Explosives Engineers’

Surface Blasting Field Guide

1.
 INITIATING SYSTEMS
Particular African Explosives Limited products are custom designed for use with each
other. Compatibility required between initiating systems includes such factors as
physical dimensions and cross-initiation sensitivity. These have implications in terms of
safety of use and reliability of the total blasting system.

If initiating systems produced by various manufacturers are used in conjunction with

each other, we recommend that all manufacturers concerned be consulted prior to use.
If you have any doubt about the compatibility of our products please consult your
nearest Sales Office.

SMARTDET®
The Smartdet® Electronic Initiation System is the most advanced initiating system in the
market place. The system comprises five major components: The Smartdet® Electronic
Detonator assembly, the Universal Logger, the RowPod, the Blaster and the Smartdet®
Harness Wire. This state-of-the-art system not only provides optimum blast results, but
also safety and reliability.

The Smartdet® Electronic Detonator

Consists of an 8D base charge, making it compatible with any type of detonator
sensitive explosives. Each detonator has its own unique factory assigned ID number.

The Universal Logger

This handheld device is used in conjunction with the RowPod to connect up a blast and
assign the desired delay time to each detonator as per the pre-determined blast plan.
This device also tests each detonator to ensure functionality of each unit before initiating
the blast. It also allows for a complete test of the circuit at any time during the hook-up
procedure.

The RowPod
The RowPod functions as the memory module of the system and stores the list of
detonators as well as their assigned delays. The RowPod is used in conjunction with the

2.
Logger when hooking up, as well as with the Blaster when initiating the blast. Each
RowPod can accommodate 200 detonators.

The Blaster
The Blaster is a hand-held device used to test, program, arm and fire the detonators. It
provides the power to charge the capacitors, as well as the correct digital codes to
initiate the blast. The Blaster is password protected, to prevent unauthorised use.

The Harness Wire

The Smartdet® Harness Wire is a 0.6mm plastic sheathed twisted pair of wire. The
Harness Wire facilitates the connection of the detonators to the Universal Logger via the
RowPod during the logging sequence, as well as to the Blaster during the blasting
sequence.

Benefits
• Programmable delay times allowing for flexibility and optimal blast timing.
• Delay times from 0-20 seconds in 1ms increments.
• Ability to control ground vibration, fragmentation, air blast and costs
• Smartdet® detonators can be tested prior to and during deployment or stemming
of blast holes as an additional measure to ensure complete functionality during
the blasting sequence.

3.
AEL SHOCK TUBE
AEL Shock tube is a unique over-extruded signal transmission tubing. It has increased
breaking strength and abrasive resistance. Another special quality of AEL shock tube is
the low memory of the tubing; it does not tangle, which makes for quicker and easier
handling. AEL shock tube is an all weather system that is not affected by temperature
variations or ultra-violet rays. When used in place of detonating cord, shock tube
systems can solve environmental problems and provide major technical advancements
in delay blast initiation. These include:

• Bottom-point initiation.
• Down the hole delays.
• Individual hole firing.
• Increased surface delay ranges.

Legal aspects of using shock tube assemblies in surface mining in South Africa:

In-the-hole initiation using Shock Tube downlines may only be undertaken after
exemption from regulations 9.33.4 and 8.10.26 of the Mines and Works Act has been
obtained from the Department of Mineral and Energy Affairs. Operations governed by
the Explosives Act should consult the Chief Inspector of Explosives for the necessary
exemptions. AEL Shock tube systems are suitable for all surface mining operations,
namely opencast mining, quarrying and civil engineering operations. The shock tube
products commonly used in surface blasting are:

Benchmaster Assembly Product Range

Delay
times 450 or 500
(ms)
Length
6 7 10 12 15 20 25 30 35
(m)
Units
per 175 150 125 100 75 75 75 50 50
case

4.
Delay times (ms) 25 42 100 125

Bunch block colour Orange Yellow White Light Green

Handimaster Assemblies
Surface Delays (ms) 25 or 42 or 100 or 125
In-hole delays (ms) 500

Length 7 9 12 15 18 25 30

Units per case 125 100 75 75 75 50 50

Handimaster Trunkline Delay

Surface
17 or 25 or 42 or 75 or 100
Delays (ms)
Length 4 5 6 10 12 15

Units per
175 175 150 75 75 75
case

5.
Noisemaster® Trunkline Delay
Delays times (ms) 17 25 42 75

Bunch block colour Blue Orange Yellow Red

Length 3 5 6 10 12

Units per case 200 175 150 75 75

Metres per Reel 200

Reels per Case 10

Bunchblock Colour Purple

6.
 AEL DETONATING CORD
AEL detonating cord consists of core of pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) enclosed by
a tape, wrapped with natural and/or synthetic yarns and sheathed in plastic. AEL
detonating cord has the following uses:

• Lead-in lines.
• Tie-up and initiation of Shock Tube detonators.
• Initiation of boosters.

AEL detonating cord:

• Is relatively insensitive to detonation by friction, shock, electrostatic discharge or

other forms of electricity.
• Has excellent resistance to side penetration by oil or water.
• Has high velocity of detonation.

There is a range of detonating cords to satisfy a variety of applications.

Nominal
Core Load Diameter Tensile Reels per case
Product Colour
(g/m) (mm) Strength metres/reel
(kg)
6 3.9 - 4.3 Orange 100 3 x 333
Cobracord
2 x 250
Powercord 8 8 4.3 - 4.5 Blue 100
4 x 250
2 x 250
Cordtex 10 10 4.8 - 5.2 Yellow 80
4 x 250
Cordtex 40 40 8 Yellow 130 2 x 100
7.
AEL DETONATING RELAYS
AEL detonating relays are available in two delays and are used to impart delays to
surface detonating cord. Each delay is colour coded. They are compatible with 8g/m
and higher core load detonating cord. AEL detonating relays are bi-directional and
afford a quick and simple connection.

The available delays and their respective colour coding is as follows:

Product Colour Units per case

Relays 25 ms delay Green 1000
Relays 40 ms delay Red 1000

8.
 AEL PENTOLITE BOOSTERS
Pentolite boosters contain a mixture of TNT and PETN and are cast into moulded
bodies of various diameters and sizes. Boosters have a density of 1.67 g/cc and a VoD
of about 6500m/s. Boosters are used to initiate non-cap sensitive explosives in
packaged or bulk form and are compatible with electronic, shock tube, electric and
capped fuse detonators as well as 8g/m or higher core load detonating cord.

AEL Pentolite Boosters are typically used in:

• Opencast operations.
• Quarrying.
• Underground ring drilling.
• Vertical Crater Retreat stoping.
• Development applications.

30g x 60g x 150g x 175g x 400g x 400g x 800g x

Product
23mm 32mm 40mm 38mm* 53mm 53mm* 80mm
Units per
800 330 120 140 60 60 30
case
• Exclusively for use with Smartdet electronic detonators

9.
 Hole diameter (mm)
64 76 89 102 115 150 200 300
60g
150g

400g

800g

Product Selection Chart for Boosters

AEL Electric Detonators.
AEL manufacture a number of different electric detonators. For surface applications, the
most suitable type is the Carrick® permitted electric detonator with Statsafe®
technology. Although designed for use in underground coal mines where fiery conditions
exist the Statsafe® Carrick® detonator is used in surface operations to initiate Shock
Tube or detonating cord lead-ins.

The Statsafe® technology ensures there is less chance of accidental ignition by

lightning or stray current. There are 750 detonators per case.

10.
 Electrical characteristics of CARRICK STATSAFE
Fuseheads Type 1

Bridgewire resistance
0.25
(ohms)

No-fire Impulse (mJ/ohm) 50

All-fire Impulse (mJ/ohm) 70

No-fire current (Amps) <1.1 for 5 minutes

Note: The firing impulse shown above is a measure of the energy required to initiate the
fusehead.

11.
 BULK EXPLOSIVES
African Explosives Limited has a wide range of bulk explosives suitable for mining,
quarrying and civil applications. Stringent controls on all aspects, from the raw materials
to the manufacture and delivery of the products down-the-hole ensures that customers
get a consistent and reliable product. AEL has obtained the SABS ISO 9000 rating on
all bulk sites, thus ensuring consistent quality and compliance with customer needs.

ANFEX (AMMONIUM NITRATE FUEL OIL)

The well known and widely used ANFEX explosive is still the best explosive to use in
certain rock types when conditions are dry. This free-flowing granular type blasting
agent consists of Ammonium Nitrate Porous Prill and a fuel oil. AEL perfected the blend
of these two products to give an oxygen balanced product with the result that superior
fume characteristics are achieved. ANFEX is comparatively safe to handle, because of
its low sensitivity to shock, friction and impact. It can be pour loaded into vertical down
holes. ANFEX can be used in a wide variety of surface mining applications as long as
the conditions are dry. However, the following points should be noted:

• For maximum efficiency pour loaded ANFEX should be used in holes >65mm
diameter.
• Detonating cord should not be used with ANFEX because it will reduce the
energy of the explosive. It can also cause misfires in blast holes less than 75
mm.
Due to the unique African Explosives Limited porous prill, which are unrivalled for
hardness, uniform size and consistent density, the African Explosives Mining
Services Anfex®-fuel oil mix is of a consistently high standard. The typical loaded
density ranges from 0.76 to 0.80 g/cm3 and the typical VoD is 4000 m/s in a 250 mm
hole. (This will vary as it depends on confinement and product density).

Pneumatically
Characteristics Poured
loaded
Density (g/cm3) 0.78 0.9 - 1.05
Velocity of detonation (m/s) 4000 m/s +3.5 km/s
Water resistance Nil Nil
Relative effective energy @ 20
100% 100%
Mpa
Fragmentation Good Good
Heave Excellent Excellent

12.
 POWERGEL RANGE
The POWERGEL range of emulsions is used in a wide variety of conditions and consists of both pure and doped emulsions.
POWERGEL bulk emulsions are booster sensitive and typical velocity of detonation is about 5200 m/s. This will vary widely in
differing rock types and at different densities. Powergel emulsions have excellent water resistance and due to their low temperature
can be used with all AEL accessories. Recent development work has led to an increased product offering on the bulk Powergel
and Energan range. These products are indicated by the figure "1" at the end of the product descriptor, and is displayed in the
tables below. Expected benefits of these changes include improved fragmentation and cast, using the same blasting geometry.

Product Typical Relative Relative Min Max Loading Water Preferred Recommended Pentolite Booster
in-hole Effective Bulk Hole Hole Method Resistance IS (g)
density Energy Strength Dia Depth Downline Hole Diameter Hole Diameter
(g/cc) (mm) (m) 64 – 89 mm >89 mm
See
Density
Chart
P100 1.25 85 132 75 Pump Excellent ST/Ex 150 400
P101 1.25 87 136 75 Pump Excellent ST/Ex 150 400
P400 1.25 93 145 75 Pump Excellent ST/Ex 150 400
P401 1.25 94 147 75 Pump Excellent ST/Ex 150 400
P700 1.25 100 156 100 Pump Excellent ST/Ex 150 400
P701 1.25 98 154 100 Pump Excellent ST/Ex 150 400

Note:
The Relative Bulk Strengths are relative to an equal mass of Anfex® (=100%) at a density of 0.8 g/cm3.
Downhole density is controlled by adjusting the loaded cup density.
Relative Effective Energies are relative to Anfex® and are calculated using IDEX, with a cut-off pressure of 20 Mpa.
Preferred IS Downline: S = Shocktube, E = Electronic Detonators.
13.
DENSITY CHART vs. HOLE DEPTH
INDICATOR.

CUP DENSITIES and MAXIMUM HOLE DEPTH

Product Minimum 10m 15m 20m 25m 30m 35m 40m
Diameter
P100/P101 75mm
Cup Densities 1.16- 1.20 1.14 - 1.18 1.10 - 1.14 1.08 - 1.12 1.05 - 1.09 1.02 - 1.06 1.00 - 1.04

P400/P401 75mm
Cup Densities 1.12 - 1.16 1.08 - 1.12 1.04 - 1.08 1.01 - 1.05 0.98 - 1.02 Not to be Not to be used
used

P700/P701 100mm
Cup Densities 1.10 - 1.14 1.04 - 1.08 1.00 - 1.04 0.96 - 1.00 Not to be Not to be Not to be used
used used

14.
 ENERGAN (Heavy Anfex®)
The ENERGAN range of explosives consists of a series of booster sensitive explosives that are a mixture of emulsion and Anfex®.
These products are termed Heavy Anfex® because the blend contains more Anfex® than emulsion and therefore they are augured
into dry or waterless holes unlike doped emulsions that are pumped into "wet" holes. The Energan range has the following
characteristics:

Product Typical Relative Relative Min Max Loading Water Preferred Recommended Pentolite Booster
in-hole Effective Bulk Hole Hole Method Resistance IS (g)
density Energy Strength Dia Depth Downline Hole Diameter Hole Diameter
(g/cc) (mm) (m) 64 – 89 mm > 89 mm
E3000 1.05 103 135 100 Any Auger Poor ST/Ex 150 400
E3001 1.05 104 136 100 Any Auger Poor ST/Ex 150 400
E3500 1.20 105 158 150 40 Auger Good ST/Ex 150 400
E3501 1.20 106 159 150 40 Auger Good ST/Ex 150 400
E4000 1.25 105 164 150 40 Auger Good ST/Ex 150 400
E4001 1.25 106 166 150 40 Auger Good ST/Ex 150 400
E4500 1.30 107 173 200 40 Auger Good ST/Ex N/A 400
E4501 1.30 108 175 200 40 Auger Good ST/Ex N/A 400
E5000 1.35 107 181 250 40 Auger Good ST/Ex N/A 400
E5001 1.35 108 183 250 40 Auger Good ST/Ex N/A 400

Note:
The Relative Bulk Strengths are relative to Anfex® (=100%) at a density of 0.8 g/cm3.
Downhole densities are controlled by adjusting the loaded cup density.
15.
 Relative Effective Energies are relative to an equal mass of Anfex® and are calculated using IDEX, with a cut-off pressure of 20
Mpa.
Preferred IS Downline: S = Shocktube, E = Electronic Detonators.

Linear Charge Mass for Bulk Explosives (Kg/m)

Hole Diameter Density of Explosives (g/cc)
Inches Mm 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.40
3 76 2.95 3.18 3.40 3.63 3.86 4.08 4.31 4.54 4.76 4.99 5.22 5.44 5.67 5.90 6.12 6.35
3½ 89 4.04 4.35 4.67 4.98 5.29 5.60 5.91 6.22 6.53 6.84 7.15 7.47 7.78 8.09 8.40 8.71
4 102 5.31 5.72 6.13 6.54 6.95 7.35 7.76 8.17 8.58 8.99 9.40 9.81 10.21 10.62 11.03 11.44
4¼ 108 5.95 6.41 6.87 7.33 7.79 8.24 8.70 9.16 9.62 10.08 10.54 10.99 11.45 11.91 12.37 12.83
4½ 114 6.63 7.14 7.66 8.17 8.68 9.19 9.70 10.21 10.72 11.23 11.74 12.25 12.76 13.27 13.78 14.29
4 7/8 124 7.85 8.45 9.06 9.66 10.26 10.87 11.47 12.08 12.68 13.28 13.89 14.49 15.10 15.70 16.30 16.91
5 127 8.23 8.87 9.50 10.13 10.77 11.40 12.03 12.67 13.30 13.93 14.57 15.20 15.83 16.47 17.10 17.73
5 1/8 130 8.63 9.29 9.95 10.62 11.28 11.95 12.61 13.27 13.94 14.60 15.26 15.93 16.59 17.26 17.92 18.58
5¼ 133 9.03 9.73 10.42 11.11 11.81 12.50 13.20 13.89 14.59 15.28 15.98 16.67 17.37 18.06 18.76 19.45
5½ 140 10.01 10.78 11.55 12.32 13.08 13.85 14.62 15.39 16.16 16.93 17.70 18.47 19.24 20.01 20.78 21.55
5 5/8 143 10.44 11.24 12.05 12.85 13.65 14.45 15.26 16.06 16.86 17.67 18.47 19.27 20.08 20.88 21.68 22.48
5 7/8 149 11.33 12.21 13.08 13.95 14.82 15.69 16.56 17.44 18.31 19.18 20.05 20.92 21.80 22.67 23.54 24.41
6 152 11.79 12.70 13.61 14.52 15.42 16.33 17.24 18.15 19.05 19.96 20.87 21.78 22.68 23.59 24.50 25.40
6¼ 159 12.91 13.90 14.89 15.88 16.88 17.87 18.86 19.86 20.85 21.84 22.83 23.83 24.82 25.81 26.81 27.80
6¾ 171 14.93 16.08 17.22 18.37 19.52 20.67 21.82 22.97 24.11 25.26 26.41 27.56 28.71 29.86 31.00 32.15
7 3/8 187 17.85 19.23 20.60 21.97 23.34 24.72 26.09 27.46 28.84 30.21 31.58 32.96 34.33 35.70 37.08 38.45
7 5/8 194 19.21 20.69 22.17 23.65 25.13 26.60 28.08 29.56 31.04 32.52 33.99 35.47 36.95 38.43 39.91 41.38
7 7/8 200 20.42 21.99 23.56 25.13 26.70 28.27 29.85 31.42 32.99 34.56 36.13 37.70 39.27 40.84 42.41 43.98
8½ 216 23.82 25.65 27.48 29.31 31.15 32.98 34.81 36.64 38.48 40.31 42.14 43.97 45.80 47.64 49.47 51.30
9 229 26.77 28.83 30.89 32.95 35.01 37.07 39.13 41.19 43.25 45.31 47.37 49.42 51.48 53.54 55.60 57.66
9 7/8 251 32.16 34.64 37.11 39.58 42.06 44.53 47.01 49.48 51.96 54.43 56.90 59.38 61.85 64.33 66.80 69.27
10 254 32.94 35.47 38.00 40.54 43.07 45.60 48.14 50.67 53.20 55.74 58.27 60.81 63.34 65.87 68.41 70.94
10 5/8 270 37.22 40.08 42.94 45.80 48.67 51.53 54.39 57.26 60.12 62.98 65.84 68.71 71.57 74.43 77.30 80.16
11 279 39.74 42.80 45.85 48.91 51.97 55.02 58.08 61.14 64.19 67.25 70.31 70.36 76.42 79.48 82.53 85.59
12 ¼ 311 49.38 53.18 56.97 60.77 64.57 68.37 72.17 75.96 79.76 83.56 87.36 91.16 94.96 98.75 102.55 106.35
13 ¾ 349 62.18 66.96 71.75 76.53 81.31 86.10 90.88 95.66 100.45 105.23 110.01 114.80 119.58 124.36 129.14 133.93
15 381 74.11 79.81 85.51 91.21 96.91 102.61 108.31 114.01 119.71 125.41 131.11 136.81 142.51 148.21 153.91 159.61
16 406 84.15 90.62 97.10 103.57 110.04 116.52 122.99 129.46 135.94 142.41 148.88 155.35 161.83 168.30 174.77 181.25
16.
17 ½ 445 101.09 108.87 116.65 124.42 132.20 139.98 147.75 155.53 163.31 171.08 178.86 186.63 194.41 202.19 209.96 217.74

Note: All calculations are based on the metric drill bit sizes.
The linear charge mass of bulk explosives is determined by the final hole diameter which is affected by the wear of the drill bit
and the softness of the rock formation.

Surface Blast Design

17.
Figure 1. Blast Design Terminology

18.
 Surface Blast Design

The various aspects of surface blast design and the relevant terminology is detailed in
Figure 1 and in the table below:

Symbol Description Unit

Kt Technical Powder Factor Kg/m3

Ka Actual Powder Factor Kg/m3

L Explosive Column Length Above Grade m

Mc Linear Charge Mass Kg/m

B Burden m

S Spacing m

a Spacing to Burden Ratio -

H Bench Height m

T Stemming Length m

Z Flyrock Factor -

A Rock Factor -

W Mass of explosive in 8 Charge Diameters Kg

E Relative Weight Strength -

D Hole Diameter mm

d Explosive Diameter mm

ρ Relative Density of Explosive -

C % Coupling -

U Sub-Drill Length m

20.
Technical Powder Factor – Kt (Kg/m3)
Kt = Mass of explosive above grade per volume of rock to be broken.

Kt = L × Mc (1)
B×S × H

If the blastholes are drilled at an angle θ, measured from the horizontal, then:

Kt = L × Mc
Sinθ × B × S × H

Typical values are:

Hardness Rock Type Technical Powder Rock Factor

Factor (Kg/m3)

Andesite
Dolerite
Hard Granite 0.70 12 – 14
Ironstone
Silcrete

Dolomite
Hornfels
Medium Quartzite 0.45 10 – 11
Serpentine
Schist

Sandstone
Calcrete 0.30 8–9
Soft Limestone
Shale

Very Soft Coal 0.15 – 0.25 6

21.
Actual Powder Factor – Ka (Kg/m3)
The actual powder factor is calculated by including any sub-drill in the charge length:

Ka = (L + U ) × Mc
B×S × H

Spacing to Burden Ratio – a

a typically lies between 1 and 1.5.

a=S
B

Spacing – S (m)

S = B × ( S B)

= aB

Burden – B (m)
Re-arranging equation (1) and substituting for S:

B = L × Mc
a × H × Kt

If the blastholes are drilled at an angle θ, measured from the horizontal, then:

B = L × Mc
a × H × Kt × Sinθ

Charge Length Above Grade – L (m)

L = Difference between bench height and stemming length.

L = H −T
Flyrock Factor – Z
Z = 1 for normal blasting conditions.
Z = 1.5 for controlled conditions.
Stemming Length – T (m)
Stemming Length is influenced by:
Rock Conditions Hole Diameter
Explosive Strength Explosive Density
22.
Charge Length Flyrock Control
Bench Height Burden
12 E 1
T =Z× × (W × ) 3
A 100
Linear Charge Mass – Mc (Kg/m3)
The linear charge mass is the mass of explosive contained in one metre of charge length.

π ⎛ D ⎞
2

Bulk/Pumpable Explosives: Mc = ×⎜ ⎟ × ρ × 1000

4 ⎝ 1000 ⎠

Mc = ρ × D
2

1273
Packaged Explosives: In order to calculate the linear charge mass for packaged
explosives, one needs to assess the degree of rupture that occurs when the cartridges
are dropped into the blasthole. Factors that influence rupture are:
• Hole depth.
• Ratio of cartridge diameter to hole diameter.
• Presence of water in the blasthole.
• The stiffness of the explosive.
• Slitting of the cartridges.
• Type of cartridge wrapping.
Coupling – C (%)
Coupling is the ratio of the volume of explosives to the volume of the hole and is
expressed as a percentage. For a continuous column of explosives this can be reduced
to:
2
⎛d⎞
C = ⎜ ⎟ × 100%
⎝D⎠

Therefore the Linear Charge Mass for Packaged Explosives is expressed as:

C ρ × D2
Mc = ×
100 1273

Energy and Breakeven Drill Patterns

Used to calculate a new drilling pattern when an explosive with a different energy level
replaces the original choice of explosive.

23.
 ⎛ RBS A ⎞
S A = B A = ⎜⎜ × BB × S B ⎟⎟
⎝ RBS B ⎠

Where:
RBS = Relative Bulk Strength

RBS A
If: < 1.0 , it represents an energy loss.
RBS B

Wet Hole Loading Calculations

Used to calculate the number of cartridges required to build out of water when charging
wet blastholes with cartridges.

H F × 1000 Where: NE = Number of cartridges required

NE =
LE HF = Final height of water (m)
LE = Length of cartridge (mm)
HO = Original height of water (m)
D = Diameter of borehole (mm)
HO × D2 d = Diameter of cartridge (mm)
HF = 2
D −d2

Rule of Thumb

Burden (B) = 25 to 35 times the hole diameter.

Spacing (S) = 1 to 1.5 times the burden.
Bench Height (H) = 2 to 4.5 times the burden.
Sub-drill (U) = 0.2 to 0.5 times the burden.
Stemming Length (T) = 0.7 to 1.0 times the burden.

24.
Chevron Initiation Patterns

Square:

Staggered:

25.
 Secondary Blasting
There are two methods of secondary blasting:

• Pop-shooting
• Lay-on Charges

Pop-shooting involves drilling a hole in the boulder and charging with cartridged
explosive. Pop-shooting tends to be the most economical use of explosives but requires
drilling. A careful examination in accordance with the Regulations must be made of each
boulder before it is drilled. The charge should be located at the centre of the boulder to
limit fly-rock. The following table details recommended pop-charges for various sized
boulders using Magnum Buster.

Note: Boulders are assumed to be cubic in form.

Rock Hole Length Cartridge No. of Charge Powder

Thickness Size Cartridges Mass Factor
(m) (m) (mm) (kg) (kg/m3)
1.00 0.60 25 x 200 1 0.120 0.12
1.25 0.70 25 x 200 1 0.120 0.06
1.50 0.80 25 x 200 2 0.240 0.07
1.75 1.00 32 x 200 2 0.400 0.07
2.00 1.20 32 x 200 3 0.600 0.08

Lay-on Charges tend to produce less fly-rock than pop-shooting as the explosive energy
tends to be directed downwards. However, there is high associated noise and therefore,
lay-on charges are not suitable for use in urban areas. At powder factors of 0.75 – 1.25
kg/m3 the mass of explosive used is approximately 10 times that required for pop-
shooting and is a function of rock thickness. For optimum results, the charge should be
covered with not less than 10 times its mass of mud. The following table recommends the
size of lay-on charge to be used for a particular boulder thickness.

Rock Thickness Charge Mass

(m) (kg)
0.30 0.125
0.50 0.250
0.75 0.500
1.00 1.000
1.25 1.500
1.50 2.000

26.
 General Formulae
Volume of Rock Blasted m3 per metre of hole BxS
per hole BxSxH
per blast B x S x H x No. Holes

Mass of Rock t Mass = Volume x Density

EE Explosive
Relative Effective Energy (REE) REE Explosive = × 100
EE ANFO

EE = Effective Energy MJ/Kg @ 20Mpa

REE Explosive × ρ Explosive

Relative Bulk Strength (RBS) RBS = × 100
REE ANFO × ρ ANFO

Mc Explosive × REE Explosive

Relative Energy (RE) RE = × 100
Mc ANFO × REE ANFO

27.
 Geometrical Formulae

Circumference of a Circle =π ×D

Area of a Circle = 1 4π × D 2

Area of a Rectangle = a × b
Area of a Triangle =1 2a× h

Area of a Parallelogram = a × h = a × b × sin α

Area of a Trapezoid = 1 2 (a + b ) × h

= 1 2 r × l = πr θ
2
Area of a Sector
360

Area of an Ellipse = π ×a×b

Surface Area of a Sphere = π × D2

Volume of a Sphere = 1 6π × D 3

Volume of a Circular Cylinder = 1 4π × D 2 × h

Volume of a Pyramid = 1 3 A× h

Volume of a Wedge =1 2a×b× h

Volume of a Circular Cone = 1 12 π × D 2 × h

28.
 Density of Rock Type

Rock Type Relative Weight

Density ρ Solid Broken
t/m3 m3/t t/m3 m3/t
Basalt 2.8 – 3.0 3.0 0.33 1.96 0.51
Coal - Anthracite 1.3 – 1.8 1.6 0.63 1.05 0.95
Coal – Bituminous 1.2 – 1.5 1.4 0.71 0.92 1.09
Diabase 2.6 – 3.0 2.8 0.36 1.83 0.55
Diorite 2.8 – 3.0 3.0 0.33 1.96 0.51
Dolomite 2.8 – 2.9 2.9 0.35 1.90 0.53
Gneiss 2.6 – 2.9 2.9 0.35 1.90 0.53
Granite 2.6 – 2.9 2.8 0.36 1.83 0.55
Gypsum 2.3 – 3.3 2.8 0.36 1.83 0.55
Haematite 4.5 – 5.3 4.8 0.21 3.14 0.32
Limestone 2.6 – 2.9 2.7 0.37 1.76 0.57
Limonite 3.6 – 4.0 3.8 0.26 2.48 0.40
Magnesite 3.0 – 3.2 3.2 0.31 2.09 0.48
Magnetite 4.9 – 5.2 5.0 0.20 3.27 0.31
Marble 2.1 – 2.9 2.5 0.40 1.63 0.61
Quartzite 2.0 – 2.8 2.6 0.38 1.70 0.59
Sandstone 2.0 – 2.8 2.4 0.42 1.57 0.64
Shale 2.4 – 2.8 2.6 0.38 1.70 0.59
Silica Sand 2.2 – 2.8 2.6 0.38 1.70 0.59
Slate 2.5 – 2.8 2.7 0.37 1.76 0.57

29.
 Factors Affecting Velocity of Detonation (VoD)
• Explosives contamination around the primer by mud and drill chippings.
• Explosives contamination from stemming migration.
• Incorrect density of the explosives particularly around the primer.
• Incorrect primer size and type.
• Incorrect charging procedures.
• Initiation of the shot prior to the completion of the gassing of the explosive.
• In-hole initiation system used.
• Degree of confinement of the explosive.
• Type of material blasted: explosives initiated in a hard material will have a greater
VoD than those initiated in soft material.
• Blasthole diameter.
• The presence of water in the blasthole.
• The inter-hole delay timing.

30.
 Techniques to Reduce Airblast
• Utilise appropriate length of stemming.
• Avoid underburdening the front row of blastholes or overburdening any blasthole.
• Time the blast so that there is adequate relief for every blasthole.
• Avoid using detonating cord, otherwise bury surface detonating cord under drill
chippings.
• Reduce the charge mass per delay by lowering bench heights, decreasing hole
diameters or deck charging.
• Initiate the blasts during the time of the highest ambient noise in the area.
• Do not blast in overcast conditions or with strong winds blowing.
• Utilise bottom hole initiation rather than top hole initiation.
• Avoid short delay periods.
• The progression of holes detonating along the free face should be less than the
velocity of sound in air.
• Increase the front row burden if the face is uneven.

31.
 Techniques to Reduce Blasting Induced Ground
Vibration
• Reduce the charge mass per delay by lowering bench heights, decreasing hole
diameters or deck charging.
• Reduce the burden and spacing.
• Remove any obstacles in front of the free face.
• Reduce the stemming.
• Reduce sub-drilling.
• Avoid blasting conditions with a high degree of confinement.
• Progress the blast away from any structures of concern.
• Use longer inter-hole delays.

32.
 Scaled Distance and Vibration Control
In South Africa there are no statutory limits regarding blasting induced ground vibrations.
The onus is on the mine or quarry manager to ensure that the blasting operations
conducted within his/her area of responsibility, do not cause damage to private property.
AEL advises the following limits for different structures and conditions:

Situation Maximum Peak

Particle Velocity
mm/s
Heavily reinforced concrete structure 120
Property owned by concern performing 84
the blasting
Private property in reasonable repair, 50
where public concern is not an
important consideration
Private property where public concern is 25
an important consideration

Site specific data can be established by conducting signature shots. The data from the
signature shots is used to perform a regression analysis resulting in the site constants a
and b, which are vital in the relationship:

b
PPV = a⎛⎜ D ⎞
⎟
⎝ E⎠

From this relationship the charge mass for a given PPV and distance may be calculated.
Contact your nearest AEL Sales Office for assistance with this exercise.

Frequency of vibration is an important parameter in blasting induced ground vibrations. In

general, structures can withstand higher amplitudes of vibration with high associated
frequencies. Where the frequencies of vibration of less than 10 Hz are predicted, the
above PPV limits should be halved. The graph below indicates the relationship between
PPV and frequency of vibration.

33.
 1
8

Peak Particle Velocity mm/s

2

1
8

1
8

1
1 2 3 5 8 1 2 3 5 8 1 2 3 5 8 1

Frequency Hz

The relationship D E or Scaled Distance was developed by the United States Bureau
of Mines, (USBM).

D = Distance to property of concern (m)

E = Mass of explosives per delay (kg)

(Note: It is generally accepted that delays are considered as individual when separated
by 8ms or more.)

If no vibration monitoring is to be conducted then apply D E ≥ 31

The above equation results in the following values:

Mass/delay Distance to Structure

kg M
10 98
50 219
100 310
200 438
500 693
1000 980
1500 1200

34.
Resistance of Standard South African Copper
Blasting Cable
Diameter Type Area Resistance/double
(mm) (mm2) Km (Ω)
0.50 Single 0.19 181
0.50 Twin Twisted 0.19 181
0.50 Ripcord 0.19 181
0.60 Single 0.28 125.7
0.60 Twin Twisted 0.28 125.7
0.69 Single 0.37 95
0.69 Twin Twisted 0.37 95
3/0.69 Single 1.12 31.7
3/0.69 Twin Twisted 1.12 31.7
0.86 Single 0.58 61.2
0.86 Twin Twisted 0.58 61.2
3/0.86 Single 1.74 20.4
3/0.86 Ripcord 1.74 20.4
7/0.86 Single 4.06 8.8

35.
 Unit of Measure Conversion
To use this table, take the unit to be converted and multiply with the figure on the
opposite side to result in the measure in the opposite unit.

Example:

1 metre = 1 x 39.372 = 39.372 inches

4 pounds = 4 x 0.454 = 1.816 kg

Length

25.400 millimetres 1 0.039 inches

0.914 metres 1 1.094 yards
0.305 metres 1 3.281 feet
0.025 metres 1 39.372 inches
1.609 kilometres 1 0.621 statute miles
1.152 statute miles 1 0.868 nautical miles

Area

6.452 sq. centimetres 1 0.155 sq. inches

0.836 sq. metres 1 1.196 sq. yards
0.093 sq. metres 1 10.764 sq. feet
0.405 hectares 1 2.471 acres

Volume

16.387 cu centimetres 1 0.061 cu inches

0.765 cu centimetres 1 1.308 cu yards
0.028 cu metres 1 35.315 cu feet
0.568 litres 1 1.761 pints
4.546 litres 1 0.220 imperial gallons
3.785 litres 1 0.264 U.S. gallons

Mass/Weight

28.350 grams 1 0.035 ounces

0.454 kilograms 1 2.205 pounds
1000 kilograms 1 0.001 tons (metric)
2240 pounds 1 0.000446 tons (imperial)
9.810 kN 1 0.102 kgf
1.016 tons (metric) 1 0.984 tons (imperial)
0.102 tons 1 9.810 kN

Density/Powder Factor

0.016 gm/cu cm 1 62.438 pounds/cu foot

0.593 kg/cu metre 1 1.686 pounds/cu yard
36.
16.016 kg/cu metre 1 0.062 pounds/cu foot

Pressure

1.013 bar 1 0.987 atmospheres

0.069 bar 1 14.500 pounds/sq. inch
0.010 bar 1 100.000 kPa (kN/m2)
0.102 metres water head 1 9.810 kPa
10.194 metres water head 1 0.098 bar
2.307 feet water head 1 0.434 pounds/sq. inch
Flow Rate

0.076 litres/second 1 13.200 gallons/minute

Viscosity

1000 Ns/m2 1 0.001 centipoise (cP)

1,000,000 m2/s 1 0.000001 centistoke (cSt)
47.847 Ns/m2 1 0.021 lbf s/ft2
0.093 m2/s 1 10.760 ft2/s

Energy/Power

1.355 joule (Nm) 1 0.738 ft lbf

0.746 kilowatt (kN/s) 1 1.341 horsepower

Temperature

• To convert degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit, multiply by 9/5 and add 32.
• To convert degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius, subtract 32 and multiply by 5/9.

37.