbance;
large size promotes high biodiversity;
large size so good for large vertebrates/top carnivores/large
species populations;
Accept other reasonable responses.
area C: [1 max]
as large as B but dissected by a road which acts as a barrier to species
migration;
road increases edge effect some more disturbance;
road allows easier access to the interior of reserve for monitoring;
road gives easier access for poachers;
some evaluative element is required (i.e. how the characteristic
relates to the ecosystem in a positive or negative way); 3
Accept other reasonable responses.

(c) (i)
lid

g ro u n d le v e l

p la s tic c u p

b a it

(d e a d in s e c t) 2
Award [1] for the diagram and [1] for up to three labels.
Accept pitfalls designed to collect larger species.

(ii) a falling value would suggest a loss of diversity/in this instance

a loss in the invertebrate biodiversity;
these data could be used to identify a biodiversity decay problem/
kick start a management strategy to assess the cause and
reverse the trend; 2
Award credit if specific management strategies to address loss
in biodiversity are suggested.

(iii) use Lincoln index/capture-mark-release-recapture method;

capture ground beetles, mark-release;
after a period of time recapture and count those with and
without marks; 2 max

38
 (d) due to the process of plate tectonics the Earth’s surface has
gradually broken up and drifted apart over many millions of years;
this process has allowed groups of organisms to become isolated
and evolve along different paths dictated by their new
surrounding and environmental conditions/plate movement not
only isolates groups but also subjects them to new climates and
environmental conditions; 2
Accept other reasonable responses.
[14]

36. (a) large animals require relatively large space for breeding/foraging/
hunting/ territoriality;
the area often needs to be large enough to limit disturbance/include
buffer zones;
the area needs to be large enough to minimize the chance of animals
wandering outside the reserve and becoming targets for hunters;
if reserves are too small, viable populations of large animals are
not sustainable; 3 max

(b) conservation designed to conserve a particular species;

may not require the preservation of the animal’s habitat;
or the animal in the wild;
usually associated with charismatic species, e.g. big cats, rhino; 2 max

(c) global volcanic eruption leading to rapid climate change/hostile

environment;
catastrophic events such as meteorite impact leading to rapid
climate change/hostile environment;
over hunting of large mammals by man (in the Holocene) to the
extent that populations became reproductively unviable/wiped out; 2 max
Do not accept Ice Age.

(d) collecting: [2 max]

using legislation to prevent moving/import of endangered species;
education about impact of collecting to change behaviour;
encouraging non-destructive “collection” e.g. photography rather
than digging up;
overgrazing: [2 max]
fencing/cordoning off sensitive habitats/ biological hotspots;
reducing herd sizes;
providing alternative grazing;
supplementing income through nature tourism; 4 max
Accept other choices of threat and reasonable strategies.
[11]

39
37. (a) stops organic residues entering streams and causing pollution/eutrophication; 1
(b) (i) reducing lawn size – lawns are restricted to grass species and
succession cannot occur as they are cut regularly;
allowing plants and trees to grow alongside streams will increase
the range of habitats for insect/bird species;
more food/nutrients provided for species; 2
Accept any other reasonable responses.
Award [0] if no reason given.

(ii) provides greater stability;

more niches so more alternative food sources within the food
web should anything happen to an individual species;
greater genetic diversity so better able to withstand
diseases/change;
aesthetic/potential economic value of greater diversity; 2 max

(c) removing grass cuttings takes nutrients away from the soil, so
there will be a net loss of nutrients;
natural fertilizers less likely to contain harmful toxins which
may build up in species (biomagnification);
cheaper;
a way of reducing overall waste/resources/energy used;
a more sustainable strategy;
less likely to cause eutophication than artificial fertilizers;
artificial fertilizers lead to release of greenhouse gases as they
are produced;
natural fertilizers may contribute positively to soil structure; 2 max
[7]

38. (a) model B

corridor allows organisms to migrate between reserves/greater number
of opportunities for mating with a wider population/greater genetic
diversity because more individuals can mix; 1
No marks for stating model without reason.
Accept Model A if valid reason is given. e.g. separate reserves mean
that if wildlife in one are wiped out/killed, others may survive.
Reasons must relate to genetic diversity.

(b) (i) living mass is large in the rainforest/tall trees/many layers

of vegetation/large amounts of nutrients stored as there is
a lot of biomass per unit area; 1

(ii) high levels of rainfall washing nutrients out of the soil/leaching

results in infertile soil/loss of nutrients; 1
(iii) open because matter/nutrients (and energy) are freely exchanged
outside the system; 1

(iv) Strengths:

40
 simple to interpret/quantitative to some extent/pictorial so
easy to compare with others;
Limitations:
no indication of quantities as numeric values/simplistic; 2

(c) found in parts of the world with high population density so pressure
on the land to remove forest and grow food;
it takes a long time to recover from logging/destruction;
have biological hotspots with high biodiversity so many species
affected;
valuable timber is removed and so forest damaged; 2 max
Do not accept acid rain (Brazil is low for acid rain).
Do not accept tourism/ecotourism unless tied to impacts on habitat(s).
Credit answers which either address reasons why this ecosystem is
intrinsically fragile or reasons why people might destroy the habitat.
[8]

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