Current Transformer

A current transformer (CT) is an electric device that produces an alternating

current (AC) in its secondary which is proportional to the AC in its primary. Current
transformers, together with voltage transformers (VTs) or potential transformers
(PTs), which are designed for measurement, are known as instrument transformers.
When a current is too high to measure directly or the voltage of the circuit is
too high, a current transformer can be used to provide an isolated lower current in its
secondary which is proportional to the current in the primary circuit. The induced
secondary current is then suitable for measuring instruments or processing in
electronic equipment. Current transformers also have little effect on the primary
circuit. Often, in electronic equipment, the isolation between the primary and
secondary circuit is the important characteristic.
Current transformers are used in electronic equipment and are widely used for
metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry.
Current transformers reduce high voltage currents to a much lower value and
provide a convenient way of safely monitoring the actual electrical current flowing in
an AC transmission line using a standard ammeter. The principal of operation of a
current transformer is no different from that of an ordinary transformer.
Unlike the voltage or power transformer looked at previously, the current
transformer consists of only one or very few turns as its primary winding. This
primary winding can be of either a single flat turn, a coil of heavy duty wire wrapped
around the core or just a conductor or bus bar placed through a central hole as shown.
Due to this type of arrangement, the current transformer is often referred to as a
“series transformer” as the primary winding, which never has more than a very few
turns, is in series with the current carrying conductor.
The secondary winding may have a large number of coil turns wound on a
laminated core of low-loss magnetic material which has a large cross-sectional area
so that the magnetic flux density is low using much smaller cross-sectional area wire,
depending upon how much the current must be stepped down. This secondary
winding is usually rated at a standard 1 Ampere or 5 Amperes for larger ratings .
 Technical Requirements for Current Transformer:

Sr. Particulars System Voltage (KV

No. rms) 400-220
1. Nominal system voltage (KV rms) 400-220
2. Highest system voltage (KV rms) 420-245
3. 1.2/50 Microsecond impulse voltage
withstand level
(a) Transformers and Reactors (KVP) 1300-1050
(b) Other equipments and lines (KVP) 1425-1050
4. Switching withstand impulse voltage of all 1050-NA
equipments and lines (KVP)
5. (a) One minute P.F. withstand voltage of arrester 630-460
housing (Dty) (KV rms).
(b) ---Do --- but wet 630-460
5.1 Maximum Continuous Operating 290/162
Voltages, kV min.
5.2 Energy absorption capability, in kj/kV 8
6. Pressure Relief Class (KA rms) 40
7. Anticipated levels of temporary over voltage and
its duration
(a) Voltage 1.3 times rated voltage of
arrester
(b) Duration (Seconds) 1 to 10
8. System frequency (Hz) 50 + 1.5 -
9. Neutral Grounding Effectively earthed
10. Number phase Three
11 Ratio of switching impulse residual voltage Not more than two
to rated voltage of arrester
12 Long duration discharge class 3 for 220 kV
4 for 400 kV
13 Max RIV when energized at MCOV 1000 micro volts
14 Partial discharge value 50 pc (max)

15 Minimum creepage distance (mm) 10500-6125

 Technical Requirements For Capacitor Voltage
Transformers:
420KV 220KV
a) Highest system voltage KV (rms) : 420 245
b) Rated system voltage KV (rms) : 400 220
c) Rated frequency HZ : 50 50
d) System fault level KA (rms) : 50 40
e) System neutral earthing Effectively Effectively
:
earthed earthed
f) Installation
: Outdoor Outdoor
g) Service condition As per general As per general
: condition of condition of
service service
h) Limits of Temperature rise
: 55°C 55°C
(immersed in oil)
i) Voltage factor 1.5 for 30 Sec. 1.5 for 30 Sec
:
1.2 continuous 1.2 continuous.
j) Rated insulation level :
4.1.1 1.2/50 microsecond impulse : 1425 1050
withstand voltage KV (peak).
4.1.2 One minute Dry & Wet power
frequency withstand voltage KV (rms) : 630 460

k) Total capacitance (picofarad) 4400 + 10% - 5%

:
l) a) High frequency capacitance for the : Within 80% to 150% of rated
entire carrier frequency range.

b) Equivalent series resistance over the : capacitance Less than 40

entire carrier frequency range (Ohms)

m) Stray capacitance (Pico farads) & stray 520 (max)

conductance (micro Siemens) of the low :
voltage terminal of a complete CVT
including Electro Magnetic Unit over the : 50
entire carrier frequency range.

n) One minute power frequency test :

a) Withstand voltage between HF (low
voltage) terminal of intermediate : 4
transformer & earth terminal, KV
(rms).
b) Withstand voltage for secondary
: 3
windings & earth terminal, KV (rms).
c) Withstand voltage between HF(LV)
carrier coupling terminal & earth
terminal, KV(rms)
: 10
o) Creepage distance Total (mm)
: 10500 6125
 Lightning Surge
Lightning:
Computers and electronic instruments are essential for processing various kinds of
information in a high speed manner. However, they are often subject to the induced
energy caused by lightning, because of their generally low dielectric strength.

Lightning is a phenomenon in which negative electric charges generated in a

thunderstorm discharge to the ground as a result of dielectric breakdown in the air. A
lightning surge, even an indirect one, causes a surge voltage on the cable lines, and
transmits a momentary high voltage impulse to the sensors/transmitters in the field, or
to the inputs of computers and instruments in the control room.

Lightning surge:
When electric charges are built up in thunderclouds to such level that could break
atmospheric insulation, an electric dis- charge eventually occurs between these clouds
or between the clouds and the ground.

Electric current reaches 20-150 kA. An abnormally high voltage generated by direct
lightning discharge applied to electric power cables or communication cables at that
instance is called ‘Direct Lightning Surge’. Correspondingly, such voltage induced
by electrostatic or electromagnetic induction on those cables located close to the
point where a direct lightning hits, is called ‘Induced Lightning Surge’.

Also, when lightning strikes a lightning rod and the ground potential rises,
instruments’ grounding potential becomes also high. This causes an abnormally great
potential difference between the cables and the ground, which is called ‘lightning
surge caused by increased ground potential’. Direct lightning surge energy is
enormous. A surge protector alone cannot protect the instruments. It is necessary to
share the job by lightning rods and overhead grounding wires to absorb most of the
energy, and by surge protectors to absorb only the rest of the energy.

Here, we explain the mechanism how lightning surges occur, except for the direct
lightning surge.
Electrostatic induction:
When thunderclouds located above a power cable or communication cable contain
negative charges at their bottom parts, high level positive charges are induced
electrostatically within the cable and high voltage is developed by electrostatic
induction from thunderclouds (Figure 2-1). At that instance, the negative charge at
the bottom of the thundercloud disappears by discharging between the clouds or
between the clouds and the ground. Then, the positive charge which is trapped by the
cable are freed and led to both directions on the cable as a surge voltage (Figure 2-2).

Electromagnetic Induction:
A discharge between the clouds and the ground occurring near from a power cable or
communication cable generates a magnetic field due to its surge current. When the
magnetic waves propagated within the field reach the cable, a lighting surge is
induced (Figure 3-1)
Standard Impulse Wave Shapes:
Experimental Investigation:
 Lightning Surges:
Rise Time: 0.5 to 10 µs
Decay time to 50% of Peak Value: 30 to 200µs

 Wave shapes are arbitrary but mostly unidirectional

 Lightning overvoltage wave can be represented as Double Exponential Wave;
defined by the equation:
V=V₀ [exp (-αt)-exp (-βt)]
Where α and β are constants of micro second value. The above equation is an
UNDIRECTIONAL WAVE which has rapid rise to peak value & slowly falls
to zero value

 Front Time=1.25(0₁t₂-0₁t₁)
 Tail Time=0₁t₄
 Tolerance=3%
 Switching Surge
The over stresses applied upon the power system, are generally transient in nature.
Transient voltage or voltage surge is defined as sudden sizing of voltage to a high peak
in very short duration. The voltage surges are transient in nature that means they exist
for very short duration. The main cause of these voltage surges in power system are
due to lightning impulses and switching impulses of the system. But over voltage in
the power system may also be caused by, insulation failure, arcing ground and
resonance etc.

The voltage surges appear in the electrical power system due to switching surge,
insulation failure, arcing ground and resonance are not very large in magnitude.
These over voltages hardly cross the twice of the normal voltage level. Generally,
proper insulation to the different equipment of power system is sufficient to prevent
any damage due to these over voltages. But over voltages occur in the power system
due to lightning is very high. If over voltage protection is not provided to the power
system, there may be high chance of severe damage. Hence all over voltage
protection devices used in power system mainly due to lightning surges.

Let us discuss different causes of over voltages one by one.

Switching Impulse or Switching Surge

When a no load transmission line is suddenly switched

on, the voltage on the line becomes twice of normal
system voltage. This voltage is transient in nature.
When a loaded line is suddenly switched off or interrupted
,voltage across the line also becomes high enough current
chopping in the system mainly during opening operation
ofair blast circuit breaker, causes over voltage in the system
.During insulation failure, a live conductor is suddenly
earthed. This may also caused sudden over voltage in the system. If emf wave
produced by alternator is distorted, the trouble of resonance may occur due to 5th or
higher harmonics. Actually for frequencies of 5th or higher harmonics, a critical
situation in the system so appears, that inductive reactance of the system becomes
just equal to capacitive reactance of the system. As these both reactance cancel each
other the system becomes purely resistive. This phenomenon is called resonance and
at resonance the system voltage may be increased enough.
But all these above mentioned reasons create over voltages in the system which are not
very high in magnitude.

Sources of Surges/Transients

A common source for surges generated inside a building are devices that switch
power on and off. This can be anything from a simple thermostat switch operating a
heating element to a switch-mode power supply found on many devices. Surges that
originate from outside the facility include those due to lightning and utility grid
switching.

Transients can originate from inside (internal sources) or outside (external sources) a
facility:

 Internal Sources:
1) Switching of Electrical Loads

The switching (on and off) and operation of certain electrical loads – whether
due to intentional or unintentional operations – can be a source of surges in the
electrical system. Switching surges are not always immediately recognized or
disruptive as larger externally generated surges but they occur far more frequently.
These switching surges can be disruptive and damaging to equipment over time.
They occur as part of every day operations.

Sources of switching and oscillatory surges include:

 Contactor, relay and breaker operations

 Switching of capacitor banks and loads (such as power factor correction)
 Discharge of inductive devices (motors, transformers, etc.)
 Starting and stopping of loads
 Fault or arc initiation
 Arcing (ground) faults
 Fault clearing or interruption
 Power system recovery (from outage)

2) Magnetic and Inductive coupling :

Whenever electric current flows, a magnetic field is created. If this

magnetic field extends to a second wire, it will induce a voltage in that wire. This is
the basic principle by which transformers work. A magnetic field in the primary
induces a voltage in the secondary. In the case of adjacent or nearby building wiring,
this voltage is undesirable and can be transient in nature.

Examples of equipment that can cause inductive coupling include: Elevators, heating
ventilation and air conditioning systems (HVAC with variable frequency drives), and
fluorescent light ballasts, copy machines, and computers.

 External Sources:
The most recognizable source of surges generated outside the facility is
lightning. Although lightning can be somewhat infrequent in certain regions, the
damage it can cause to a facility can be catastrophic. Other areas are subjected to
thunderstorms and lightning much more frequently.

The surges that are the result of lightning can either be from direct contact of the
lightning to a facilities electrical system or, more commonly, indirect or nearby
lightning that induces electrical surges onto the power or communication systems.
Either scenario can be immediately damaging to the electrical system and/or the
connected loads.

Other external sources of surges include utility-initiated grid and capacitor bank
switching. During the operation of the electrical grid, the utility may need to switch
the supply of power to another source or temporarily interrupt the flow of power to its
customers to aid in clearing a fault from the system. This is often the case in the event
of fallen tree limb or small animal causing a fault on the line.

Wave Propagation on Transmission Lines

 Reflection of Traveling waves at a Junction :

When a traveling wave on a transmission line reaches a junction with

another line, or a termination, then part of the incident wave is reflected back, and a
part of it is transmitted beyond the junction or termination.

The incident wave, the reflected wave and the transmitted wave are formed in
accordance with Kirchhoff's laws. They must also satisfy the differential equation of
the line.
Consider a step-voltage wave of magnitude E incident at junction J between two lines
of surge impedances Z1 and Z2. A portion ET of this surge would be transmitted and
a portion ER would be reflected as shown in figure.

There is no discontinuity of potential at the junction J.

Therefore, E + ER = E T

There is also no discontinuity of current at the junction.

Therefore, I + IR = IT

Also, the incident surge voltage E is related to the incident surge current I by
the surge impedance of the line Z1. Similarly the transmitted surge voltage ET is
related to the transmitted surge current IT the surge impedance of the line Z2 and the
reflected surge voltage ER related to the reflected surge current IR by the surge
impedance of the line Z1.

However it is to be noted that the reflected wave is a reverse wave. Thus we can
write

E = Z1 I , ET = Z2 IT , and ER = - Z1 IR

Substituting these values gives

E/Z1 - ER/Z1= ET/Z2 = (E + ER)/Z2

This gives on simplification

ER= E* (Z2 - Z 1) /( Z2 +Z1)

Similarly, the transmitted surge may be written as

ET = (2 Z 2 / (Z2+Z1)) * E

 Short Circuit Line fed from an infinite source

For this case Z2 = 0

Then a voltage surge E arrives at the junction J,

which is on short circuit, it is reflected with a
change in sign (- E), so as to cancel the incoming
surge. Also, a current surge I of the same sign as
the incident (I) is reflected so that the transmitted
current is doubled (2I). If the line is fed from a
constant voltage source E, then as the reflected
voltage surge (- E) arrives at the generator end, it
send a voltage surge of E back its voltage at E.

Location of Lighting Arrester

Normal practice is to locate the Lightning Arrester as close as possible to the

equipment because of the following reasons:

 Chances of the surges entering into the circuit between the protective
equipment and the equipment to be protected are reduced.
 Suppose that a power Transformer is to be protected by a Lighting Arrester
.Let the inductance of the lead between the two be L. let the residual voltage of
the lighting arrester be IR.
The voltage incident at the transformer terminal will be:
V= IR+L(di/dt)
Where (di/dt) is the rate of change of surge current. If a capacitor is connected
at the terminals of the equipment to be protected (Transformer), it may be
possible to provide some separation between the two, because this reduces the
Steepness of the lighting surge wave and hence reduces the (di/dt) rate.

In case there is some distance between the Lighting Arrester and the Transformer, a
steep fronted wave, after being incident on the lighting arrester, enter the transformer
after traveling over the lead between the two. The wave suffers reflection at the
terminals. The total voltage at the terminal of the transformer is the sum of the
Reflected and incident voltage, which approaches nearly twice the incident voltage.