The Jan Kochanowski University

of Humanities and Sciences in Kielce

Faculty of Humanities

Department of Modern Languages

Agnieszka Wojda
Record number: 87557

Linguistic and cultural translation techniques in drama

translation illustrated by a comparative analysis of a
musical screenplay My Fair Lady by A. J. Lerner and its
Polish translation by M. Korwin.

This project has been written

in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of licentiate
under the supervision of
Dr Ewa Piotrowska-Oberda

Kielce 2010
 Uniwersytet Humanistyczno-Przyrodniczy

Jana Kochanowskiego w Kielcach

Wydział Humanistyczny

Samodzielny Zakład Neofilologii

Kierunek: Filologia Angielska

Lingwistyczne i kulturowe techniki tłumaczeniowe

stosowane w tłumaczeniu dramatu na podstawie
analizy porównawczej scenariusza musicalu A. J.
Lernera My Fair Lady oraz jego tłumaczenia
na język polski M. Korwina

Agnieszka Wojda
Numer albumu:87557

Praca dyplomowa napisana w Samodzielnym Zakładzie Neofilologii

Uniwersytetu Humanistyczno-Przyrodniczego Jana Kochanowskiego w Kielcach
pod kierunkiem dr Ewy Piotrowskiej-Oberdy

Kielce 2010

2
 Składam serdeczne podziękowania
Pani dr Ewie Piotrowskiej-Oberdzie
za okazaną życzliwość, pomoc
oraz cenne uwagi w trakcie
przygotowywania niniejszej pracy.

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……………………………………….… Kielce, dn. …………………………
nazwisko i imię

……………………………………….…
………………………………………….
adres

………………………………………….
kierunek/specjalność studiów
Uniwersytet Humanistyczo-Przyrodniczy
Jana Kochanowskiego w Kielcach

Wydział Humanistyczny
Filologia ................................................

OŚWIADCZENIE

Świadomy(a) odpowiedzialności karnej oświadczam, że przedkładana praca

licencjacka/magisterska*
nt.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
została napisana przeze mnie samodzielnie.
Jednocześnie oświadczam, że ww. praca nie narusza praw autorskich w rozumieniu
ustawy z dnia 4 lutego 1994 r. o prawie autorskim i prawach pokrewnych (Dz.U. Nr 24, poz.
83) oraz dóbr osobistych chronionych prawem cywilnym.
Ww. praca zawiera dane i informacje, które uzyskałem(am) w sposób prawnie
dozwolony i nie była wcześniej podstawą żadnej innej urzędowej procedury związanej z
nadaniem dyplomów uczelni lub tytułów zawodowych/naukowych*.

Wyrażam zgodę/nie wyrażam zgody* na udostępnienie mojej pracy dla celów

naukowych i dydaktycznych.

………………………………………………
czytelny podpis

*niepotrzebne skreślić

4
 Abbreviations

e.g. - exempli gratia

i.e. - id est

etc. – et cetera

ST – source text

TS – target text

5
 Contents

Introduction......................................................................................................................7
Chapter 1: On translation theory.....................................................................................9

1.1 Definition of the term ‘translation’......................................................................9

1.2 Definition of the term and the role of translator.................................................13
1.3 Typology of translation......................................................................................16
1.4 Research done in translation studies throughout 20th century............................20

Chapter 2: On drama theory and translation techniques classification......................24

2.1 Definition of the notions of ‘drama’ and ‘musical’............................................24

2.2 Characteristics of a musical that affect the process of translation.....................27
2.3 Translation techniques applied in the process of translation of a drama text
concerning both linguistic and cultural elements.....................................................30
2.3.1 Linguistic translation techniques..............................................................33
2.3.2 Translation techniques used in transfer of cultural elements...................35

Chapter 3: Practical and comparative analysis of the text samples.............................39

3.1 Description of My Fair Lady screenplay concerning main themes of the play
and some cultural aspects with reference to Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw. 39
3.2 Language as a central theme in My Fair Lady screenplay and its translation....41
3.3 Analysis of the text samples with the emphasis on particular translation
techniques.................................................................................................................42

Conclusion......................................................................................................................54

A Summary in Polish......................................................................................................56

Bibliography....................................................................................................................57

Appendix 1......................................................................................................................60

Appendix 2......................................................................................................................70

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 Introduction

Recognized as an area of research, translation studies have evolved intensely over the
last three decades. During that time many scholars and researchers have presented their
hypotheses evoking countless responses and controversies on the various aspects of the
field. A vast number of publications provide different theories of the process and
methodology of translation as well as the role and visibility of the translator. Among
several types of translation, such as prose, poetry or legal, the theatre translation or
drama translation was neglected until the 1980s (Snell-Hornby: 2007). Since the
development of audiovisual media has affected various areas of interest in the field of
translation, stage and drama translation have also emerged.

This paper, hence, is devoted to the translation of a musical text which is a genre
of drama. As an example of this particular type of translation, I am going to present My
Fair Lady playscript by Alan Jay Lerner and its Polish translation which is a director’s
copy of the screenplay by Maciej Korwin based on the translation by Antoni
Marianowicz and Janusz Minkiewicz. The major objective of this study is to compare
the original version with its translation in order to examine various translation
techniques and to find out which are widely used in a process of drama translation,
particularly a musical translation. The analysis is concerned with both linguistic and
cultural translation techniques. Additionally, the secondary aim of the analysis is to
prove that the process of musical translation is affected by many extralinguistic aspects
which cannot be ignored because of their significance in understanding the play as well
as in rendering the original messages. Hence, the process of performable playscript’s
translation should be seen as a complex process requiring looking into not only suitable
translation techniques, but also many extralinguistic and cultural aspects. For this
examination, I am going to apply the methodology for translation research proposed by
Vinay and Dalbernet (2000) and Tomaszkiewicz (2006a) when it comes to translation
techniques used in transfer of cultural elements. Another goal of this paper is to provide
a general overview of translation studies and translation typology and the research done
in the field throughout 20th century which affected the study in audiovisual translation
and hence the translation of a drama text or musical screenplay. Without this theoretical
background, the major objective of my paper could not be accomplished. The goals

7
mentioned above organize and arrange the present paper. Therefore it contains of three
chapters.
The first chapter deals with a broad view of translation study. It demonstrates
not only various hypotheses on the definition of translation itself, but also the typology
of translation and the methodology for the research. The chapter also aims at outlining
chronologically the research done in the study of translation throughout 20th century.
The second chapter is to focus on the drama as a genre. I present the definitions of
drama and musical, as well as identify the features of playscript that affect the process
of its translation. Consequently, the chapter deals with a number of techniques used in
this particular type of translation and the methodology stated by Vinay and Dalbernet
(2000). The issue of cultural differences is also raised in this chapter. Hence, the
techniques concerning cultural element transfer proposed by Tomaszkiewicz (2006) are
briefly described. The specification of the properties of the drama translation and the
demonstration of the Vinay and Dalbernet’s (2000) procedures as well as the techniques
presented by Tomaszkiewicz (2006a) contribute to the structure of the last chapter.
The third chapter examines the playscript text samples and compares them with
the translation by Korwin. The investigation of the samples is to highlight not only the
translation techniques in drama translation, but also the issues of the English-Polish
contrastive grammar which cannot be ignored in the analysis. This chapter is also
concerned with a number of difficulties that can emerge when translating cultural
elements, with the application of translation techniques used for transfer of cultural
elements. The chosen text samples are to present the practical application of many
techniques that have been concisely characterized in the previous chapter. As it has been
mentioned earlier, the exemplification is to support and present all the issues that had
been raised – not only the translation techniques, but also the characteristics of the genre
that affect the whole process of translation.
As far as all aspects mentioned above need to be taken into consideration, the
paper attempts to provide both a theoretical and a practical view of the complex
operation which is drama or theatre translation. The process as a whole cannot be
considered without a thorough analysis of the area of the translation study and the role
of translator. The investigation of the methodology proposed by various researchers in
the field is crucial in carrying out the comparative analysis of the playscript and its
Polish translation.

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 Chapter 1
On translation theory

This theoretical chapter is concerned with translation study in general. Along with
various definitions of the terms translation and translator presented by some scholars
interested in the area, this passage specifies a number of types of translation. It outlines
the basic notions of translation as a process as well as its result. The main objectives in
the first chapter are to demonstrate some competitive approaches to translation studies
and to provide holistic typology of translation, crucial to understand the complexity of
the process. It also situates the discussion in terms of chronological overview of the
research done in the field of translation study throughout the 20 th century. Since the
present paper is devoted to theatre or drama translation, it is essential to investigate the
development of the translation studies that has led to the emergence of this particular
type of the translation process.

1.1 Definition of the term ‘translation’.

As outlined in the introduction, the definition for the term translation has been in
the range of interest of many scholars concerned with the study. In order to fulfill the
objective of specifying the term, several explanations should be introduced. As the first
and the most general notion, the definition given by the Oxford English Dictionary
(1989: 409-410) is to be presented (the definition is found among the other ones
connected mainly with the study of medicine or physics, or with other abstract terms):
“translation (…) I. transference, removal or conveyance from one person, place or
condition to another. (…) II. 2. a. The action or process of turning from one language
into another; also the product of this; a version in a different language.” Since the
definition mentioned above seems to be general, it implies the ambiguity of the term,
i.e. in using the word translation, one can discuss both process or activity of translating
and the product of such operation. The definition stated by Pieńkos (1993: 10-11)
corresponds to one given by the OED (1989):
“Translation may be seen as a result of a translator’s activity, i.e. a text
translated from one language into another. Translation, as an action (or a

9
 sequence of actions), is an intellectual operation, consisting in formulating
the message contained in the source text. The term ‘translation’ may also
mean the translator’s practice, i.e. (in a dynamic sense of the word)
translation activity of any kind. Finally, the term translation may be
associated with the comparison of the two languages”
Pieńkos (1993) focuses on several aspects in which the term might be investigated. He
emphasizes the fact that taking the term into consideration, one should analyze the
explanations in several languages to make the definition as reliable as possible. Hence
he discusses the meaning of the word in Polish: tłumaczenie, in German: Übersetzung,
in French: traduction and in Russian: pieriewod. Furthermore, Pieńkos (1993) supports
his own definition with the examples of Polish sentences illustrating the ambiguity of
the meaning of the term as well as providing the reader with the other scholars
interpretations. He quotes for instance one of the Polish linguists and theoreticians of
translation, Wojtasiewicz (1957: 15), who states that translation “… is an operation,
which consists in formulating in a certain language an equivalent which has been
earlier formulated in the other language”. In this statement Wojtasiewicz (1957)
focuses only on the activity of the translator and searching the units which are equal in
meaning in the target language. In addition to the formulations concerned with the
translation as its general meaning, there should be mentioned some of the other point of
view, for instance Tomaszkiewicz (2006: 64) states that:
“Translation is an operation or an activity happening between any two
messages. The first is expressed in the signs which are connected with each
other on some specific principles. On account of the fact that the potential
recipient does not know the signs and/or the principles of such connections,
there exists the necessity of reconstructing, explaining the meaning of the
first message with the use of the other signs and the other principles of their
connections, that the recipient is aware of. In order to make the operation of
encoding possible, somebody (translator) or something (software), who/that
knows the signs and the principles used in the two messages, is needed.”
The view presented above, concerned with the notion of translation in general and
presented by Tomaszkiewicz (2006: 64), seems to be complementary to that stated by
Oettinger (1960: 104) who claims that:
“Translating may be defined as the process of transforming signs or
representations into other signs or representations. If the originals have

10
 some significance, we generally require that their images also have the
same significance, or, more realistically, as nearly the same significance as
we can get. Keeping significance invariant is the central problem in
translating between natural languages”.
In the further discussion, Oettinger (1960) focuses on the equivalent elements in the
target message that replace the elements from the source message. He states that there
has to be seen the identity of meaning or equivalence between the two texts or
messages. Whereas the definitions provided up to this point were stated by the
researchers involved strictly in the study of translation, the interdisciplinary approach to
the issue should be mentioned. The interdisciplinary approach to the notion of the
process of translation allows to connect it to another disciplines and hence it shows
various relations between the translation and some other branches of knowledge. Such
relations can be observed in case of drama or stage translation which is the subject of
this paper. At this stage, the interpretation evaluated by de Waard and Nida (1986: 185)
needs to be considered in order to demonstrate the connections between the process of
translation and the other disciplines:
“Translation is also science in the broad sense of the term, for it is an
activity which may be systematically described and related meaningfully to
various disciplines. In the strict sense of the word, however, translating is
not a science but a technology, for it is upon a number of scientific
disciplines, including psychology, linguistics, communication theory,
anthropology, and semiotics”.
As the above statement is concerned one may come to the conclusion that a number of
factors exist, apart from linguistic ones, that need to be taken into account. What is
more, the problems occur when these factors belong to a variety of different branches of
knowledge and areas of life because then coherence and homogeneity in the form of
translation can be hardly achieved.
According to Piotrowska (2003) one more perspective on the process should be
considered, as the whole idea of translation seems to be “inherently non-linear”. She
states that:
“(…) for the methodological purposes translation may be viewed as a
two-step process of reception and production. Each of these steps is
built up of analytic and synthetic psychological operations. The

11
 diagram below presents the scheme of an integrated translation
process:

Decoding Encoding
= reception = production
= formulating TT
= deciphering,
understanding ST
= interpretation
(source: Piotrowska: 2003: 48)
Her statement clearly presents the translation process as a series of actions which result
in formulation the target text. She therefore combines the two main meanings of the
term which are: a) the process (sequence of psychological actions) and b) the result of
the translator’s activity.
The analysis of all the provided statements and explanations should bring one to
the conclusion that, independently of the point of view, the term translation expresses
the same notion, that is not only the contact and correlation between the two languages,
but also the process of rendering the source messages from one language into another.
The appellation may be understood as a process and collaboration as well as the product
of such operation, i.e. the translated message. A point worth mentioning here is also the
fact that the translation seen as a process can rarely be considered as an independent
area of interest. As it can be noticed, many scholars were of the opinion that the
translation study should be acknowledged as the interdisciplinary field of research. The
doubt of existing the translation as an independent science has been discussed, among
others, by Pieńkos (1993), Fiedorow (1983) as stated in Pieńkos (1993), Vinay and
Dalbernet (1958) as stated in Pieńkos (1993) and Cary (1986) as stated in Pieńkos
(1993), Fiedorow (1983) as stated in Pieńkos (1993) and Vinay and Dalbernet (1958) as
stated in Pieńkos (1993) agree on the discussion that translation should be considered as
a branch of linguistics as far as any operation of translation is simply a linguistic
phenomenon. Cary (1986) as cited in Pieńkos (1993), however, discusses their
conclusions and rejects the opinion that translation is an linguistic operation. He holds
the view that literal translation is a literal operation, poetry translation is a poetry
operation and theatre translation is a dramatic operation. However, without further
analysis of Cary’s (1986) concepts as cited in Pieńkos (1993), it can be noticed that
some theoretical doubts on translation cannot be explained only with linguistics but

12
some linguistic devices and its interpretation can surely broaden and enrich the scope of
translation research. Moreover, contrastive aspects of linguistic study become those of
great assistance when investigating the process of translation in general. According to
Pieńkos (1993) Jakobson (1966) as cited in Pieńkos (1993), Nida (1966) as cited in
Pieńkos (1993), Mounin (1963) as cited in Pieńkos (1993) and Catford (1965) as cited
in Pieńkos (1993) can be listed among linguists who have made their contribution to the
development of the field.
As one can notice, the term ‘translation’ might be considered from various points
of view. Many of them deal with the ambiguity in understanding the term – they specify
the instance of the translation as a process (a communication act) or as a product (the
result of the process of translation) which is given in the target language. What is more,
the study of translation is rarely recognized as an individual area of research. In the
majority of cases, it is believed to be the branch of linguistics, even when analyzed from
an artistic perspective. This particular aspect of the process of translation is usually
applied to the translation of drama texts, screenplays or playscripts, one of which, thus,
is the subject of the present paper.
In regard to the presented considerations, concerning the notion of the translation, the
issue of the role of translator needs also to be mentioned. The analysis of a number of
definitions and attempts of explanation of the problem will be investigated in the
following section. The examination of the translator’s position allows to observe and
understand how crucial the person of the translator is and how his or her attitude,
knowledge and experience influence the whole process of translation. These aspects are
highly important especially when it comes to drama translation which requires the
knowledge of the theory and techniques applied in this specific kind of translation.

1.2 Definition of the term and the roles of translator

When it comes to the person of translator, one should review various points of
view presented in a number of sources. As Oxford English Dictionary (1989: 411)
states, the translator is: “1.a. one who translates or renders from one language into
another; the author of a translation”. Such a definition is found among the others
concerned with a number of areas of interest, e.g. painting, computers, and technology.
The term ‘translation’ mentioned in the statement quoted above, refers to the product of

13
the process, what has been already discussed in the previous section. The question of the
role of the translator is raised in the OED (1989: 411) definition. It directly establishes
the main aim of the person of translator which seems to be translating or rendering the
source message by means of the target language. According to Jarniewicz (2002) as
cited in Linke (2008: 208), translators embrace in their work two main roles – they are
to act either as “ambassadors of the foreign culture or literature” (i.e. they simply
transfer the source cultural aspects from the source text into the target text) or as
“legislators who aim at the improvement of their home culture” (i.e. since their main
goal is to improve, in a sense, their target culture through presenting the source one,
they bring the source cultural aspects to the target reader or vice versa). Through this
comparison Jarniewicz (2002) as cited in Linke (2008) focuses the role of translator in
the complexity of the process which cannot be ignored when considering the translation
theory. When it comes to transferring the source cultural aspects, Nida’s (1964: 154)
point of view should be mentioned. He claims that the objectivity, which is
conventionally required from the translator, is not possible because the translator cannot
alienate himself from his own culture – the culture he belongs to. According to
Piotrowska (2003: 19) “the translation (product) will always be to some degree marked
by his personality”, which means that the extremist point of view, in which the
translator is ‘invisible’, seems to be impossible and utopian idea. As Newmark (1982: 8)
states “The translator’s theory of meaning and different values colour his interpretation
of the text”. By ‘colouring’, he means the process of transferring the source text
messages in accordance with the translator’s own experience or views. Referring to
Nida (1964) and Piotrowska (2003), such activity is virtually unavoidable. Here, the
translator’s position in the process of translation needs to be discussed. By the process
in this case, the translation should be understood as an act of interpersonal
communication in terms of language. The person of translator plays an important role in
the process of multilingual communication. It should be mentioned that the definition of
the term ‘translator’ is connected with translator’s role. Hence, the position of the
person of translator as both the recipient or receiver of the message and its sender or
speaker of the source language influences the whole process of communication. Such a
process of multilingual communication could not exist without translator’s knowledge,
experience and awareness of the subject or translation theory. Since the definitions of
the term ‘translator’ presented above focus on the explanation of the main purpose of
the translator’s work, it needs to be noticed that they can be supplemented by the graph

14
which presents the role of translator in a single act of multilingual communication. The
diagram created by Piotrowska (2003: 49) displays “the chronology of events in
multilingual communication”:

SL TL
sender receiver/translator/sender receiver

message message

(source: Piotrowska 2003: 49)

According to the above diagram into consideration, the natural process of multilingual
communication exists in presented two main activities, between which in the centre is
situated the translator. His or her main role in such process is to mediate between the
sender in the source language and the receiver in the target language. Hence, the
translator’s role is crucial in the activity of rendering the message.
In accordance with Pieńkos’ (1993) view, the translator fulfils the mission of
bridging gaps between the nations and their cultures, as well as clearing the ways for
science and technology developments. What is more he claims that translators are
essential for contemporary society when it comes to sharing thoughts, views and
achievements. Additionally, Pieńkos (1993) states that the main task in the translator’s
activity is facilitation of interpersonal language communication. Referring to the
discussion about the role of translator, which was the issue of interest for many
scholars, the contribution of Piotrowska (2003: 22) is worth mentioning. Analyzing
various points of view of some researchers, she states that “The multiplicity of roles
imposed on the translator is an obvious fact; the list of demands addressed to him –
endless. His work is underestimated by many, and he is subject to many constraints and
limitations,(…)”. Subsequently, she presents the set of comparisons which are to
illustrate the multiplicity of the roles of translator:
“The translator must be:
- an explorer who discovers the original for himself.
- a reader who receives and comprehends the original.
- a critic who evaluates it.
- a second author who re-creates it.” (Piotrowska: 2003: 22)

15
The goals of translator’s activity were the issue of interest for many scholars and
academics. The doubts connected with the visibility of the translator, his or her
competence and experience, the cultural differences between the source text and the
target text and many other subjects seem to be still controversial topics. Hence, many
researchers such as Venuti (2000), Newmark (1982), Tomaszkiewicz (2006a),
Burkhanov (2003) deal with the topics listed above.
As one can notice, the person of translator and his or her roles in the process of
translation as well as in the product of it cannot be ignored, especially when it comes to
various points of view concerned with the definition of the field seen both as a process
and a product. The translator is engaged in the activity of transferring the massage as
well as certain cultural aspects into the target language. The latter can be disputable
especially in case of drama or stage translation which is the subject of the present paper.
Therefore, the figure of translator and the aim of his or her activity are still a matter of
discussion among many scholars investigating the field of translation study. Since the
main purpose of the translator’s activity seems to be obvious, his or her further goals
may be dependent on the details of the message in the source text. It is then connected
with the type of translation. Hence, the typology of translation is to be discussed in the
following section.

1.3 Typology of translation

With the assumption that the main role and aim of translator is to translate or to
render the source language messages into target language, his or her secondary aims
seem to be changeable. Therefore, his or her decisions are dependent on the certain type
of translation. In order to specify the typology of the process, many scholars discussed
and described the issue. As Pieńkos (1993: 72) states, we can distinguish the two types
of translation: a) carried out by the man, and b) carried out by the device or machine. As
far as the present paper is concerned, the translation carried out by the man is to be
considered.
As one of the most general typology, the division presented by Jakobson (1959:
114) is applied by many scholars. He claims that “For us, both as linguists and as
ordinary word-users, the meaning of any linguistic sign is its translation into some
further, alternative sign, especially a sign ‘in which it is more fully developed’ as

16
Pierce, the deeper inquirer into the essence of signs, insistently stated”(Jakobson
1959:114). By this statement Jakobson (1959) introduces the reader to the division of
the translation process evaluated by himself. His analysis is mainly concerned with the
linguistic aspects of signs in particular language. Jakobson (1959: 114) distinguishes
three ways of interpreting a verbal sign: “it may be translated into other signs of the
same language, into another language, or into another, nonverbal system of symbols.
These three kinds of translation are to be differently labeled:
1) Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by
means of other signs of the same language.
2) Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal
signs by means of some other language.
3) Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs
by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems.”
The first type, the intralingual translation, occurs in case of using more or less
synonymous words which explain certain notion, they define, in a sense, the word. It
means that this type of translation employs a process of circumlocution. On the level of
interlingual translation, messages formulated in the source language code of signs are
interpreted by means of the target language signs and units. The second type of the
process is also so called ‘proper translation’ which suggests that, according to the
author, the notion ‘translation’ is generally identified with this particular type of the
process. The last type in the division evaluated by Jakobson (1959: 114), intersemiotic
translation, is one which is considered to be connected mainly to the visual or
audiovisual translation – the subject of the present dissertation. Since the term
‘intersemiotic translation’ covers an interpretation of transposition of messages from
one semiotic system into another, it can be applied to a presentation of a play as a
literary text on stage. Burkhanov (2003: 15) notices that the major difficulty in the case
of transferring a literary text into the system of signs used on stage is to realize that
“significant alterations of content” should be always taken into consideration.
Transposition of playtexts from the system of literature into the system of theatre must
be dependent on not only the system of words but also systems of signs, gestures,
mimics, rhythm, etc. What is more, Tomaszkiewicz (2006a) discusses the intersemiotic
translation in terms of visual and audiovisual codes of signs. She states that the
intersemiotic translation is mainly concerned with the needs of means of the mass
communication. Hence, it is connected not only with the translation of lingual messages

17
by using non-lingual measures, but also with the rendition of the texts which are strictly
connected with some other relations with non-lingual codes of communication, for
instance captions under photographs or pictures which explain or describe somebody or
something that is seen, or the other way round – the picture can present the issue
mentioned in the text. What is more, Tomaszkiewicz (2006a: 73-74) presents also other
situations in which the intersemiotic translation occurs, for example in some systems of
communication, pictograms are used instead of lingual units and they unambiguously
present the message (traffic signs, tourist information signs, etc. can serve as other
examples of this particular type of translation). In her work devoted to audiovisual
translation, Tomaszkiewicz (2006a: 97) discusses the intersemiotic translation in a
detailed way and she states that this type of the process is the one mainly used in the
screen, theatre or drama translation.
In terms of the material analysed, Pieńkos (1993: 72-163) distinguishes a number
of the translation kinds. He lists the following types:
1) artistic translation (literary) – concerned with all literary texts, such as
poetry, prose, drama, as well as other texts e.g. advertisements
2) poetry translation
3) scientific and technology texts translation – translation of scientific
articles as well as e.g. operational manuals
4) legal translation – translation of texts within the field of law
5) screen/stage translation (audiovisual translation) – connected in a sense
with artistic translation because it usually deals with the translating
drama
6) oral translation
a) simultaneous translation
b) consecutive translation
c) cabin translation
7) translation carried out by computer
Presenting such typology, Pieńkos (1993) notices that some of the types emerged and
formed themselves during the long historical process of social and cultural activity of
the man. He states that they are the product of the history, not of the scientific analysis.
In accordance with Jumpelt (1961) as cited in Pieńkos (1993), the author recognizes the
fact that the main characteristics of the particular type of translation are determined by
its purpose, the kind of source text and the target audience of the translation. Pieńkos

18
(1993) also mentions that the last factor, i.e. the target audience, was briefly discussed
by Nida (1964) in his development of the equivalence theory, which seemed to be
concerned with the addressees of the target message. What is more, when it comes to
the factors which influence the translation process, two more types of translation should
be considered. These are:
1) word-for-word translation
2) sense-for-sense translation
The above two types of the process exist virtually from the Roman times until now.
Some scholars discuss the two different ideas using the names ‘literal’ and ‘non-literal’
or free translation respectively. The idea of using those types is probably one of the
oldest controversies existing in the area of translation study. According to Piotrowska
(2003: 21) “it used to be traditionally considered that literal translation excludes
beauty, whereas free translation contradicts fidelity to the original”.
When it comes to further analysis of the typology of translation, the medium of
conveying the message is the other important aspect which requires the division into
three other translation kinds. The issue of the medium cannot be omitted because the
techniques applied depend on it. What is more, these different translation kinds which
are going to be presented cannot be treated in the same way and with the same
techniques. In this area which is the medium of conveying the message, three types of
translation are distinguished:
1) written translation
2) oral translation
3) audiovisual translation
Since the written and oral translation seem to be obvious, the last type, audiovisual
translation, needs to be discussed since the paper is devoted to the example of this
particular area of interest. According to Tomaszkiewicz (2006a), audiovisual
translation is definitely connected with the so-called mass communication, or
communication in mass media. Therefore, audiovisual translation cannot be separated
from the cinema screen or theatre stage. In this type of translation, the picture has
almost the same role as the words. As Tomaszkiewicz (2006a) states, audiovisual
translation cannot be also isolated from the intersemiotic translation, described by
Jakobson (1959). Since the present paper is devoted to the analysis of the playscript and
its translation, the term ‘audiovisual’ cannot be ignored. The subject of this notion was
also discussed by Karamitroglou (2000: 10) who proposed the methodology applied for

19
the investigation of norms in audiovisual translation. According to the scholar, “it is a
well-known fact that audiovisual translation has always been considered inferior to
(written) literary translation, most probably because of the lack of cultural prestige in
audiovisual mass-media, compared to canonized literature”. However, according to
Karamitroglou (2000), there are a number of reasons why audiovisual translation can be
considered a valid sub-field of translation studies. One of his more important statement
is that audiovisual translation, like literary translation, was derived from the need to
cross language barriers.
The typology of translation has undergone a number of modifications throughout the
history. Since many scholars and researchers take into consideration different aspects
and factors in distinguishing various types of the process, the typology of the field is
still discussed and broaden. For instance, when it comes to audiovisual translation, it
seems to be a relatively recent type of the process which is still being described. As far
as this particular type of translation is concerned, some of the contributors to the field
should be mentioned. Among many others there are: Tomaszkiewicz (2006a),
Karamitroglou (2000), Hatim, Mason (1997 in Venuti: 2000), Baker (1992).
In regard to the fact that the typology of translation presented above has been
formulated throughout history, the chronological view should be presented. It allows us
to become aware and to understand the theory of drama translation or audiovisual
translation. Moreover, since audiovisual translation, the main subject of the present
paper, is a relatively recent issue, we should investigate the events in the field of
translation that led to the development of this particular type of the process. Such topic
is to be studied in the following section.

1.4 Research done in translation studies throughout 20th century.

Translation studies as a field of interest for many linguists is still an emerging

discipline. Representation of the main approaches to the study developed during the 20 th
century seems to be play a crucial role in understanding the development of the area
holistically. During the 20th century the translation studies emerged and developed as a
relatively new academic field. The issue became at once an international and
interdisciplinary discussion. In order to carry out the analysis of the translated text

20
successfully, one should become acquainted with the brief history of the development of
the field, which is to be now presented.
Starting with the period of 1900s to 1930s Venuti (2000) focuses on the main
contributors to the field. He points out that according to German literary critics and
linguists, the language is assumed as not very communicative and the translation was
seen as an interpretation transforming the foreign text. Venuti (2000) quotes Benjamin
(1923) as stated in Venuti (2000), according to whom, the translation, which seems to
be autonomous, does more than transmit messages; “it recreates the values that
accrued to the foreign text over time”. In accordance with Venuti (2000), Pound (1934)
shares the German point of view. He is mainly interested in a stylistic equivalence, “a
verbal weigh about equal to that of the original”. In Pound’s opinion, the target text
may be “interpretive” or “original writing”. As Venuti (2000) states the theoretical as
well as practical aspect of translation that time are marked by two competitive
tendencies: an interest in technique (innovative translation strategies) and on the other
hand, an interest in functionalism (connected with cultural and political aspects). At the
end of this period i.e. the 1930s, translation is viewed as a distinctive and independent
branch of linguistics. According to Ortega y Gasset, as cited in Venuti (2000),
translation is “a literary genre apart with its own norms and its own ends”. Hence, it
becomes the issue which focuses the attention of many scholars, philologists as well as
thinkers and writers, and it causes a number of theoretical problems that are still debated
today.
The next period in the history of translation studies from 1940s to 1950s, is
dominated by the issue of translatability. Scholars of different opinions discuss various
aspects of the phenomenon. They analyze whether the translation can accept or adapt
the differences that isolate languages and cultures. As Venuti (2000: 67) states that “the
opinions (about the issue) are shaped by disciplinary trends and vary widely, ranging
between the extremes of philosophical skepticism and practical optimism”. He mentions
then the concept of “radical translation” introduced by Quine in the late 1950s. The idea
is connected with his acknowledgement that, since, the process of translating occurs on
the basis of “regulative maxims” and “analytic hypotheses”, “none of these ‘tools’ can
guarantee a correlation between stimuli and meaning” (Venuti 2000). Such a view
leads to the opinion that meaning is something conventional and socially defined and
limited. In opposition to Quine’s view stands Heidegger, as stated in Venuti (2000),
whose opinion is concerned with anti-metaphysical approach to language. The notion of

21
translatability affects also literary criticism. In this field Nabokov (1941), as cited in
Venuti (2000), contributes to the debate by discussing reproducing a foreign literary text
in another language. According to him, translated versions that “conform to the notions
and prejudices of a given public constitute the worst ‘evil’ of translation.” Apart from
the notion of translatability, the issue of linguistic analysis is also briefly discussed in
this period. Nida (1945), as stated in Venuti (2000), deals with the problem of
translating and rendering the messages between two realities. He argues that the process
should be based on translator’s experience and his acquisition of “sufficient cultural
information”. The essential contribution of Jakobson (1959: 114) introduced the widely
applied division of the translation process and a semiotic reflection on translatability.
He is of the opinion that the process of translation is one which “involves two
equivalent messages in two different codes” and the meaning is the relation to “the
chain of signs”. In his opinion translation is a “creative transposition” into a different
system of signs. Vinay, Dalbernet’s (1995) work is seen as the most influential
contribution of the period. They present a theoretical basis for a number of translation
methods that are still current in use when analyzing the process of translation. The great
value of their work is of both practical and pedagogical applications. The period closes
with the Brower’s (1959), as stated in Venuti (2000), anthology, which helpfully gathers
together the main trends in commentary on translation.
The next period in the outline is from 1960s to 1970s. The main issue in the field
which is discussed during that time is the idea of equivalence. Apart from various
typologies and descriptions of the phenomenon, there occur a number of debates
concerning the problem. Their views are sometimes connected with the dichotomy
between ‘word-for-word’ and ‘sense-for-sense’ translation, discussed in the previous
section of the paper. Another important issue of the period is the disciplinary division of
translation studies presented by Holmes (1972) as cited in Venuti (2000). By adapting
the scientific, in a sense, model from linguistics, he distinguishes the field into “pure”
and “applied” translation studies. The former type is concerned with the research
oriented translation theory, and the latter with, as Venuti (2000) states, areas as
translator’s training. The point also discussed in the period, mainly by Catford and
Mounin, is the issue of cultural differences. The matter is still the subject of many
scholars’ debate currently.
The decades of 1980s and 1990s are mostly concerned with the interdisciplinary
view of translation studies. According to Venuti (2000), the translation, treated as a

22
separate discipline, covers also such fields as linguistics, literary criticism, philosophy,
and explores the issues of “cross-cultural communication”. Since translation became an
academic discipline, the number of scholars and their writings is still increasing. They
present various points of view on the process itself, its products as well as some
secondary issues, e.g. the notion of equivalence. One of the most important
contributions, dealing also with the subject of the present paper, the audiovisual
translation, in this period is the work of Hatim and Mason (1997) who analyze the
linguistic-oriented theory of translation and equivalence. For instance, they investigate
the patterns of politeness in audiovisual translation (film subtitling) with the view of
pragmatics. Another contributors worth mentioning, according to Venuti (2000), are:
Newmark, Simon, Snell-Hornby, Baker, Bassnett and Lefevere, Robinson, Venuti,
Gentzler, and others.
Observing the main trends in the translation studies chronological overlook, one
can easily notice that the field is still emerging. Various interdisciplinary aspects of the
area provoke scholars to investigate new issues and to adapt the translation theory to the
practical applications. As far as the present paper is devoted to audiovisual translation
which is quite recent field of study, the events and debates which led to the development
of the area should be recognized.
As this chapter of the present study is devoted mainly to the translation theory, the
first section deals with the definition of the term translation. Since the notion was
discussed by many academics, I presented some of the statements, from the most
general to some more detailed and concerned with the subject of the paper. The next
section is to deal with the person of translator – the notion of the term as well as the role
of the person in the process of translation. In this section, I have focused also on some
aims and goals applied by translators in order to transfer the source message by means
of the target text. The third section investigates the typology of translation proposed by
Jakobson (1959) and Pieńkos (1993). The aim of that part was to place the audiovisual
translation among other types as well as examine this particular type as an intersemiotic
translation. Last but not least, the chronological events in the development of the area
are mentioned. This section is to introduce the most important contributors to the
translation studies as well as the issues discussed during the 20th century.

23
 Chapter 2
On drama theory and translation techniques classification

The second chapter of this paper is going to deal with the theoretical aspects of a drama
text and the musical as a genre. At first, the definitions from various points of view of
these two notions are presented. The emphasis is put on the features of a drama text
which influence the process of translation and hence the choice of the translation
techniques used in this particular type of translation. In order to deal with those features
holistically, there are discussed both linguistic as well as extralinguistic aspects which
are crucial in transferring any drama text into the performable stage text. What is more,
this chapter is to present the translation techniques which are applied to rendering the
source messages from the system of literature into that of the theatrical stage system of
signs. Referring to the first chapter of this paper that presents the theoretical background
of translation study and its typology, this passage is going to represent the aspects which
identify the drama translation to be an instance of intersemiotic translation.

2.1 Definition of the notions of ‘drama’ and ‘musical’

At the beginning of this theoretical part the notions of a drama text and a musical
are going to be presented. The definitions of these two terms will present the
encyclopedic point of view without putting an emphasis on aspects that affect the
process of translation of such texts – such details will be introduced and analyzed in the
next subsections of the chapter. The definition given by Sławiński (2002: 104-105)
presents an explanation of the drama as a literary genre:
“(…) one of the three primary literary genres, including works generally
intended for putting them on stage; usually having fictional pattern; on the
language plane characterized mostly by a dialogue, (…)”.
The features connected with strictly literary aspects that are listed in the definition
above, determine and characterize drama as a literary term. When it comes to more
detailed description, a number of further characteristics classify any text as a drama text.
However, there exists the duality of a drama text. According to Sławiński (2002),

24
a drama work is one of the three literary genres only when it is comparable with the two
others – narrative or lyric. In its stage performance realization, such text belongs to the
arts and theatre. From its duality, the two important and competing theories emerge:
a) literary theory of drama;
b) theatre theory of drama.
The literary theory of drama represents a drama text in terms of literary aspects as a text
which is a complete and self-sufficient work. The theatre theory of drama, however,
locates a drama text among a number of other components that form a self-contained
whole. In this theory all of the components that create the stage performance are of the
same significance. A similar point of view was discussed by Burkhanov (2003: 153),
who uses the terms ‘play’ or ‘playtext’ for a drama text. He states that:
“A play (hence, its translation) is an aesthetic product of a dual nature. On
the one hand, a dramatic text is a piece of literary fiction, and as such, can
be said to be an element of the system of literature. In practical terms, it
means that a playtext can be, and actually is, read as any other literary
work and should be evaluated as such. On the other hand, a dramatic piece
of writing is a kind of ‘raw material’ for its staging at the theatre. This
implies that a playtext, in addition to being a literary fact, is a kind of script
that is meant to be performed on stage. Moreover, it should, at least ideally,
be specifically designed to be as suitable as possible for its further
theatrical interpretation.” (Burkhanov 2003: 153)
Burkhanov (2003) adds that the classification of a dramatic piece of writing that is
suitable for staging is determined by a number of characteristics of drama. They
differentiate such a piece of literature from other kinds of literary works. Such specific
features include, for instance, the plot, or the dramatic action which forms the content of
the playtext, as well as so-called stage directions i.e. the list of characters of the play, or
verbal and communicative interaction between those characters (Burkhanov 2003). To
supplement the above explanations, Burkhanov (2003) notices that the text of any drama
work is mainly made up of dialogues and dramatic monologues (soliloquies) which
accompanied by stage directions, form a holistic, both literary and performable, piece of
writing. In order to discern all of the elements of the drama that are likely to influence the
process of translation, one more definition of this term is going to be presented.
According to Crystal (1990: 375) ‘drama’ is:

25
 “A representation of human action by actors impersonating characters on
stage. One of the oldest literary forms, developing in different directions out
of religious ritual, its origins are reflected in the frequent use of music,
dance, and chorus.(…)”
As it can be noticed, apart from the most general information concerning the category of
what the drama is, the definition contains also the fact of existing some extralinguistic
aspects in every drama text. All of the extralinguistic aspects listed both in the above
definitions and by the scholars dealing with drama translation are going to be analyzed in
the next subsection of this chapter. Before the drama or the play started to be treated as a
combination of both literary text and the text that can be performed or staged, drama
translation was nothing more than the artistic translation of the text. However, since the
performable drama text cannot exist without gesture, music, mimics etc., its translation
must be affected by all those extralinguistic aspects.
Since the subject of this dissertation is a playtext of My Fair Lady, which is an
example of the musical, the definition of this term is going to be presented and analysed.
Referring to the definitions of a drama text presented above, a musical can be treated as a
dramatic text or a playtext. However, there are some aspects that differentiate a musical
from any other drama performance. According to Crystal (1990: 824), a musical is:
“A distinctive genre of musical comedy, where a strong story is fused with a
musical score and professional choreography, found in both theatre and
cinema.(…)”
Whereas the definition quoted above is concerned with both theatre and cinema musical,
this paper deals with the example of theatre performance and only aspects connected
with staging the text will be the subject of this paper. Since Crystal’s definition seems to
be a general one, he puts an emphasis on the two most important elements that
differentiate musical from any other performable drama text - these are musical score and
professional choreography. They are examples of extralinguistic aspects that affect the
process of translation, but the issue of such elements is going to be dealt with in the
following subsection. As a supplement to the above explanations concerning the term
‘musical’, Sławiński’s (2002) contribution is worth mentioning. Apart from discussing
some music elements of the musical performance, he notices that librettos, texts of
operas or musical plays, for such realizations are often updated paraphrases of classical
works such as Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare or Pigmalion by George

26
Bernard Shaw, which is actually a base for libretto of My Fair Lady – the subject of this
paper.
As it can be noticed, the explanations of both terms ‘drama’ and ‘musical’ are
crucial to fully understand the nature and complexity of the performable piece of writing.
In both cases apart from the text there are a number of extralinguistic elements which
have to be taken into account. Without consideration of such elements the process of
translation as well as the stage performance could not be achieved. The aspects or
characteristics of a playtext that influence the process of translation are going to be
discussed in the following subsection.

2.2 Characteristics of a musical that affect the process of translation

As the definitions of a drama or a musical have been investigated in the previous

subsection, it seems to be clear that texts such as a drama text or libretto should be
treated as an element of some complex whole that is a performance. Since there exist
the two theories connected with the purpose of a drama or musical text that have been
mentioned previously, this subsection will emphasize the characteristics of such text
that influence the perceiving it as a performable piece of writing.
In order to determine the types of the texts that can be seen as actable or
performable, the contribution of Reji (1971), as cited in Snell-Hornby (2007), is going
to be mentioned. Reji (1971), provides the description of so-called audiomedial or
multimedial texts:
“(…) those written, not to be read silently, but to be spoken or sung, and
that are hence dependent on a non-verbal medium or on other non-verbal
forms of expression, both acoustic and visual, to reach their intended
audience. Unlike the case of the novel, short story or lyric poem, in
multimedial texts the verbal text is only one part of a larger and complex
whole – and this poses particular problems for translation.”
(as cited in Snell-Hornby: 2007: 107-108)
In terms of this definition, the examples of such multimedial texts are librettos (both
opera or musical), drama texts, film scripts or even radio plays. Librettos and drama texts
are especially worth mentioning here because they are destined particularly for being

27
staged and performed. Their musical scores allow for achieving their full potential on
stage in the theatrical live performance. In the light of the above explanation, apart from
the text or verbal messages, the other – non-verbal elements are crucial for the complete
understanding of such multimedial texts.
When it comes to theatrical performance elements, the semiotics, as the study of
signs, can be treated here as a source of classification of some non-verbal elements. The
concept of sign can be used for analysis and organization of all of the stage performance
components that influence and alter the translation of the musical or drama text.
According to Peirce (Snell-Hornby: 2007: 108) the system of signs is represented by the
following division:
a) icon (or iconic sign)
b) index (or indexical sign)
c) symbol (or symbolic sign)
Since the world of the theatre possesses many signs or elements that create consistent
performances, this classification is essential to clarify their functions and purposes. What
is more, from the audience’s point of view, the distinction allows for a clear and full
understanding and, hence, interpretation of the play. An iconic sign, as Snell-Hornby
(2007: 108) states, “can be taken as it stands, and it is fully interpretable as long as the
spectator can situate it in context.” The context here is simply the situation in which the
sign is presented, for instance the dialogue between the actors in a certain place or time
that is known for the audience from the text or some other non-verbal elements. Any
costume of the actor or a table set for dinner are examples of iconic signs. An indexical
sign, which is the next one in the division, “is interpretable as long as the spectator can
understand the point of connection” (Snell-Hornby: 2007: 108). It seems obvious that
this understanding will depend on the spectator’s individual experience and knowledge,
and, hence, the ability to make predictions or to interpret the situation on stage. For
instance, a pool of blood can stand for a murder or a serious injury, or smoke can stand
for fire, etc. Last, but not least, a symbolic sign, “is only understandable if the spectator
is familiar with its meaning in the culture concerned” (Snell-Hornby: 2007: 108). It is
then evident that the audience’s interpretation of any sign can vary considerably
depending on the culture in which the drama is staged. In terms of the definition given
above, different interpretations of colours, mimics, gestures or even vocal elements serve
as examples for symbolic signs. For instance, raising one’s eyebrows in American culture
means surprise or astonishment whereas in Arabic or Chinese culture, the gesture

28
indicates disagreement with something or somebody. When it comes to Chinese
superstitions, giving a watch to somebody means counting out the seconds to his or her
death and is treated as a threat or an offence – such behaviour will be not understandable
for Western cultures. Similarly, in case of colours, for example the colour of mourning in
Western cultures is black whereas in Asiatic cultures it is white. Such differences cannot
be ignored in the process of translation because if they were, the performance would not
be clear or understandable for the target audience. To conclude, all of the non-verbal
signs that can be classified as iconic, indexical or symbolic are interpretable only if the
spectator is aware of their meaning or function within the culture concerned.
Apart from Pierce’s (Snell-Hornby: 2007: 109) division of signs as non-verbal
performance elements, there are some other aspects that needs to be considered. The raw
words of the playtext provide a basis for analyzing their relation to or co-ordination with
the immediate environment of the world of the theatre. According to Snell-Hornby
(2007: 109) there are three means for such co-ordination:
a) paralanguage
b) kinesics
c) proxemics
When it comes to paralanguage, its basic features concern vocal elements. These
paralinguistic features contain: intonation, pitch, rhythm, tempo, resonance, loudness and
voice timbre. Each of them can be used as an aid in expressing emotions, for instance
laud laughter for expressing joy or shouting for expressing anger, fury. Kinesic features,
which come second in the division, refer to elements connected with body movements,
i.e. postures, gestures, facial expressions, or mimes. According to Poyatos (1993; in
Snell-Hornby: 2007) smiling, winking, shrugging or waving can be seen as examples of
kinesic features. Finally, proxemic features seem to be the broadest group of the three
given in above classification. They contain the relation of a character or a figure to the
stage environment and describe its movement within it. Besides, they refer to the varying
distance or physical closeness between characters on stage. Such proxemic features can
inform the audience for example about a character’s habits, behaviour or even his or her
character traits. For instance, one character standing far from another, he may be
indicating his dislike for that person.
With all of the non-verbal elements described in this subsection into account, it can be
noticed that they all together with the verbal messages form and shape the whole stage
performance. Since the staging of any drama or musical text seems to be a laborious and

29
complicated task to do, the translation must be all the more reliable and understandable
within the system of both the target language and culture.

2.3 Translation techniques applied in the process of translation of a drama text

concerning both linguistic and cultural elements

Since the purpose of this paper is to compare the original My Fair Lady playtext
with its Polish translation by means of techniques applied in a drama translation, this
subsection is devoted to classification and in-depth description of such techniques. Many
researchers provided translators with numerous means of transferring source messages
into target messages putting an emphasis on the faithfulness which seems to be crucial in
translator’s work. As far as the analysis in this thesis is concerned, both linguistic and
cultural translation techniques need to be presented and clearly organized. The former
allow for the analysis of the linguistic differences between English original and its Polish
translation, especially those alterations which may occur as problematic ones. The latter,
however, are essential in conveying some cultural elements which play an important role
in introducing the main themes of the performance to the foreign audience.
Firstly, the concept of a translation technique is to be explained in order to present
classification and description of such techniques engaged in the comparative analysis of
My Fair Lady screenplay. According to Tomaszkiewicz (2006b: 95) a translation
technique is a way that translator deals with certain elements from the source text in
order to render them into the target text with the aim of retaining equivalence.
Tomaszkiewicz (2006b: 95) notices that there exists a significant difference between a
translation technique and a translation strategy, as the second one determines the global
translator’s conduct in comparison with the whole text. Such views are shared by
Piotrowska (2003: 33-34) who discusses the issue as ‘the translator’s decisions’. She
presents two types of such decisions – ‘strategic decisions and decisions of detail’.
Strategic decisions are connected with applying a translation strategy after recognizing
some essential aspects of the text, e.g. the prospective audience of the target messages or
the purpose of the target text. Having determined such elements, the translator is able to
adjust an appropriate strategy or approach to the certain source text that is to be
translated. Decisions of detail are all decisions taken in case of any difficulties or
problematic situations which occur during the process of translation. Such difficulties can

30
be of a various nature, e.g. lexical, grammatical, cultural, etc. Since strategic decisions
are concerned with some more general ideas, they precede decisions of detail which
occur during the process of translation and are connected with the choice of techniques
applied in certain translation. As far as the analysis of the screenplay is the subject of this
paper, this subsection is devoted to techniques which can be applied to the translation of
drama. Because of the complexity of a drama text and the relationship between text and
performance, a set of techniques must be used. Since linguistic techniques are applied in
the process of translation, the cultural ones are also common. What is more, as any
performance is overfilled with meaningful gestures, mimics and many others signs and
messages of acting, the translation techniques complement with each other with such
aspects.
In the final analysis of this paper, linguistic and cultural translation techniques are
examined and for this purpose the set of techniques applied is to be presented. According
to Vinay and Dalbernet (1995: 84), “Generally speaking, translators can choose from
two methods of translating, namely direct, or literal translation and oblique
translation.”
The first one, literal translation, occurs when there exist equivalence between two certain
elements, from the source language and the target language. This equivalence may occur
on the level of structural, lexical or even morphological differences. The second one,
oblique translation, occurs when there are not the exact equivalents and the translators
must fill such ‘gaps’ with some elements that corresponds with each other. The only
condition is to keep the overall impression of the source message when transferring it
into the target message. Since there is a possibility that some stylistic effects cannot be
translated from the source language to the target language retaining their meaning the
same, Vinay and Dalbernet (1995: 84-93) claim that “more complex methods have to be
used which at first may look unusual but which nevertheless can permit translators a
strict control over the reliability of their work (…)”. According to Vinay and Dalbernet
(1995: 84-93), there are seven main translation techniques which are to be described in
the following subsection. They can be divided as follows:

Literal translation techniques:

a) borrowing
b) calque
c) literal translation

31
Oblique translation techniques
a) transposition
b) modulation
c) equivalence
d) adaptation

Since the techniques proposed by Vinay and Dalbernet (1995: 84-93) are connected
mostly with some linguistic aspects of drama translation, the cultural translation
techniques need to be discussed. According to Tomaszkiewicz (2006a: 152-154), the
complexity of the audiovisual translation, and, hence, drama translation, is connected to
the complexity of semiotics, by which she understands a wide range of signs, e.g.
gestures. The occurrences of such signs can facilitate the understanding of the whole
message, but, on the other hand, the comprehension of the message may be disturbed by
some cultural alterations. The translator must be aware of such differences and take them
into account when transferring textual messages which correlate with performable signs.
In order to classify the models of dealing with such situations, Tomaszkiewicz (2006a:
155-174) presents the division of the cultural translation techniques which are to be
briefly described later in this paper:

a) omission
b) direct transfer
c) amplification and paraphrase
d) equivalence
e) adaptation
f) substitution with deictic expressions
g) allusion
h) historical aspect of cultural transfer

Having found any difficulty concerned with transferring a message from one language
into another, the translator is to use the most appropriate translation technique which
would introduce the problematic element to the audience in a clear and simple way. The
choice of a certain technique is determined by the type of problematic element – whether
it is a linguistic or cultural aspect. Sometimes one technique can deal with both aspects

32
but then it is usually a complex process requiring a considerate translator’s experience
and knowledge, both linguistic and cultural. As the two divisions of a number of
translation techniques require an in-depth description in order to present their application,
the following two parts are to be devoted to the definition of each linguistic and cultural
technique.

2.3.1 Linguistic translation techniques

Direct or literal translation techniques are those used in a situation when exact structural
or lexical equivalents occur between the source language and the target language. Those
techniques are:
a) borrowing. This occurs when a word is taken directly from another language in order
“to overcome a lacuna, usually a metalinguistic one (e.g. a new technical process, an
unknown concept)” (Vinay and Dalbernet: 1995: 85). For instance the English word
‘pub’ is now well-established in Polish – ‘Chodźmy do pubu’. Sometimes borrowings
can be introduced in order to transfer also “the flavour of the source language culture
into translation” (Vinay and Dalbernet: 1995: 85), hence, the technique of using
borrowings can be applied in case of both linguistic and cultural problematic
elements.
b) calque. This “is a special kind of borrowing whereby a language borrows an
expression form of another, but then translates literally each of its elements” (Vinay
and Dalbernet: 1995: 85). For example, the English word ‘skyscraper’ has been
incorporated into the Polish language as ‘drapacz chmur’; or ‘White House’, as a
cultural element, has been treated word by word and translated literally as ‘Biały
Dom’. Many fixed calques as well as borrowings after some time become an integral
part of certain language and do not sound strange or artificial.
c) literal translation, or word for word translation. This “is the direct transfer of a
source language text into a grammatically or idiomatically appropriate target
language text in which the translator’s task is limited to observing the adherence to
the linguistic servitudes of the target language”. (Vinay and Dalbernet: 1995: 85).
Since such translation is sometimes the best option to use, as it is as faithful as
possible, it can be the source of mistakes, especially when it is used to translate some
idiomatic expressions, e.g. an English sentence ‘This luxury car will cost you an arm

33
 and a leg’ if translated literally would be read incorrectly *’Ten luksusowy samochód
będzie cię kosztował ramię i nogę’ and the correct version which takes an idiomatic
phrase into account would be: ‘Ten luksusowy samochód będzie cię kosztował
fortunę’ (Tomaszkiewicz: 2006b: 108). In such cases literal translation is impossible.

Apart from the direct translation techniques, Vinay and Dalbernet (1995: 84-93) also
present oblique translation techniques, which are as follows:
a) transposition. This translation technique “(…) involves replacing one word class with
another without changing the meaning of the message” (Vinay and Dalbernet: 1995:
88), hence it can be called also recategorization (Tomaszkiewicz: 2006b: 76). For
instance “Keep refrigerated” can be translated as “Przechowywać w lodówce”. In this
example an adjective has been changed into a noun without changing the meaning of
the message – which is to inform that something must be kept in a refrigerator or in
any other cool place.
b) modulation. This technique occurs when there is “a variation of the form of the
message, obtained by a change in the point of view” (Vinay and Dalbernet: 1995: 89).
Tomaszkiewicz (2006b: 61-62) points that in this technique, the translator can also
place the emphasis in the other place in the target language message than it is in the
source language message. The purpose of this technique is to make the target
sentence more suitable and less awkward or clumsy as it can be seen, despite its
grammatical correctness. For example: ‘You are wanted on the telephone’ may be
translated as ‘Jest pan proszony do telefonu’. In this case, the active verb is changed
into the passive form and in such situations we talk about modulation.
c) equivalence. This occurs when “(…) one and the same situation can be rendered by
two texts using completely different stylistic and structural methods. In such cases we
are dealing with the method which produces equivalent texts” (Vinay and Dalbernet:
1995: 90). In case of technique of equivalence, the discourse function in any
message, in both the source language and the target language remains the same. There
are numerous examples of equivalence especially in idiomatic phrases or
onomatopoeic words or exclamations, e.g. English ‘cock-a-doodle-do’, in Polish is
‘kukuryku’ – in both cases the function is the same – to convey the sound of the
crowing of a rooster. Another example can be illustrated by an idiomatic phrase, e.g.
the English saying ‘Too many cooks spoil the broth’ renders the same meaning as the
Polish proverb ‘Gdzie kucharek sześć tam nie ma co jeść’. The meaning of the

34
 message conveyed by these phrases also remains the same as both English and Polish
native speakers understand their proverbs almost identically – that there should not be
too many people dealing with one problem, because this will cause another
difficulties.
d) adaptation. This technique “is used in those cases where the type of situation being
referred to by the source language message is unknown in the target language
culture. In such cases translators have to create a new situation that can be
considered as being equivalent. Adaptation can, therefore, be described as a special
kind of equivalence, a situational equivalence.” (Vinay and Dalbernet: 1995: 90-91).
Such shift in cultural environment can be illustrated by an example of the most
popular sport discipline in certain culture for instance ‘cycling’ for the French,
‘cricket’ for the English and ‘baseball’ for the Americans. Some similar examples can
be found in certain cuisine differences e.g. Polish dish ‘pierogi’ is sometimes
translated as ‘ravioli’ since the Polish name is unknown in English-speaking countries
culture.

2.3.2 Translation techniques used in transfer of cultural elements

Because of the fact that My Fair Lady plot is devoted to many cultural and social
elements, cultural translation techniques should be discussed as their application to this
kind of drama is important. Since linguistic translation techniques proposed by Vinay
and Dalbernet (1995: 84-93) are to deal with the linguistic aspects of the screenplay
translation, they should be complemented by those applied in transfer of cultural aspects
and differences. Tomaszkiewicz (2006a: 155-174) has briefly described and presented
the methodology for this kind of translation that requires conveying messages concerned
with culture. The analysis which is to be carried out in the next chapter of this paper will
clearly illustrate the use of both linguistic and cultural translation techniques and for that
purpose the latter are to be presented.
Tomaszkiewicz (2006a: 155-174) divides cultural translation techniques into:
a) omission. This occurs when certain cultural element cannot be conveyed as there is
not any similar or equivalent element in the target language culture. Hence, rendering
such elements would be confusing for the readers or audience. Omission of any

35
 cultural element is, however, possible only in cases when the situational context is
sufficient to understand the whole of the utterance (Tomaszkiewicz: 2006a: 155). An
example given by Tomaszkiewicz (2006a: 155) can illustrate this in Polish dialogue:
‘Podobno wystawiacie ten musical w Syrenie’ the name of the theatre ‘Syrena’ is not
essential to understand the meaning of the utterance and it could be unknown for the
foreign audience. Besides, the conversation is carrying on in the dressing room in the
theatre where the dancers are talking, so the name ‘Syrena’ can be omitted without
loss to the meaning of the target message.
b) direct transfer. This technique is used when there is no equivalents of certain cultural
elements in the target language. For instance, many proper names has no equivalents
in the target language, hence translators often leave such elements unchanged. Such
operations are carried out in order to maintain the original local atmosphere of the
text and are compared to borrowings. Tomaszkiewicz (2006b: 111-112) presents
some examples of direct transfer, for instance: ‘John F. Kennedy was killed in 1963’
where the name of the president remains unchanged in translation: ‘John F. Kennedy
został zastrzelony w 1963’. Tomaszkiewicz (2006b: 111-112) however points out that
there is an exception when it comes to proper names – in a situation when certain
elements have some symbolic importance, they can be translated in accordance with
the target language equivalents, e.g. Mr. Smith can be translated as Pan Kowalski
since it is used for a man in the street, an ordinary man, and not for certain character.
c) amplification and paraphrase. They are two techniques which are quite similar when
it comes to their purpose of use. They are to acquaint foreign audience with any
foreign cultural element. It is achieved by introducing a commentary to any foreign or
unknown element of the target language culture. In this way, any proper name or
some other unknown element which becomes a borrowing is explained to the receiver
of the message. Apart from commentary, there can be used some complex phrase
instead of one foreign element – for instance in explaining any abbreviations or
acronyms (Tomaszkiewicz: 2006a: 159).
d) equivalence. This is, as it was discussed in the previous subsection, a relation of
sameness between two elements in two different languages, where the discourse
function of these two elements is considered to be the same or almost identical in
certain situational context (Tomaszkiewicz: 2006b: 38). The technique of equivalence
is a very complex and frequently used technique in rendering both linguistic and

36
 cultural differences between source and target messages. Hence, in this paper’s
analysis, it will be considered from these two points of view.
e) adaptation. According to Tomaszkiewicz (2006a: 167), this is an extreme example of
equivalence where an element of the source language culture is replaced with an
element of the target language culture, but which not necessarily is equivalent.
Technique of adaptation was also detailed by Vinay and Dalbernet (1995: 84-93) in
linguistic translation techniques and in this paper analysis it will be also considered
from two points of view – linguistic as well as cultural translation technique.
f) substitution with deictic expressions. As Tomaszkiewicz (2006a: 168-169) states, it
occurs in case when the need of condensation in certain translation gives no
opportunity to specify or explain certain cultural elements, e.g. acronyms, connected
with cultural realities. In such situations translators can substitute such elements with
some deictic expressions, e.g. in Polish translation certain foreign elements could be
replaced by such deictic expressions as ‘ten’, ‘ta’, ‘to’, ‘tu’, ‘tam’, ‘wtedy’, ‘teraz’,
etc. (Tomaszkiewicz: 2006b: 32).
g) allusion. This technique occurs in translation when any reference to any other source
language texts or historical events, or cultural elements known for an original version
receiver but foreign for the target text receiver. Such allusions, made by an author,
can disturb the understanding of the text and confuse the target text audience. In order
to understand such allusions to any kind of cultural reference, the receiver must
possess some situational knowledge, which, according to Tomaszkiewicz (2006b:
123-124), is any information involved in constructing the message by the translator,
who is looking for an equivalent element in the target language culture. Situational
knowledge can be any information concerning the author, the nature of the text, the
original recipient of the text, or even the field of knowledge certain text belongs to.
h) historical aspect of cultural transfer. This is a separate issue which occurs in case of
translation of some historical literary texts which are to become a film or theatre
adaptation (Tomaszkiewicz: 2006a: 171-174). It concerns certain historical cultural
elements which have to be well-known to the target receivers. If such situation, with
the receivers being unaware of the historical aspect, is impossible, then the faithful
translation seems to be also unobtainable.
The problem of transfer of cultural elements seems to be one of the most difficult
aspects of the process of translation, especially when it comes to audiovisual translation.
Since the subject of this paper is the comparative analysis of the original screenplay My

37
Fair Lady and its Polish translation, cultural translation techniques cannot be
underestimated.
Translation techniques applied in any translation process give the translator the tools to
convey as faithfully as possible the meaning and the atmosphere of the source messages
into the target language. According to the divisions presented in the previous subsections,
several different techniques can be used when translating various elements of the text,
both linguistic and cultural. As far as the analysis is to deal with My Fair Lady drama
screenplay translation, both linguistic and cultural translation techniques are discussed.
What is more, they are to be placed in various situational contexts which allow the
receiver full understanding of the play. Translation techniques, in case of this paper
analysis, have to be complemented by some extralinguistic aspects that affect the process
of translation. Since they were presented in the previous subsection, in the next chapter
the comparative analysis is to be devoted to the effects of connection the translation
techniques with those extralinguistic aspects. In order to make the following analysis as
clear and lucid as possible, the next subsection is to introduce the description of My Fair
Lady screenplay concerning main themes of the play and some cultural aspects with
reference to Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw.

38
 Chapter 3
Practical and comparative analysis of the text samples

The first two chapters of this paper were to introduce the process of translation as well
as the translation techniques. Together with some extralinguistic aspects, all the issues
mentioned in the previous chapters are necessary to carry out the comparative analysis
of the original version of My Fair Lady screenplay with its Polish translation. The main
purpose of this analysis is to prove that drama translation is a very complex process
which involves numerous operations essential to make it simultaneously performable
and understandable for the Polish recipient of the play. Further, the next purpose is to
illustrate the application of linguistic and cultural translation techniques, briefly
described in the second chapter of this paper. In order to fulfill the main objective of
this thesis, as it has been already stated, the first subsection of the following chapter
introduces the main themes of the play with reference to Pigmalion by George Bernard
Shaw. Moreover, it is also devoted to the description of some cultural aspects which
seem to be crucial to maintain the original atmosphere of the play in its Polish
translation.

3.1 Description of My Fair Lady screenplay concerning main themes of the play and
some cultural aspects with reference to Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw

The My Fair Lady musical play by Alan J. Lerner and Frederick Loewe was
based on the drama Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw. At the beginning of 20 th
century, G.B. Shaw, the great British dramatist, referred to the Greek myth about
Pygmalion, a legendary figure of Cyprus who, enamoured with Aphrodite, sculpted an
ivory statue. Aphrodite took pity on Pigmalion and infused the statue with new life. In
that way Galatea was created – Pigmalion’s wife. Referring to this famous tale, Shaw
settled the action of the drama in London at the beginning of 20 th century. Professor
Higgins, the main character of the play, bet his friend, Pickering, that he could manage
to make a real lady out of a socially awkward and ill-mannered flower girl. Eliza
Doolitle became an object of this experiment. Her laborious work in learning good
manners and correct English produced the desired effect. Eliza became a beautiful,

39
charming young lady. She fell in love with Professor Higgins and that was why she
applied herself to her work. However, despite this strong affection, Professor Higgins
remained a confirmed bachelor and Eliza married young Freddy, met by chance in front
of the opera house where the whole action of the play started. Despite not having a
happy ending, Pygmalion by G.B. Shaw achieved great popularity. This drama became
an inspiration for musicals authors. The author of the libretto changed some events in
the drama and adapted it to be more performable when it comes to the aspects of
musical comedy. The most important change was that Professor Higgins finally
recognizes Eliza’s charm and beauty and requites her feelings. The motif of educating
the girl of low social origins and changing her into a fine lady became a popular
inspiration also for creating films in 80’s and 90’s. Educating Rita by Willy Russel and
Pretty Woman by Garry Marshall are still the most famous examples of this kind. What
is also worth mentioning, in regard to the main problems raised in the plot of the
screenplay, is a handful of cultural rules of proper behaviour in English society
presented in a delicate way. Since there exist many significant differences between
Polish and British savoir vivre and what is considered as good or bad manners, Polish
viewers should be aware of such differences in order to fully understand the atmosphere
and expression of the play. For instance, the British would take offence at comments
about the British stereotypes or British people in general, as well as find it improper to
ridicule the English tea or the units of measurement. There are few effective ways of
informing about such elements. It is possible to explain some of the rules of good
conduct with descriptions enclosed in the translation of the screenplay but it could
sound artificially as characters in the play do not explain their behaviour to the
audience. Providing viewers with a booklet concerning some details essential in
comprehending the play seems to be comfortable and adequate way of dealing with
such situation when it comes to drama translation. In case of My Fair Lady screenplay,
without knowing the rules of bad or good behaviour in England, the whole plot could be
misunderstood. That is why Polish audience is provided with the booklet, containing
some articles connected with the most foreign elements, such as rules of savoir vivre in
England or a horse race in Ascot (see: Appendix 3). Viewers get the copy of a booklet
attending a stage performance. Apart from information concerning some cultural
elements in the booklet viewers can read some other additional details; e.g. short history
of a musical, names of actors, directors and members of the orchestra, etc. For the
translator, it seems to be impossible to render all necessary features of musical

40
screenplay and add all the comments on such cultural elements without disturbing the
plot and the expression of the musical. For that purpose some additional materials are
necessary.

3.2 Language as a central theme in My Fair Lady screenplay and its translation

Apart from the ambivalent relationship between Professor Higgins and Eliza, the
musical’s central theme is the relationship between the language and the society. In the
preface to Pygmalion, Shaw (1913) points that English spelling system and its
inadequacy is a kind of disturbance in the process of learning correct English. Later he
states that it becomes the source of linguistic differences among people from different
social status and consequently the source of discrimination. Shaw (1913: 5) explains:
“The English have no respect for their language, and will not teach their
children to speak it. They cannot spell it because they have nothing to spell
it with but an old foreign alphabet of which only the consonants – and not
all of them – have any agreed speech value. Consequently no man can teach
himself what it should sound like from reading it; and it is impossible for an
Englishman to open his mouth without making some other Englishman
despise him. (…) The reformer we need most today is an energetic phonetic
enthusiast: that is why I have made such a one hero of a popular play.”
At the beginning of the play, this argument is clearly illustrated. People from different
social classes and various geographical areas meet outside the theatre and talk with
different accents, making others despise them because the language they use immediately
reveals their social identity. Since this language form and use motif is one of the most
important for the development of the plot, in the Polish translation of the screenplay it is
also clearly and evidently shown. In certain dialogues the problem has been even
exaggerated in order to illustrate the scale of the issue. The translator used dialectal and
non-standard Polish speech which is recognized as the speech of uneducated people or
people of low social status. Exact translation of such dialects or manners of speaking
would be useless, as for Polish audience the problem has to be seen in Polish reality and
in Polish language. The main purpose of the process of translation in such cases is to
render the idea of language variations differing among various social groups and the

41
issue of education and teaching correctness in native language speech. Poyatos (2008:
216), who briefly discusses the problem of such differences, points that:
“As for the cinema, the dubbing of any original versions has always
presented insurmountable problems, for none of the target languages would
possess a credible equivalent of the source-language speech of some or all
of the characters. Just to mention a few eloquent examples, let us consider,
for instance, the 1938 version of ‘Pygmalion’ and the two sharply opposed
manners of speaking of still untrained Eliza Doolitle and Professor
Higgins.”
Because of such elements, which pose a great difficulty for the translator, one of the
possible solutions is to be faithful to the original atmosphere and idea of the message.
This means that since using particular translation techniques is impossible, finding
some equivalent notions or ideas to render the sense of the message seems to be the
only good solution. Moreover, there are some phonological devices that play an
important role in conveying the meaning of the source message into the target
language. According to Douthwaite (1995: XXXIX), they are: pitch, stress, length,
volume, rhythm, speed and intonation. The translator uses such qualities to reinforce
the meaning and the atmosphere of the message. They can be successfully used in order
to supplement the target language equivalent which not always is exactly the same as in
the source message. Some unusual stress patterns, intonations or even pauses convey
not only emotions but also attitude of the speaker. All these devices give the translator
an opportunity to render and translate even the most difficult messages and they seem
to be helpful especially in situations when other translation techniques cannot be
successfully used. As far as this paper is concerned, such elements are included in
aspects that affect the whole process of translation especially when it comes to the
translation of drama and musical. Since the following subsection is to deal with the
analysis of the text samples, the application of certain translation techniques will be
discussed.

3.3 Analysis of the text samples with the emphasis on particular translation techniques.

The main aim of the analysis of the present paper is to illustrate the application of
certain translation techniques briefly discussed in the previous chapter. The text

42
samples which are to be analysed come from the screenplay My Fair Lady and its
Polish translation. In order to organize this practical analysis, each technique is to be
discussed and illustrated in the examples taken from the text. Both linguistic and
cultural translation techniques are discussed in this analysis. When it comes to
linguistic techniques, the analysis includes specification of: borrowing, calque, literal
translation, transposition, modulation, equivalence and adaptation, which have been
discussed in the previous chapter of the present paper. When it comes to the material
analysed, only the parts spoken by the characters of the play are to be discussed. Since
the Polish translation is a director’s copy of the screenplay, there are no stage directions
included as it is in the original English text. That is why the practical analysis of the
techniques applied in musical translation is concerned only with the dialogues of the
characters.
Firstly, the example of borrowing will be discussed as it is one of the main
linguistic translation techniques specified in this paper. The first sample contains this
type of technique in two similar sentences:
1. ST: Get a taxi, Freddy
TT: Postaraj się o taksówkę, Fred
2. ST: I’ll get a taxi right away
TT: Zaraz złapię taksówkę.
In both sentences, the word taksówka is an example of borrowing which is taken
directly from the source language. In this case the word has been slightly changed in
order to eliminate the element of foreignness by adding Polish suffix –ówka. It makes
the word for Poles easier to utter and, therefore, easier to adjust to a certain dialect
which is also stressed during the performance of the play. Another clear example of
borrowing can be seen in sample 2:
ST: He’s a gentleman
TT: To dżentelman!
In this case an English noun is also taken directly from the source language and
conveyed into the target language with some spelling changes characteristic for the
Polish language. Since in English language spelling does not reflect the correct
pronunciation, it would be difficult for Polish to read the word properly. Writing the
word using Polish spelling again makes the word easier to utter by the speaker and to
understand by the receiver. What is more, borrowing is here the most effective
technique to apply as it renders the full meaning of the word gentleman. There is no

43
word in Polish language which could be placed instead of the word gentleman that
would convey the full sense of this word and would not be marked in a certain, positive
or negative, way.
Another linguistic translation technique described in the previous chapter is
calque. For instance, a sentence taken from sample 1:
ST: I can change half of crown
TT: Mogie zmienić pu korony.
Since calque occurs in literary translation when the source concept is loaned into a
target language, the whole sentence illustrates this technique. The source verb phrase
has been translated without changes in meaning. The only change is, again, the spelling
concerned change in order to present a special dialect in the target message. The
sentence faithfully renders both the message and the markedness when it comes to
some dialectal alterations. The cultural element, half of crown, has also been translated
literary and can be seen also as an example of calque. One more example can be found
in sample 4:
ST: Henry Higgins, author of Higgins’ Universal Alphabet
TT: Henry Higgins, autor Uniwersalnego Alfabetu Higginsa.
In this case, the technique of calque has been used in order to convey together the form
of the sentence and its meaning. The only element which has been slightly changed is
the word order resulting from the use of Saxon genitive in English original sentence
which in Polish cannot be left unchanged. Apart from the name of the main character,
the whole expression is translated literally in order to make it as faithful to the original
as possible. It should be noticed here that in the whole screenplay none of the
characters’ names has been translated. All of the names are left without any changes
and pronounced as original ones. Such proper nouns and techniques used in such cases
will be discussed in the analysis of translation techniques used for transfer of cultural
elements. Another example of the calque can be found in sample 7:
ST: Eliza? Where the devil are my slippers?
TT: Gdzie u diabła są moje pantofle, Elizo…?
In this example, the phrase Where the devil has been translated into Gdzie u diabła
conveying the full sense and meaning of the whole utterance with simultaneously
translating the phrase literary. Polish phrase Gdzie u diabła does not sound artificial or
strange for Polish speakers as it has been incorporated into the Polish language. Such
words or phrases can serve as an example of the technique of calque.

44
 The next translation technique presented as one of direct translation techniques is
literal translation or word for word translation. There are many examples of word-for-
word translated phrases or whole sentences. One such example can be a sentence from
sample 2:
ST: Look at his shoes!
TT: Spójrzta na jego buty!
In this exclamation sentence not only the words have been translated directly but also
its imperative mood. The purpose of the original sentence in the play is to focus the
attention of some passers-by on the elegant shoes of one of the main characters. The
sense of exclamation has also been rendered directly. The only change is again
dialectal quality of the Polish verb spójrzta which is used to present the low social
status of the speaker. Another example is taken from sample 4:
ST: Indian dialects have always been fascinated me.
TT: Dialekty indyjskie pasjonowały mnie od zawsze.
In this example of literal translation technique, the words used and the indicative mood
of the original sentence have been preserved. The subject of English sentence, Indian
dialects, is also the subject in Polish sentence but the word order is changed because
otherwise it would sound strange for the Polish receiver. Moreover, the time expression
always in the English sentence is placed usually between the auxiliary verbs and in
Polish sentence such expressions are put at the end of the sentence. The technique of
literal translation can be illustrated also by another example taken from sample 5:
ST: You’re a noble daughter.
TT: Jesteś szlachetnom córkom!
In this phrase, the translator, although using literal translation, decided to use an
implied subject in Polish sentence because it would sound artificial if there was the
subject ty. Besides, word for word translation has been applied in spite of the fact that
such combination of words as szlachetna córka is not frequently used or usual. As in
previous examples, in this sentence some dialectal features are added to the phrase
through incorrect endings –om in Polish words szlachetnom and córkom. The purpose
of this process is still the same – to emphasize the low social status of the characters
e.g. passers-by in the screenplay.
As it was mentioned in the previous chapter devoted to the classification of
translation techniques, apart from direct translation techniques, oblique translation

45
techniques are to be analysed. Firstly, technique of transposition and its application is
discussed. For instance, sentence taken from sample 2:
ST: What harm is there in my leaving Lisson Grove?
TT: Czy to jaka zbrodnia, żem się wyniosła z Lisson Grove?
As transposition is used in situations when one word class is replaced by another, in
this example the English noun leaving has been replaced by the Polish active verb with
reflexive pronoun and the emphasizing particle żem się wyniosła. The main aim of the
use of transposition in this case is the fact that literal translation of my leaving and
using a Polish noun would be clumsy and strange for Polish audience. What is more,
any Polish noun, such as wyjście, wyjazd, odejście, etc., is not suitable for this
sentence. Another representation of transposition in the text occurs in sample 3:
ST: For the cold-blooded murder of the English tongue
TT: Bo język nasz morduje co dzień z zimną krwią.
As it is a single line from one of the songs in the musical, the translator has to convey
the full message and to suit it to the rhyme pattern of the song. In this example,
transposition occurs in translation of two units. The first is an adjective - cold-blooded,
which is translated into the prepositional phrase z zimną krwią. It is dictated by
collocations or fixed phrases used in both English and Polish languages. Besides, the
reason for using such elements can be dependent on the rhyme pattern or the number of
syllables in the song which cannot be neglected. The next unit, where transposition is
applied, is an English noun murder and its Polish translation morduje. The reasons for
using transposition in this case seem to be the same as in previous situation. There is
one more significant difference between the original sentence and its translation – the
omission of the English tongue in Polish translation, but since it is dictated by some
cultural reasons it will be analysed together with translation techniques used in cultural
elements transfer.
The next translation technique when it comes to linguistic elements is
modulation. This technique can be defined as simply change in point of view between
the source message and the target message. As an example of modulation in the
screenplay analysed in this paper can be seen the sentence taken from sample 2:
ST: It wasn’t fit for a pig to live in.
TT: Świnia by nie strzymała w takim chlewie.
In this case, apart from certain changes applied in order to reinforce the message in
Polish language e.g. by adding the word chlew, the technique of modulation has been

46
used. In the original version the subject of the sentence is it – Lisson Grove, the district
which is thought to be a bad neighbourhood. In the translated sentence, the pig
becomes the subject and the district is described as a pigsty in order to emphasize the
conditions of living in that area. The point of view in this sentence is changed
significantly and the need of use the technique of modulation here is obvious as for
Polish audience it becomes more clear and simpler to understand the full sense of this
utterance. Another example for this technique can be picked from sample 6:
ST: Sit down, girl. Do as you’re told.
TT: Siadaj, dziewczyno, jak pan cię prosi.
Firstly, it should be noticed that in this example the two short original sentences are
joined into one. As far as modulation is concerned the change in point of view is
illustrated by the second part of the translated sentence. In the original imperative
sentence the author uses passive voice you’re told because it is not important here who
asks the girl to sit down and the author focuses only on the fact that she is asked to do
this. In the translated sentence, the audience is given the information who is the agent
in this action jak cię pan prosi. Hence the Polish verb is used in active voice. Together
with the grammatical change from passive voice in the source message into active
voice in the target message, the change in the point of view is applied. Such activities
in translation allow an avoidance of awkwardness and incomprehensibility for the
target audience when it comes to target messages. In this case, the translator took
advantage of the performance because in this scene the person who utters the sentence,
Mrs. Pearce, shows both the place where Eliza is supposed to sit down and the person
who asks her to do this i.e. Higgins. Such connections between the text spoken and the
activities of the actors on stage are frequent in drama or musical translation. Hence, the
use of certain translation techniques is often determined by the performance of the
drama text.
According to the classification presented in the previous chapter, the next technique
used for rendering linguistic elements is equivalence. Sample 2 includes an example of
equivalence as a translation technique:
ST: On my Bible oath, I never said a word…
TT: Jak Bozie kocham, ja nigdy do nikogo z mordom…
Equivalence occurs when two completely different words or texts in source and target
language concern exactly the same situation and render the full sense of the message.
In above example, the initial remark is to present the religious attitude of the speaker

47
and to serve as a proof of saying the truth. In the original phrase on my Bible oath the
religious element of the Bible is mentioned whereas in the translated sentence a
diminutive of God is used jak Bozie kocham. Moreover, the personal aspect of the
utterance is also rendered – in the original phrase, the possessive adjective my is used
and in the target sentence, the active verb in the first person singular kocham serves the
same purpose. Since the linguistic elements have been conveyed, one can notice that
the two presented phrases are equivalent to each other. In case of collocations or fixed
phrases, like in this situation, equivalence seems to be useful and sufficient translation
technique especially when it comes to comprehension of the target message in certain
culture environment. Equivalence is also usually the only possible solution for some
onomatopoeic phrases. For instance, sample 1 and sample 2 include such elements:
1. ST: Aaaooowww!
TT: Łojejejejej!
2. ST: Oh, boo-hoo-oo---
TT: Łojejejejej!
In case of such onomatopoeic utterances, there seem to be no better technique to apply
than using two equivalent elements. Only employing the technique of equivalence
guarantees the rendering of the full meaning of certain message. In the two examples
presented above, two different exclamations have been translated in the same way. The
first one, uttered by Eliza colliding with a busker, shows her annoyance and gauchness.
Its Polish translation Łojejejejej! can be easily understood in this way although this
exclamation can be used in many contexts. It can be seen therefore in the next example.
There, in the original version, the exclamation expresses Eliza’s sadness because of her
poor financial situation. In order to transfer this idea, the translator decided to use the
same phrase as in the previous example: Łojejejejej! This utterance successfully
conveys the message and is correctly understood as one expressing Eliza’s anxiety. In
situations like these analysed above, some voice qualities e.g. pitch, tone or volume can
be helpful in achieving the effect in expressing various emotions in performance on
stage. Such elements have been discussed in the previous chapter.
Last but not least, when it comes to linguistic translation techniques, is
adaptation. Since it concerns using some equivalent cultural elements in the target
language message, the examples given below are connected to cultural elements.
Firstly, the representation of adaptation taken from sample 4 is analysed:

48
ST: Where are you staying? At the Carleton.
TT: Gdzie pan mieszka? W „Sawoyu”.
In this example in the original version, the Carleton, which is the name of the famous
hotel located in London, is hardly known for Polish audience. If the name was left
unchanged, the Polish receiver would find it confusing and incomprehensible. For this
reason, the use of an equivalent element rendering similar idea is suitable in this case.
The translator uses the name of also well-known hotel which Polish audience is
acquainted with – Sawoy. Another example of adaptation can be observed also in
sample 4:
ST: By George, it’s worse than London
TT: Boże, to jeszcze gorsze od Londynu.
The expression by George which is used as an oath or to express surprise is also an
cultural element which conveying into the Polish reality without changing is quite
difficult. This phrase follows Middle English tradition of avoiding the use of sacred
words, such as God, by substituting words with the same initial letter. Thus for God the
oath by George substitutes George. In order to render the idea of the phrase said to
express one’s astonishment including some religious element, the Polish noun in the
vocative case Boże meaning God is used. The other numerous situations of rendering
cultural elements will be discussed later in this section together with the analysis
translation techniques used in transfer of cultural elements.
Apart from linguistic translation techniques listed and described in the previous
chapter, there are also cultural translation techniques classified. The first one from
those listed in the previous section is omission. For instance sentence taken from
sample 3 includes omission:
ST: Hear them down in Soho Square dropping aitches everywhere
TT: Czyżby Pan nie cierpiał mąk, gdy kaleczą mowę w krąg.
In this complex example there are two cultural elements which could cause
incomprehension or consternation: Soho Square and aitch. The first one, Soho Square,
is the name of famous square in London whereas the latter is the letter H written as a
word and the phrase to drop one’s aitches means not to pronounce the letter H at the
start of words. Such a feature is usually attributed to dialectal English or English of
people of low social status, and, especially here, the Cockney accent that Eliza uses.
The omission of those elements is determined by a lack of their clear equivalents in the
target language culture. Although Soho Square is a well-known place, still it can be

49
unknown and too foreign for Polish audience and that is why it is omitted. Having no
equivalent in the target language, the translator decided to change the whole sentence
but convey the meaning of the message, which is to criticize dialectal variations of
certain tongue and to condemn those unable to speak proper language. What is more,
the practice of omitting the initial letter H in pronunciation cannot be understood by
receivers who do not speak English and therefore only the idea of mispronunciation has
to be conveyed. For that purpose, this original complex sentence has been translated
into Polish language as a rhetorical formal question: Czyżby Pan nie cierpiał mąk, gdy
kaleczą mowę w krąg which means that it is unbearable for well-educated person to
hear people of low social status mispronouncing words or using local dialects, usually
using incorrect Polish. Another case of use of omission is found in sample 6:
ST: I want to be a lady in a flower shop stead of selling at the corner of Tottenham
Court Road.
TT: Chce być panienkom w sklepie z kwiatamy, a nie handlować na rogu…
In this example, the culturally problematic element is Tottenham Court Road which is
the name of a street in London. It is omitted in the target language translation and only
the corner of the street is mentioned, without any certain name. The need for omitting
such elements is simply the fact that names of streets or other places are too foreign for
the target audience and their pronunciation could be problematic even for the actors.
Unless such element is popular and obvious for the target receivers, the translator omits
them in order to avoid incomprehension or confusion.
Another cultural translation technique, as it has been listed in the previous
chapter, is direct transfer which is nothing but leaving certain cultural elements
unchanged. In the text analysed in this paper an example of this technique can be found
in sample 6:
ST: Eliza Doolittle./Won’t you sit down, Miss Doolittle?
TT: Eliza Doolittle./Proszę spocząć, panno Doolittle.
Here, as in many other cases of names of characters, the name of the main character
Eliza Doolittle is left unchanged. Such elements are compared to borrowings when it
comes to some linguistic aspects. Changing the names of characters in such a drama
text could be awkward and artificial. Miss Doolittle is translated with the Polish
equivalent for the word Miss – panna. A similar example of using direct transfer when
it comes to cultural elements is presented in sample 4:

50
ST: You’re staying at Wimpole Street.
TT: Mieszka pan pod 27a na Wimpole Street.
Compared with the case discussed previously, when the name of the street had been
omitted, this sentence needs some explanation. In the previous example the name of
street was not so important as the main idea of that message, which was that the main
character sold flowers at the corner of the street in London. In this situation, the name
of Wimpole Street is relevant because the person who utters this refers to a certain
address. In order to provide the receivers with the exact address of one of the main
characters, the translator decided to apply the technique of direct transfer. Some
additional information, the number 27a, has been added to make the address clear for
the foreign audience. There are other examples of direct transfer e.g. Selsey (sample 2),
Lisson Grove (sample 2), Whitehall (sample 8), etc. but the causes of use this technique
in each of these examples seem to be the same as in the situations discussed above.
The next techniques to be discussed are amplification and paraphrase which
concern providing the target audience with some foreign cultural elements by
explaining them with a commentary. Since drama translation of the performable text is
a process requiring simple and clear messages which can be reinforced by some stage
elements, there is no room for any informative commentary in drama performable text
as it occurs in prose translation, for example, where the translators takes advantage of
footnotes, endnotes or introductions. Subsequent techniques have been discussed in
linguistic translation techniques but it is also often applied in cultural elements transfer
– this technique is equivalence and it example is found in sample 5:
ST: I ain’t runnin’ no charity bazaar.
TT: Tutej nie żaden “Karytas” do ciężkie nieprzymuszony!
In above example, the English compound noun charity bazaar has been translated into
Polish using a proper name of the organization Karytas. In English, a charity bazaar is
the place where goods, often made by hand, are sold to raise money for a charity or for
people who need help. In Poland, such places are not so popular and there is no certain
name established for this kind of activity. However, there are some organizations
which work similarly to charity bazaars or shops. One of such undertakings is Caritas –
an international organization which mission is to work to provide any material help for
the poor and oppressed. Caritas is well-known in Poland and it conveys the equivalent
idea to the one of the charity bazaar. The translator decided to use its name to make
sure that the audience would fully understand the sense of the message. The only

51
change introduced is the change of spelling which purpose is to create a humorous
atmosphere and to present the speaker as a person of low social status and using
dialectal language. There is one more transparent example of equivalence when it
comes to cultural elements seen in sample 8:
ST: Higgins, I have an old school chum at the Home Office.
TT: Wiesz co, Higgins, mam szkolnego kolegę w Ministerstwie Spraw Wewnętrznych.
In this example, the English Home Office is translated into Polish as Ministerstwo
Spraw Wewnętrznych. Since the political system of the United Kingdom and Poland are
different, in case of some government institutions there can be found equivalents in the
political system of the target language country. Such names cannot be translated word
by word because the target audience would not be acquainted with the functions of
certain institution. Therefore, using an equivalent name of particular institution or body
seems to be a good solution because it gives to the audience the knowledge of how it
works or what the main assignments of such body are. As in a performable drama or
musical text there is no room for some additional explanations or translator’s footnotes,
the names of such institutions as the Home Office should not be left unchanged, without
translation or used as borrowings. If they were treated in this way, the target audience
could feel confused and could not understand the meaning of certain message, often
important for the whole plot of the play.
One more translation technique discussed in the previous chapter is substitution
with deictic expressions. As it was stated above in the previous chapter, this technique
occurs when there is no opportunity to specify or explain certain cultural elements e.g.
acronyms connected with certain cultural reality. Applying this technique, the
translator substitutes a cultural element with a particular deictic expression in the target
language e.g. a demonstrative. Since the technique of substitution with deictic
expression seems to be used as a last resort, it is rarely found in performable texts,
especially when it comes to texts in which cultural elements play an important role.
Therefore, in the samples chosen for this analysis there are no substitutions with such
deictic expressions. For each cultural element, some other techniques were used in
order to render them faithfully but not awkwardly.
When it comes to allusion, the next translation technique discussed in the
previous chapter, there are not also any examples of it in the samples chosen for this
analysis. Allusion occurs when some references to other source language texts or
historical events are included in the original text. As long as allusion is treated in this

52
way, there is no such remarks in the samples analysed. In the whole plot there seem to
be included some aspects which can be understood only when the receiver is
acquainted with the source culture but the translator uses many other techniques which
are sufficient to faithfully render the messages and provide the viewer with all needed
background knowledge. For instance, the names of many districts are used as those of
poor living conditions and the viewer notices it easily because of the manner of
speaking of the local people contrasted with the well-educated characters of the play.
Since My Fair Lady is not a historical literary text, there is no historical aspect which is
the last on the list presented in the previous chapter. The main objective of musical
librettos is to entertain, not to inform as is the case with historical texts and therefore
such aspects can be skipped in this paper’s analysis.

The above analysis has been to prove and present the complexity of the process of
translation in the case of a drama or musical text. Apart from the numerous linguistic
problems occurring in every translation process, the analysis deals also with many
cultural aspects included in the text. As it was discussed in the first subsection, the
main theme of the play seems to be connected with the society and the language that
people use. In order to faithfully convey this topic together with as many as possible
cultural references, the translator applies numerous techniques, both linguistic and
cultural. The above analysis presents those techniques one by one and illustrates them
with transparent examples. They are described and assessed from a target audience
point of view – Polish receiver. The emphasis is put, for instance, on whether the
techniques help to convey fully the message and if it sounds naturally for the target
receiver or not. Moreover, the application of particular techniques is often connected
with the performability of the play and it is also emphasized in the analysis of the text
samples.

53
 Conclusion

Since the subject of this paper has been the analysis of My Fair Lady screenplay,
the translation process of this kind of text has been examined. The main goal of the
practical analysis of this paper has been to compare the source language drama text with
its target text translation in order to examine the application of particular translation
techniques. The analysis has been justified with many examples of the application of
both linguistic and cultural translation techniques. As they were quoted in order to
illustrate the particular translation techniques, the whole analysis has been organized in
the way that clearly represents a number of transparent examples of application of the
translation techniques. The methodology for the examination and the list of the
translation techniques have been briefly discussed in the second chapter. Therefore,
when it comes to the division presented and described in the second chapter the analysis
has illustrated that almost every translation technique from those presented can be
applied to drama translation, especially drama consisting numerous cultural elements.
Those techniques are as follows: borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition,
modulation, equivalence and adaptation. As far as cultural techniques are concerned the
analysis of the present paper has proved the practical application of such techniques as:
omission, direct transfer, amplification and paraphrase, and equivalence. The purpose of
the application of each translation technique has been examined in order to analyze it
with a view to the exact understanding of each cultural element essential in conveying
the original atmosphere of the text of musical. However, there are some aspects which
have not been applied in this particular example of performable drama text. They are:
substitution with deictic expressions, allusion and historical aspect. As long as those
elements have not been found in My Fair Lady screenplay, the subject of the present
analysis, there is no evidence that they have not been or cannot be applied in any other
drama translation process.
Another, secondary, aim of the present paper has been to prove that, since the
translation process of drama or musical translation is affected by numerous
extralinguistic aspects, the translation of such performable text is a complex process.
With all non-verbal elements, which can be divided according to Peirce’s (Snell-
Hornby: 2007) representation provided in the second chapter, it can be noticed that,
together with verbal messages, they affect the whole process of translation. Since, as it
has been mentioned, My Fair Lady screenplay contains many cultural elements which

54
set a particular atmosphere during the performance of the play, all the aspects analysed
in the present paper allow for faithful translation of the text. With the application of
certain translation techniques and conveying all crucial cultural elements, the translation
of My Fair Lady screenplay by Maciej Korwin seems to be as faithful as possible.

55
 A Summary in Polish

Tematem niniejszej pracy jest proces tłumaczenia tekstu dramatycznego

przeznaczonego do wystawienia na scenie w oparciu o scenariusz musicalu My Fair
Lady A.J. Lernera. Zaprezentowane zagadnienia teoretyczne wraz z analizą praktyczną
mają na celu przedstawienie złożoności takiego procesu pod względem lingwistycznym,
jak również kulturowym. Prezentacja technik stosowanych w tłumaczeniu dramatu lub
musicalu poparta jest przykładami analizującymi aspekty związane z problematyką
językową, a także kulturową. Analiza praktyczna została przeprowadzona poprzez
porównanie oryginalnej wersji językowej scenariusza z jego tłumaczeniem na język
polski, biorąc pod uwagę techniki tłumaczeniowe zastosowane w wersji reżyserskiej
scenariusza M. Korwina.
Rozdział pierwszy prezentuje i omawia wybrane zagadnienia teorii tłumaczenia
ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem aspektów dotyczących tłumaczenia dramatu jako
przykładu tłumaczenia audiowizualnego. Analizując zróżnicowane definicje pojęcia
tłumaczenia oraz typologii tego procesu, rozdział ten stanowi podstawę teoretyczną dla
dalszych rozważań praktycznych.
Rozdział drugi poświęcony jest cechom gatunku jakim jest dramat oraz musical, a
także elementom, które w sposób znaczący wpływają na proces tłumaczenia tekstu
dramatycznego. Klasyfikacja technik tłumaczeniowych w ujęciu Vinaya, Dalberneta
(2000) oraz Tomaszkiewicz (2006a) omówiona została w dalszej części rozdziału
drugiego. W celu przeprowadzenia szczegółowej analizy porównawczej, rozdział ten
zawiera także prezentację technik lingwistycznych, jak również kulturowych. Część ta
stanowi metodologię dla badania praktycznego zawartego w rozdziale ostatnim.
Rozdział trzeci skupia się na aspektach praktycznych analizowanego tekstu, m.in.
główne tematy musicalu oraz opis wybranych elementów kulturowych stanowiących
sytuację problemową w kwestii wiernego przeniesienia ich w realia kultury docelowej.
Ostatnia część rozdziału trzeciego koncentruje się na analizie praktycznej próbek tekstu
musicalu My Fair Lady z uwzględnieniem stosowanych technik tłumaczeniowych, jak
również uwarunkowania użycia danej techniki w konkretnej sytuacji tłumaczeniowej.

56
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Burkhanov, I. 2003. Translation: Theoretical Prerequisites. Rzeszów: Wydawnictwo

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Crystal, D. ed. 1990. The Cambridge Encyclopedia. Cambridge-NewYork-Port Chester-

Melbourne-Sydney: Cambridge University Press

de Warda, J. & Nida, E. 1986. From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence
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Douthwaite, J. 1995. “Introduction”. In: Shaw, G.B. 1913 Pygmalion. Italy: Litoprint,
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Hatim, B. & Mason. I. 1997. “Politeness in Screen Translating”. In: Venuti, L. ed. 2000.
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Jakobson, R. 1959. “On Linguistic Aspects of Translation”. In: Venuti, L. ed. 2000. The
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Lerner, A.J. 1956. My Fair Lady. A Musical Play in Two Acts. New York: The New
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Lerner, A. J. [1956] Trans. Korwin, M. [2009] My Fair Lady. Unpublished.

Karamitroglou, F. 2000. Towards a Methodology for the Investigation of Norms in

Audivisual Translation. Amsterdam and Atlanta: GA Rodopi.

Linke, M. 2008. A Cognitive Approach to Equivalence in Literary Translation. Toruń:

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Newmark, P. 1982. Approaches to Translation. Oxford – New York: Pergamon Press

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Oettinger, A.G. 1960. Automatic Language Translation. Lexical and Technical Aspects,
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Poyatos, F. 2008. Textual Translation and Live Translation: The Total Experience of
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Piotrowska, M. 2003. Learning Translation – Learning the Impossible?. Kraków:

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Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich, Ossolineum

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 Appendix 1

SAMPLE 1

Source language text:

Eliza Aaaooowww!
Freddy (Clumsily trying to help her) I’m frightfully sorry.
Eliza (Wailing) Two bunches of violets trod in the mud! A full day’s wages.
Why don’t you look where you’re going?
Mrs. Eynsford-Hill Get a taxi, Freddy. Do you want me to catch pneumonia?
Freddy I’m sorry, mother. I’ll get a taxi right away. (To Eliza) Sorry. (He goes)
(Colonel Pickering emerges dressed in evening clothes and looking for
a taxi. He is a middle-aged gentleman of the amiable military type)
Eliza (To Mrs. Eynsford-Hill) Oh, he’s your son, is he? Well, if you’d done
your duty by him as a mother should, you wouldn’t let him spoil a poor
girl’s flowers and then run away without paying.
Mrs. Eynsford-Hill Go on about your business, my girl. (She follows her son)
Eliza (Muttering to herself, as she collects her flowers) Two bunches of
violets trod in the mud.
Pickering (Calling off) Taxi! Taxi!
Eliza (To Pickering) I say, Captain, buy a flower off a poor girl.
Pickering I’m sorry. I haven’t any change.
Eliza I can change half of crown. Here, take this for tuppence.
Pickering (Trying his pockets) I really haven’t any --- stop: here’s three ha’pence,
if that’s any use to you
Eliza (Disappointed, but thinking three halfpence better than nothing) Thank
you, sir.

Target language text:

Eliza Łojejejejej!
Fred Strasznie panią przepraszam!
Eliza Tyle bukiecików wrypać w błoto! Cała zarobiona dziś
forsa! Ślepiów pan nie masz, czy co?
p. Eynsford-Hill Postaraj się o taksówkę, Fred. Czy chcesz, abym się nabawiła
zapalenia płuc?
Fred Okropnie mi przykro, mamusiu. Zaraz złapię taksówkę.
Przepraszam.
Eliza To paniny synalek, co? Po mojemu to take panstwo powinno wybulić
za fiołki, a nie skrzywdzić bidne dziewczyne i nawiewać!
p. Eynsford-Hill Zajmij się swoimi sprawami, moja droga!
Eliza Tyż mi hrabinia! Tyle kwiatków wrypać w błoto!
Pickering Taksówka, taksówka!
Fred Mamusia
Eliza Może pan kupisz cuś łot biedny dziewczyny, panie
kap’tanie!
Pickering Niestety, nie mam przy sobie drobnych.

60
Eliza Mogie zmienić pu korony. Proszę, każden jedyn jak cacuszko, za dwa
pensy!
Pickering Kiedy mówię pani, że nie mam nic przy sobie… o, proszę! Znalazłem
trzy półpensówki, więc jeśli to…
Eliza Dzięki panu majorowi.

SAMPLE 2

Source language text:

Eliza (To Higgins – still histerical) On my Bible oath, I never said a word…
Higgins (Overbearing, but good-humoured) Oh, shut up, shut up. Do I look like
a policeman?
Eliza Then what did you take down my words for? How do I know whether
you took me down right? You just show me what you wrote about me.
(Higgins opens his book and holds it steadily under her nose, though
the pressure of the mob trying to read it over her shoulders would upset
a weaker man)
What’s this? That ain’t proper writing. I can’t read that.
Higgins I can. (Reads, reproducing her pronunciation) I say, Captain, buy a
flower off a poor girl.
Eliza It’s because I called him Captain! I meant no harm. (To Pickering) Oh,
sir, don’t let him lay a charge agen me for a word like that. You…
Pickering Charge! I make no charge. (To Higgins) Really, sir, if you are a
detective, you need not begin protecting me against molestation by
young women until I ask you. Anybody could see the girl meant no
harm.
The Selsey man He ain’t a tec. He’s a gentleman. Look at his shoes.
Higgins (Turning on him genially) And how are all your people down at
Selsey?
The Selsey man (Suspiciously) Who told you my people come from Selsey?
Higgins Never mind. They did. (To Eliza) How do you come to be up far
east? You were born in Lisson Grove.
Eliza (Appalled) Oooooh, what harm is there in my leaving Lisson
Grove? It wasn’t fit for a pig to live in; and I had to pay four-
and-six a week. Oh, boo-hoo-oo---

Target language text:

Eliza Jak Bozie kocham, ja nigdy do nikogo z mordom…

Higgins Uspokój się już, do licha! Czy wyglądam na policjanta?
Eliza To po jakie cholere pan wszystko kapował? Skąd ja mogie wiedzieć, co
tam stoi napisane? Niech pokaże te książeczkie!Co to je? To nie je
krześcijańskie pisanie! Nic nie wiem co tu stoi…

61
Higgins Ale ja wiem. Może pan kupisz coś od bidnej dziewczyny, panie
kap’tanie!
Eliza Ło, to dlatego, żem o nim powiedziała „kapitan”! Och, panie gienierale,
nie daj mnie pan zaskarżyć! Za takie jedne sóweczko… Panusienku
najdroższy!
Pickering Zaskarżyć? Przecież ja pani nie zaskarżam! A pan, proszę pana, nawet
będąc detektywem, nie musi brać mnie w obronę przed tą dziewczyną!
Wcale pana o to nie proszę! Wszyscy dokładnie słyszeli, że ona nie
powiedziała nic złego!
Przechodzień z Selsey To nie glyna, to dżentelman! Spójrzta na jego buty!
Higgins A co tam słychać u was w Selsey (czyt. Selzy)?
Przechodzień A niby skąd pan wisz, że jestem z Selsey?
Higgins Wiem. I nie mylę się, prawda? A ty, dziewczyno, co tutaj robisz we
wschodniej dzielnicy? Przecież urodziłaś się w Lisson Grove!
Eliza Łojej! Czy to jaka zbrodnia, żem się wyniosła z Lisson
Grove? Świnia by nie strzymała w takim chlewie! Łojejejejej!

SAMPLE 3

Source language text:

Higgins Look at her – a pris’ner of the gutters;

Condemned by ev’ry syllable she utters.
By right she should be taken out and hung
For the cold-blooded murder of the English tongue!
Eliza A-o-o-o-w!
Higgins (Immitating her) Aoooow! Heavens, what a nosie!
This is what the British population
Calls an element’ry education.
Pickering Come, sir, I think you picked a poor example.
Higgins Did I?
Hear them down in Soho Square
Dropping aitches everywhere,
Speaking English any way they like.
(To one of the Costermongers at the fire)
You, sir, did you go to school?
Costermonger Whatya tike me fer, a fool?
Higgins (To Pickering) No one taught him “take” instead of “tike”
Hear a Yorkshireman, or worse,
Hear a Cornishman converse.
I’d rather hear a choir singing flat.
Chickens cackling in a barn…
(Pointing to Eliza)
Just like this one---!
Eliza ---Garn!
Higgins I ask you, sir, what sort of word is that?
It’s “Aooow” and “Garn” that keep her in her place.

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 Not her wretched clothes and dirty face.
Why can’t the English teach their children how to speak?
This verbal class distinction by now should be antique.
If you spoke as she does, sir,
Instead of the way you do,
Why, you might be selling flowers, too.
Pickering I beg you pardon!

Target language text:

Higgins Słysząc co wyprawia z naszą mową.

Pod sąd postawiłbym za każde słowo.
Ach, z mocy prawa bym powiesił ją,
bo język nasz morduje co dzień z zimną krwią!
Eliza Łojejejejej!
Higgins Łojej! Boże cóż za dźwięk!
O czymś takim mówi nasza nacja.
Że to podstawowa edukacja!
Pickering W przykładzie tym nie bardzo widzę sens.
Higgins Czyżby tak?
Czyżby pan nie cierpiał mąk.
Gdy kaleczą mowę w krąg,
Kiedy każdy gada tak jak chce?
Jak tam panu w szkołach szło?
Przekupień Pan na główkie upadł, co?
Higgins Wszystko jedno mu, czy „kie”, czy „kę”.
Kiedy słyszę takie „kie”,
Zaraz żółć zalewa mnie.
Już Wolałbym żelaza zgrzyt po szkle,
Kur gdaczących jazgot, niż…
Jej wymowę…
Eliza Tyż!
Higgins No właśnie… „Tyż!” – gdzie powstał taki twór?
Nie brudna twarz i wstrętne łachy – nie,
To jedno słówko trzyma ją na dnie!
Kiedy nasz język będą znały dzieci, by
Władając ludzka mową, po ludzku w życie szły?
Gwarantuję panu, iż
Jeżeliby mówił pan „tyż”,
To pan także kwiatki tu sprzedawałby.
Pickering Przepraszam pana…

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SAMPLE 4

Source language text:

Higgins Henry Higgins, author of Higgins’ Universal Alphabet.

Pickering (Amazed) I came from India to meet you!
Higgins (With enthusiasm) I was going to India to meet you!
Pickering (Extending his hand) Higgins!
Higgins (Extending his) Pickering! (They shake hands) Where are you staying?
Pickering At the Carleton.
Higgins No, you’re not. You’re staying at Wimpole Street. Come with me and
we’ll have a jaw over supper.
Pickering Right you are. (They start off together)
Eliza (To Higgins as they pass her) Buy a flower, kind sir. I’m short for my
lodging.
Higgins (Shocked at the girl’s mendacity) Liar! You said you could change half
a crown.
Eliza (In desperation) You ought to be stuffed with nails, you ought. Here!
(Shoving her basket at him) Take the whole bloomin’ basket for
sixpence!
(The church clock strikes the second quarter)
Higgins (He raises his hat solemnly) Ah. The church. A reminder. (Throws a
handful of money into the basket and follows Pickering) Indian dialects
have always been fascinated me. I have records of over fifty.
Pickering Have you, now. Did you know there are over two hundred?
Higgins By George, it’s worse than London. Do you know them all?
(They disappear down the street)

Target language text:

Higgins Henry Higgins, autor Uniwersalnego Alfabetu Higginsa.

Pickering Przyjechałem z Indii, żeby zobaczyć się z panem!
Higgins Wybierałem się do Indii, żeby poznać pana!
Pickering Higgins!
Higgins Pickering! Gdzie pan mieszka?
Pickering W „Sawoyu”.
Higgins Nic podobnego. Mieszka pan pod 27 a na Wimpole Street. Proszę
pojechać ze mną, to ogadamy jeszcze przy kolacji…
Pickering Zgoda.
Eliza Niech pan kupi kwiatka, od biedny dziewczyny nie mam na
mieszkanie!
Higgins Kłamstwo! Powiedziałaś, że możesz zmienić pół korony!
Eliza Wypchaj się trocinami, ty hierodzie! Weź sobie to wszystko za sześć
pensów i żeby cie za moje krzywde pokrynciło!
Higgins Dialekty indyjskie pasjonowały mnie zawsze… Mam zarejestrowanych
około pięćdziesięciu.
Pickering To ładnie, a czy pan wie, że jest ich przeszło dwieście?
Higgins Boże, to jeszcze gorsze od Londynu! Czy pan zna wszystkie?

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SAMPLE 5

Source language text:

Bartender I ain’t runnin’ no charity bazaar. Drinks is to be paid for or not drunk.
Come on, Doolitle. Out you go. Hop it now now, Doolitle. On the
double. On the double.
(Alfred Doolitle emerges. He is an elderly but vigorous
dustman, clad in the costume of his profession, including a hat
with a black brim covering his neck and shoulders. He has well
marked and rather interesting features, and seems equally free
from fear and conscience. He has a remarkably expressive
voice, the result of a habit of giving vent to his feelings without
reserve. His present pose is that of wounded honor and casual
disdain)
Doolitle Thanks for your hospitality, George. Send the bill to Buckingham
Palace (the Bartender exits into pub as Doolitle joins his associates)
Hyde Park to walk through on a fine spring night; the whole ruddy city
of London to roam about in sellin’ her bloomin’ flowers. I give her all
that, and then I disappears and leaves her on her own to enjoy it. Now if
that ain’t worth half a crown now and again, I’ll take off my belt and
give her what for.
Jamie You got a good heart, Alfie, but if you want that half a crown from
Eliza, you better have a good story to go with it.
(Eliza ambles on)
Doolitle (With paternal joy) Eliza! What a surprise!
Eliza (Walking past him) Not a brass farthing.
Doolitle (Grabbing her arm) Now you look here, Eliza. You wouldn’t have the
heart to send me home to your stepmother without a bit of liquid
protection, now would you?
Eliza Stepmother. Ha! Stepmother, indeed!
Doolitle Well, I’m willing to marry her. It’s me that suffers by it. I’m a slave to
that woman, Eliza. Just because I ain’t her lawful husband. (Lovably)
Come on, Eliza, slip your old Dad half a crown to go home on.
Eliza (Taking a coin from her basket, flipping it in air and catching it) Well, I
had a bit of luck myself tonight. So here. (Gives him coin)
Harry (Jubilantly calls into pub) George! Three glorious beers!
Eliza But don’t keep comin’ around countin’ on half crowns from me! (She
disappears into the converted mews)
Doolitle Goodnight, Eliza! You’re a noble daughter! (He turns to his friends
smugly) You see, boys, I told you not to go home! It’s just Faith, Hope
and a little bit of luck!

Target language text:

65
George Tutej nie żaden „Karytas” do ciężkie nieprzymuszoy! Tutaj się buli za
wódkie! Wygrużaj się Doolittle! Tylko bez żadnych takich… Zmiataj,
Doolittle!
Dollittle Dzięki za gościnność, George. Raczy pan posłać rachunek do Pałacu
Buckinghamskiego… wracając do naszych... Wyedukowałem jom niby
jakie królewne. Lata sobie po całem wielgiem Londynie, wdycha
mahuniowe , wiosenne powiecze i sprzedaje kwiatki różnemu
wielgiemu państwu… Tak, tak, chłopaki zabezpieczyłem przyszłość ty
moi córce, dałem ji pierwszorzędne pozycje towarzyskie, a ona nie
może teraz odpalić staremu, sprasowanemu łojcu pu korony na …
lekarstwo. Jak pragnę zbawienia, odepnę pasa i wrzepię jej, gdzie Pan
Bóg przykazał…
Jamie Wisz co, Fredek jak chcesz wyciągnąć łod ni forsę, to lepij powieś sie
na tym twoim pasku…
Dollittle Elyza! Cóż za miła niespodzianka dla zniedołenżniałego łojca!
Eliza Nie dam ani grosza.
Dollittle Zatrzymaj się, wyrodna córko! Nie będziesz mniała sumnienia aby
skazać bezbronnego starca na powrót do twoi macochy bez nijaki
płynny asekuracji… Elyzo!
Eliza Macochy! Ładna mi macocha, tyż sobie łojciec wymyślił!
Dollittle Wiedz, Elyzo, że wdeptujem w małżeńskie sakramenta – i wcale mi nie
je do śmiechu. Ale cóż – jestem niewolnikiem ty niewiasty, właśnie
dlatego, że żyjem na kociom łape. Elyzko, Elyzuniu,
Elyzuniuniuńciuodpaliłabyś kochanemu tatusiowi pu korony na drogie
do domowego łogniska!
Eliza No dobra, poszczynściło mnie się dziś z wieczora, to ma łojciec…
Harry George! Trzy taakie piwa z pianką!
Eliza Tata, tylko niech tata nie myśli, że będzie tata dalej łode mnie żyłował.
Łociec.
Dollittle Dobry nocy, Elyzo! Jesteś szlachetnom córkom! A nie mówiłem, że
dom, psze panów, nie zajonc! Wstydźta się ludzie słabej wiary! Oto
mały łut szczęścia - i proszę!

SAMPLE 6

Source language text:

Pickering (Gently) What i sit you want, my girl?

Eliza I want to be a lady in a flower shop stead of selling at the corner of
Tottenham Court Road. But they won’t take me unless I can talk more
genteel. He said he could teach me. Well, here I am ready to pay him –
not asking any favor – and he treats me as if I was dirt. I know what
lessons cost as well as you do; and I’m ready to pay.
Higgins How much?
Eliza (Coming back to him, triumphant) Now you’re talking! I thought you’d
come off it when you saw a chance of getting back a bit of what you

66
 chucked at me last night. (Confidentially) You’d had a drop in, hadn’t
you?
Higgins (Peremptorily) Sit down.
Eliza Oh, if you’re going to make a compliment of it---
Higgins (Thundering at her) Sit down.
Mrs. Pearce (Severely) Sit down, girl. Do as you’re told.
Pickering (Gently) What is your name?
Eliza Eliza Doolitle
Pickering Won’t you sit down, Miss Doolitle?
Eliza (Coyly) Oh, I don’t mind if I do. (She sits down on sofa)
Higgins How much do you propose to pay me for the lessons?
Eliza Oh, I know what’s right. A lady friend of mine gets French lessons for
heighten pence an hour from a real French gentleman. Well, you
wouldn’t have the face to ask me the same for teaching me my own
language as you would for French; so I won’t give more than a shilling.
Take it or leave it.
Higgins You know, Pickering, if you consider a shilling, not as a simple shilling,
but as a percentage of this girl’s income, it works out as fully equivalent
to sixty or seventy pounds from a millionaire. By George, it’s the
biggest offer I ever had.
Eliza (Rising, terrified) Sixty pounds! What are you talkin’ about? I never
offered you sixty pounds! Where would I get…
Higgins Oh, hold your tongue.

Target language text:

Pickering O co właściwie idzie, moje dziecko?

Eliza Chce być panienkom w sklepie z kwiatamy, a nie handlować na rogu…
Ale musze łumieć salonowe łogłade, bo mnie nie wezmom. Łon
powiedział, że może mnie wyłuczyć, więc chce mu płacić, nie proszę o
żadne łaskie, a łon tak pyskuje, jakbym była jakiemś gnojem, a ja chce
wybulić żywe gotówkie…
Higgins Ile?
Eliza O, tera to śpiewa inaczy! Chciałby się troche łodkuć za to, co mi dał z
wieczora… Golnąłeś se pan wtedy, co?
Higgins Proszę siadać.
Eliza Tera to pan chcesz mnie zatrajlować…
Higgins Proszę siadać!
P. Pierce Siadaj, dziewczyno, jak pan cię prosi!
Pickering Jak się pani nazywa?
Eliza Eliza Dulittle.
Pickering Proszę spocząć, panno Doolittle.
Eliza A co nie mam spoczywać…
Higgins Więc ile proponuje mi pani za lekcje?
Eliza O, ja znam cene, nie dam się nabić w butelkie… jedna moja znajoma
płaci za Kon… za konserwacje francuskie osiemnaście pensów za
godzine i to leguralnemu Francuzowi. Pan chyba nie będziesz żądać

67
 więcy za jenzyk, któren wszystkie znajom… Więc niech bedzie szyling
i ani pensa więcy.
Higgins Jeśli potraktować ten szyling nie jako zwykły szyling, tylko jako
procent od jej zarobków, to odpowiada on sześćdziesięciu funtom od
milionera. Do diabła, to jest najwyższa zapłata, jaka mi kiedykolwiek
zaoferowano!
Eliza Jakie sześćdziesiąt funtów? Co pan bajerujesz. Ja nie dawałam żadnych
sześćdziesięciu funtów!
Higgins Zamknij buzię!

SAMPLE 7

Source language text:

Eliza’s voice: I want to be a lady in a flower shop instead of selling flowers at

the corner of Tottenham Court Road. But they won’t take me
unless I talk more genteel. He said he could teach me. Well, here
I am ready to pay, not asking any favor – and he treats me as if I
was dirt. I know what lessons cost, and I’m ready to pay.
(Eliza walks softly into the room and stands for a moment by the
machine looking at Higgins)

Higgin’s voice: It’s almost irresistible. She’s so deliciously low, so horribly

dirty. (Eliza turns off the machine)

Eliza: (Gently) I washed my face and hands before I come, I did.

(Higgins straightens up. If he could but let himself his face
would radiate unmistakable relief and joy. If he could but let
himself, he would run to her. Instead, he leans back with a
contented sigh pushing his hat forward till it almost covers his
face)

Higgins: (Softly) Eliza? Where the devil are my slippers? (There are tears
in Eliza’s eyes. She understands. The curtain falls slowly)

Target language text:

Eliza: Chce być panienkom w sklepie z kwiatamy, a nie handlować na

rogu. Ale musze mnieć salonowe łogłade, bo mnie nie wezmą

Higgins: Ona jest taka wspaniale wulgarna, taka koszmarnie brudna…

Eliza: Przecież żem przyszła z umytą giebom i ręcami…

Higgins: Gdzie u diabła są moje pantofle, Elizo…?

68
SAMPLE 8

Source language text:

Higgins: What in all of Heaven could have prompted her to go?

After such a triumph at the ball?
What could have depressed her?
What could have possessed her?
I cannot understand the wretch at all!
(Shaking his head in exasperation, he goes back into his room to
finish dressing)

Pickering: (Who was only half listening, hits upon an idea. Calling to Higgins)
Higgins, I have an old school chum at the Home Office. Perhaps he can
help. I’ll call him. (Picks up phone) Whitehall seven, two, double four,
please.
(He waits)
(Higgins enters, struggling with his tie)

Higgins: Women are irrational, that’s all there is to that!

Their heads are full of cotton, hay and rags!
They’re nothing but exasperating, irritating,
Vacillating, calculating, agitating,
Maddening, and infuriating hags!
(He returns to his room)

Target language text:

Higgins: Co u diabła ją skusiło, żeby raptem zwiać?

Jakby jej tu było u nas źle…
Co się szelmie stało,
Co ją opętało?
Nie mieści mi się całkiem to we łbie!

Pickering Wiesz co, Higgins, mam szkolnego kolegę w Ministerstwie Spraw

Wewnętrznych. Może on coś poradzi… zadzwonię zaraz…
Proszę Whitehall siedem dwa, dwie czwórki.

Higgins Tak, kobiety są stuknięte, mają w głowie źle!

Ja mężczyzn, choćby byli w draba drab,
Już, wolę od tych pomylonych, rozwydrzonych,
Pokręconych, rozjątrzonych, napuszonych,

69
Rozeźlonych, utlenionych bab!

Appendix 2

70
71
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