FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Fluid Mechanics deals with the behavior of fluids at rest and in motion. Fluid is a substance that deforms
continuously under the application of shear (tangential) stress no matter how small the shear stress may be. Fluid comprised
the liquid and gas (or vapor) phase of the physical forms in which matter exists. The distinction between a fluid and solid sate
of matter is clear if you compare fluid and solid behavior. Solid deforms when shear stress is applied, but it does not deform
continuously.

F F

t0 t1 t2

t2 > t 1 > t 0

(a) (b)
t t
Figure 1.1 : Behavior of (a) solid and (b) fluid, under the action of a constant shear force.

The deformation of a solid is proportional to the applied shear stress, while the deformation of the fluid elements
continues to deform as long as the force is applied. The fluid in direct contact with the solid boundary has the same velocity as
the boundary itself; there is no slip at the boundary. Because the fluid, motion continues under the application of a shear
stress, we may alternatively define a fluid as a substance that cannot sustain a shear stress when at rest.

BASIC EQUATIONS control volume. The importance of defining the system

and control volume before applying the basic equations in
The basic laws governing the fluid behavior and the analysis of a problem cannot be overemphasized.
motion are:
 Conservation of Mass SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS
 Newton’s Second Law
 Principle of Angular Momentum  System is defined as a fixed, identifiable
 First Law of Thermodynamics quantity of mass.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics  System Boundaries separate the system
from the surroundings. It may be fixed or
Ideal gas equation of state is a model that movable.
relates density to pressure and temperature for many  Surrounding is anything not in the system.
gases for engineering calculation.  Control volume is an arbitrary volume in
P  RT space through which fluid flows.
METHOD OF ANALYSIS  Control Surface is the geometric boundary of
the control surface. It may be real or imaginary it
may be at rest or in motion.
The first step in solving problem is to define the
system that you are attempting to analyze. In basic
mechanics, extensive use was made of the free body
diagram. Fluid mechanics uses the terms system and
  Lagrarian Method. It is a method of description
Piston
that keep track of identifiable elements of mass (e.g.,
Gas in particle mechanics) and follows the particle.
d 2r
 F  ma  m dt
dV
m
dt 2
System boundary
Figure 1.2 : Piston cylinder assembly (Closed System) It is a description of motion where the individual
particles are observed as a function of time. The position,
Pipe velocity, and acceleration of each particle are listed as
Flow r(x0, y0, z0, t), V(x0, y0, z0, t) and a(x0, y0, z0, t) and
Direction quantities of interest can be calculated. The point (x0, y0,
z0, t) locates the starting point the name of each particle.

Control Surface
 Eulerian Method. It is field method of
Figure 1.3 : Fluid flow through pipe. (Open System)
description, which focuses attention on the properties
of a flow at a given point in space as a function of
time. In Eulerian method of description, the
DIFFERENTIAL VERSUS INTEGRAL APPROACH
properties of a flow field are described as a function
of space coordinate and time.
The basic laws that we apply in our study of fluid
mechanics can be formulated in terms of infinitesimal or
finite systems and control volumes.
FLUID AS A CONTINUUM

In the first case the resulting equation are differential

In the definition of fluid, no mention was made of the
equations. Solutions of the differential equations of motion
molecular structure of matter. All fluids are composed of
provides mean of determining the detailed (point by point)
molecules in constant motion. However, in most
behavior of the flow.
engineering application we are interested in the average
or macroscopic effects of many molecules. It is these
We are often interested in the gross behavior of a
macroscopic effects that we ordinarily perceive and
device; in such case it is more appropriate to use the
measure. We thus treat a fluid as an infinitely divisible
integral formulation of the basic laws. The integral
substance, a continuum, and do not concerns ourselves
formulation, using finite systems or control volumes,
with the behavior of individual molecules.
usually is easier to treat analytically.

The concept of continuum is the basis of classical

METHOD OF DESCRIPTION
fluid mechanics. The continuum assumption is valid in
treating the behavior of fluids under normal conditions.
Mechanics deals almost exclusively with systems;
However, it breaks down whenever the mean free path of
you have made extensive use of the basic equations
the molecules (approximately 10-7 m for a gas molecule
applied to a fixed, identifiable quantity of mass. In
that show ideal behavior at STP) becomes the same order
attempting to analyze thermodynamic devices, you often
of magnitude as the smallest significant characteristic
found it necessary to use a control volume (open system)
dimension of the problem. In problems such as rare-field
analysis.
gas flow (e.g., as encountered in flights into the upper
reaches of the atmosphere), we must abandon the
Methods of Description
concept of continuum in favor of the microscopic and
statistical points of view.
 As a consequence of the continuum identity of volume  V , then the velocity at point C is
assumptions, each fluid property is assumed to have a defined as the instantaneous velocity of the fluid particle
definite value at every point in space. Thus fluid properties which, at a given instant, is passing through point C. The
such as density, temperature, velocity, and so on, are velocity at any point in the flow field is defined similarly. At
considered to be continuous functions of position and a given instant the velocity field, V , is a function of the
time. space coordinate x, y, z. The velocity at any point in the
flow field might vary from one instant to another. Thus the
Volume, complete representation of velocity (the velocity field) is
y of mass,
given by
V  V  x, y , z , t 
Volume,
of mass,
C
The velocity vector, V, can be written in terms of its three
scalar components. Denoting the components in the x, y,
yO x
and z directions by u, v, and w, then
V  ui  vj  wk
zO
xO
z
In general, each of the components, u, v, and w will be a
Figure 1.4 : Definition of density at a point. function of x, y, z, and t.

A region of fluid is shown in figure. We are interested STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOWS
in determining the density at the point C, whose
coordinate are x0, y0, and z0. The density defined as the If properties at every point in a flow field do not
mass per unit volume. Thus the mean density within the change with time, the flow is termed steady. Stated
volume, V , would be given by   m V . In general, mathematically, the definition of steady flow is
this will not be equal to the value of the density at point C, 
0
we must select a small volume,  V , surrounding point t
C and determine the ratio  m V . The density at a
point is then defined as: where  represents any fluid property. For steady flow,

0 or
m t
 lim
 V V ' V     x, y , z 
V
The complete representation of density (the field and 0 or
t
representation) is given by
V  V  x, y , z 

    x, y , z , t 
Thus, in steady flow, any property may vary from
point to point in the field, but all properties remain
Since density is scalar quantity, requiring only
constant with time at every point.
specification of magnitude for a complete description.

Flow is unsteady, when conditions at any point in a

fluid change with time.
VELOCITY FIELD

0
t
In dealing with fluid in motion, we shall necessarily be
concerned with the description of a velocity field. If we
ONE-, TWO-, AND THREE- DIMENSIONA FLOWS
define a fluid particle as a small mass of fluid of fixed

The flow is classified as one-, two-, or three-
dimensional depending on the number of space
coordinates.
In the Eulerian description of motion the velocity
vector, in general, depends on three space variables and
time, that is, V=V(x, y, z, t).
Three-Dimensional Flow
The velocity vector depends on three space variables.
Two-Dimensional Flow
The velocity vector is dependent on two space variables.
One-Dimensional Flow
The velocity vector depends on one space variable.
r u R 
r s
x
umax
Figure 1.5 : Example of one-dimensional flow.
Although most flow fields are inherently three-
dimensional, analysis based on fewer dimensions is
frequently meaningful. Consider, for example, the steady
flow through a long straight pipe of constant cross section.
Far from the entrance to the pipe the velocity distribution
may be described by
  r 2 
u  u max 1    
  R  
UNIFORM AND NONUNIFORM FLOWS
In a flow that is uniform at a given cross section, the
velocity line across any cross section normal to the flow.
The term uniform flow field (as opposed to uniform flow at
a cross section) is used to describe a variawhich the
magnitude and direction of the velocity vector are
constant, i.e., independent of all space coordinates,
throughout the entire flow field.
Figure 1.6 : Example of uniform flow at a section.
Uniform flow Occurs when the magnitude and
direction of the velocity do not change from point to point
in the fluids. Thus,
v
0
s
This statement implies that other fluid variables do not
change with distance.

0
s
Non-uniform flow occur when velocity, depth, pressure
etc. change from point to point in the fluid flow, or

0
TIMELINES, PATHLINES, STREAKLINES AND
STREAMLINES
In the analysis of problems in fluid mechanics,
frequently it is advantageous to obtain a visual
representation of a flow field. Such a representation is
provided by timelines, pathlines, streaklines and
streamlines.
Timelines
If a number of adjacent fluid particles in a flow field
are marked at a given instant, they form a line in the fluid
at that instant; this line is called a timeline.
Pathlines
Pathlines is the locus of points traversed by a given
particle as it travels in a field of flow; the pathline provides
us with a “history’ of the particle’s locations.
It is the w trajectory traced out by a moving fluid
particle. To make a pathline visible, we might identify a
fluid particle at a given instant, e.g., by the use of dye, and
then take a long exposure photograph of its subsequent
motion.
Streaklines
A streakline is defined as an instantaneous line
whose points are occupied by all particles originating from
some specified point in the flow field. Streaklines tell us
where the particles are “right now”.
 Surface and body forces are encountered in the
These are the line joining a number of identifiable study of continuum fluid mechanics. Surface forces act on
fluid particles in the flow, all of which had, at some time, the boundaries of a medium through direct contact.
passed through one fixed location in space. Forces developed without physical contact, and
distributed over the volume of the fluid, are termed body
Streamline tforces. Gravitational and electromagnetic forces are
Streamline is a line in the flow possessing the example of body forces.
following property: the velocity vector of each particle
occupying a point on the streamline is tangent to the Stress in a medium result from the forces acting in
streamline. some portion of the medium. The concept of stress
provides a convenient means to describe the manner in
which forces acting on the boundaries of the medium are
y dr transmitted through the medium. Since forces and area
V
are both vector quantities, we might anticipate that the
V stress field will not be a vector field. We shall show that, in
r V
V general, nine quantities are required to specify the state of
z stress in a fluid. (Stress in the tensor quantity of second
x
order.)

Figure 1.7 : Streamline in a flow field.

δA δFn δF
These are lines drawn in the flow field so that at a
δA
given instant they are tangent to the direction of flow at C δF C
every point in the flow field. δFt

An equation which expresses that the velocity vector

is tangent to a streamline isvelocitypath Figure 1.9 :The concept of stress in a continuum.

Vxdr  0
 Fn
 n  lim
Streamtubes A n 0  A n
A streamtube is a tube whose walls are streamlines. and
Since the velocity is tangent to a streamline, no fluid can  Ft
cross the walls of a streamtube. A pipe is a streamtube  n  lim
A n 0  A n
since its walls are streamlines; an open channel is a
streamtube since no fluid crosses the walls of the channel.
Subscript n on the stress is included as a reminder that
the stresses are associated surface δA through C, having
VΔt
an outer normal in the n direction. For any other surface
through C the values of the stresses could be different.

A
Figure 1.8 : Streamlines and Streamtubes.

STRESS FIELD
 y δFy y τxy y σyy

δFx τyx τxy

τyz σzz
δFz C C σxx
τxz τzx
σxx τzy τxz
τxz σxx
z x z x
(a) (b) Δy τxy τzx τzy
σzz
τyx τyz x
Figure 1.10 : (a) Force components and (b) stress components, Δz
on the element of area δAx.
Δx σyy
 Fx z
 xx  lim
A x 0  A x Figure 1.11 :Notation for stress.
 Fy  Fz
 xy  lim and  xz  lim
A x 0  Ax A x 0  A x
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
An infinite number of planes can be passed through
The properties outlines below are general properties
point C, resulting in an infinite number of stresses
of fluids which are of interest in engineering.
associated with that point. Fortunately, the state of stress
at a point can be described completely by specifying the
MASS DENSITY OF A BODY
stresses acting on three mutually perpendicular planes
The density of a substance is the quantity of
through the point. The stress at a point is specified by the
matter contained in a unit volume of the substance. It can
nine components.
be expressed in three different ways.
 xx  xy  xz 
  m

 yx  yy  yz  V
  zy  zz 
 zx
Typical values (1 atm and 288.15 °K)
Referring to the infinitesimal element, we see that Water 1000 kg/m3 = 62.4 lbm/ft3
there are six planes (two x-planes, two y-planes and two Mercury 13 546 kg/m3
z-planes) on which stresses may act. Air 1.23 kg/m3
Paraffin Oil 800 kg/m3
It is also necessary to adopt a sign convention for the
stress. A stress component is positive when the direction SPECIFIC WEIGHT / WEIGHT DENSITY
of the stress components and the plane on which it acts The specific weight of the substance is the weight of
ere both positive or both negative. Stress components are a unit volume of the substance
negative when the direction of the stress component and W mg o g
   o
the plane on which it acts are of opposite sign. V Vg c gc

where
go observed gravity (9.8066 m/s2 or 32.1874 ft/s2
standard)
gc gravitational constant
 kg m  m kg  m U, and inversely with distance y. Since by similar
gc  1  9.8066 2m triangles, U/y = dV/dy, we have
s N
2
s N
slug  ft lbm  ft
gc  1 2  2 Moving plate
s  lb f s  lb f
U F

SPECIFIC GRAVITY / RELATIVE DENSITY V

Specific gravity / Relative density is no of mass dy y
density of a substance to some standard mass density. dV
 subs
S .G. 
 std . subs . Fixed plate

and
Figure 1.12 :Viscosity of a fluid stress.
Wsubs
S .G.  @ Vsubs  Vstd . subs.
Wstd . subs. Au F u
F or 
y A y
For solids and liquids this standard mass density is the where τ = F/A = shear stress. If a proportionality constant
maximum mass density for water (which occurs at 4°C) at μ (mu), called the absolute (dynamic) viscosity, is
atmospheric pressure. introduced.
 subs  subs  
u

dV
S .G.   y dy
 @ 4C 1000 kg lb
or 62.4 3
3
m ft dV
 
dy
Units: None, since a ratio is a pure number.
Typical values Newtonian Fluids
Water 1 All fluids are viscous, "Newtonian Fluids" obey the
Mercury 13.5 linear relationship given by Newton's law of viscosity.
Paraffin Oil 0.8.

 
dV
or

VISCOSITY OF A FLUID
dy dV
Viscosity, μ, is t of a fluid, due to cohesion and dy
interaction between molecules, which offers resistance to The Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity, μ, is defined as
sheer deformation. Different fluids deform at different the shear force, per unit area, (or shear stress), required
rates under the same shear stress. Fluid with a high to drag one layer of fluid with unit velocity past another
viscosity, such as syrup, deforms more slowly than fluid layer a unit distance away.
with a low viscosity such as water.
Units: Ns/m2 (Newton seconds per square
To keep the upper plate moving at constant velocity meter), or kg/ms (Kilograms per meter per second).
U, it is found that a constant force F must be applied. Although note that μ, is often expressed in Poise, P,
Thus there must exist, a viscous interaction between plate where 10 P = 1 kg/ms.)
and fluid, manifested as a drag on the former and a shear Typical values:
force on the latter. The fluid in contact with the upper plate Water 1.14 kg/ms
will adhere to it and will move at velocity U, and the fluid Air 1.78 kg/ms
in contact with the fixed plate will have velocity zero. If Mercury 1.552 kg/ms
distance y and velocity U are not too great, the velocity Paraffin Oil 1.9 kg/ms
profile will be straight line. Experiments have shown that
shear force F varies with area of the plate A, with velocity
 Kinematic Viscosity, υ, is defined as the ratio of Figure 1.13 : (a) Shear stress, τ, and (b) apparent, η, as a
dynamic viscosity to mass density. function of deformation rate for one-dimensional flow of viscous
 non-Newtonian fluids.



Each of these lines can be represented by the equation

Units: m2/s (square meters per second),
(Although note that υ is often expressed in Stokes, St,
where 104 St = 1 m2/s.
Typical values:
Water 1.14x10-6 m2/s
Air 1.46x10-5 m2/s
Mercury 1.145x10-4 m2/s
Paraffin Oil 2.375 x10-2 m2/s
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Fluids in which shear stress is not directly
proportional to deformation rate are non-Newtonian. Many
common fluids exhibit non-Newtonian behavior. Two
familiar examples are toothpaste and Lucite paint. The
latter is very thick when in the can, but becomes thin when
sheared by brushing. Toothpaste behaves as a fluid when
squeeze from the tube. However, it does not run out by
itself when the cap is removed. There is a threshold or
yield stress below which toothpaste behaves as a solid.
Non-Newtonian fluids commonly are classified as having
time independent or time-dependent behavior.
Fluids in which the value of μ is not constant are
known as non-Newtonian. There are several categories of
these, and they are outlined briefly. These categories are
based on the relationship between shear stress and the
velocity gradient (rate of shear strain) in the fluid. These
relationships can be seen in the graph for several
categories.
PLASTIC
τ BINGHAM η
PSEUDOPLASTIC
PLASTIC
PSEUDOPLASTIC
DILATANT
DILATANT
n
 u 
    k  
 y 
where β, k and n are constants. For Newtonian fluids
β=0, k=μ and n=1.
Brief description of the physical properties of the several
categories:
 Plastic: Shear stress must reach a certain
minimum before flow commences.
 Bingham plastic: As with the plastic above a
minimum shear stress must be achieved. With this
classification n=1. An example is sewage sludge.
 du 
 xy   y   p  
 dy 
 Pseudoplastic (or shear thinning fluids): No
minimum shear stress necessary and the viscosity
decreases with increasing deformation rate (n<1), e.g.
colloidial substances like clay, milk and cement.
 Dilatant substances (Shear thickening fluids):
Viscosity increases with rate of shear e.g. quicksand.
Apparent viscosity increases with increasing
deformation (n>1). Suspension of starch and sand are
examples of this fluids.
 Thixotropic substances: Viscosity decreases
with length of time constant shear force is applied e.g.
thixotropic jelly paints.
 Rheopectic substances: Viscosity increases with
length of time constant shear force is applied
 Viscoelastic materials: Similar to Newtonian but
if there is a sudden large change in shear they behave
like plastic. After deformation some fluids partially return
to their original shape when the applied stress is
releases.

NEWTONIAN NEWTONIAN
There is also one more - which is not real, it does not
du/dy du/dy exist known as the ideal fluid. This is a fluid which is
assumed to have no viscosity. This is a useful concept
(a) (b)
when theoretical solutions are being considered it does
help achieve some practically useful solutions.
 Numerous empirical equations have been proposed Increasing the temperature of a fluid reduces the
to model observed relation between τxy and du/dy for cohesive forces and increases the molecular interchange.
time-dependent fluids. They may be adequately Reducing cohesive forces reduces shear stress, while
represented for many engineering applications by the increasing molecular interchange increases shear stress.
power law model, which for one-dimensional flow Because of this complex interrelation the effect of
becomes temperature on viscosity has something of the form:
 du 
n
T   0 1  AT  BT 
 xy  k  
 dy 
where μT is the viscosity at temperature T, and μ0 is the
where the exponent, n, is called the flow behavior index viscosity at temperature 0ºC. A and B are constants for a
and k, the consistency index. particular fluid.
 du 
n 1
 du   du  High pressure can also change the viscosity of a
 xy  k         liquid. As pressure increases the relative movement of
 dy   dy   dy 
molecules requires more energy hence viscosity
increases.
Then η=k(du/dy)n-1 is referred to as the apparent
viscosity. Most non-Newtonian fluids have apparent
viscosities that are relatively high compared to the
VAPOR PRESSURE
viscosity of water.
When evaporation takes place within an enclosed
space, the pressure created by the vapor molecules is
called vapor pressure. Vapor pressure depends upon
Causes of Viscosity in Fluids
temperature and increase with it.

Viscosity in Gasses

SURFACE TENSION
The molecules of gasses are only weakly kept in
A molecule in the interior of a liquid is under
position by molecular cohesion (as they are so far apart).
attractive forces in all directions, and the vector sum of
As adjacent layers move by each other there is a
these forces is zero. But a molecule at the surface is
continuous exchange of molecules. Molecules of a slower
acted on by a net inward cohesive boue is perpendicular
layer move to faster layers causing a drag, while
to the surface. Hence it requires work to move molecules
molecules moving the other way exert an acceleration
to the surface against this opposing force, and surface
force. Mathematical considerations of this momentum
molecules have more energy than interior ones.
exchange can lead to Newton law of viscosity. If
temperature of a gas increases the momentum exchange
The surface tension σ (sigma) of a liquid is the work
between layers will increase thus increasing viscosity.
that must be done to bring enough molecules from inside
the liquid to the surface to form one new unit area of that
Viscosity will also change with pressure - but under
surface (J/m2 or ft-lbf/m2). Equivalently, the energized
normal conditions this change is negligible in gasses.
surface molecules act as though they composed a
stretched sheet, and
Viscosity in Liquids

dF
There is some molecular interchange between 
adjacent layers in liquids - but as the molecules are so dL
much closer than in gasses the cohesive forces hold the
molecules in place much more rigidly. This cohesion plays where dF is the elastic force transverse to any length
an important roll in the viscosity of liquids. element dL in the surface. The value of surface tension of
water with air is 0.0756 N/m at 0ºC, or 0.00518 lbf/ft at
32ºC.
 CAPILLARITY BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
Rise or fall of liquid in a capillary tube (or in porous The bulk modulus of elasticity expresses the
media) is caused by surface tension and depends on the compressibility of the fluid. It is the ratio of the change in
relative magnitude of the cohesion of the liquid and the unit pressure to the corresponding volume change per unit
adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing volume.
vessels. Liquids rise in tube they wet (adhesion>cohesion) dP
and fall in tubes they do not wet (cohesion<adhesion). E
 dV
Capillarity is important when using tubes smaller than V
about 3/8 incash (10mm) in diameter. For tube larger than
½ inch (12mm), capillary effects are negligible. Because a pressure increase, dP, result in a decrease in
r r fractional volume, dV/V, the minus is inserted to render E
positive.


h Isothermal Condition
h
For a fixed temperature and a gas that follows the
 ideal gas law, the bulk modulus of elasticity is

PV  C
(a) (b)
 1 P2
Figure 1.14 : Capillary effect of (a) water and (b) mercury.  C
 2 P1
The rise in the tube can be approximated by
considering the mass of liquid above (in figure 1.14-a) as EP
a free body. Since ΣY must equal 0, we obtain
Isentropic or Adiabatic Condition
component of the force due to surface tension (up)– If no heat is exchanged between the gas and its
weight of the volume rise (down)+ pressure force below container, the bulk modulus of elasticity is
(up) – pressure force above (down) =0
  dL  cos     r h  P r   P r   0
2 2 2
PV k  C
k 1
T2  P2  k
It can be seen that pressure between two levels are   C
T1  P1 
atmospheric, thus the last two terms cancels.
  2 r  cos     r 2 h   0
E  kP
2 cos 
h
r
Here k is the specific heat ratio.

where
h height of the capillary
PRESURE DISTURBANCES
σ surface tension
Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in
θ wetting angle
waves, at speed
γ specific weight
E
r radius of the tube c

If the tube is clean, is θ is 0 º for water and about 140º for
mercury. For gas that follows the ideal gas equation of state, the
acoustic velocity is
 kP dispersion of dye throughout the flow, except the slow
c  kRT
 dispersion due to molecular motion. On the other hand, a
dye filament injected into a turbulent flow disperses
quickly throughout the flow field; the line of dye breaks up
into myriad entangled threads of dye.
DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION
OF FLUID MOTIONS
COMPRESSIBLE AND INCOMPRESSIBLE
FLOWS
VISCOUS AND INVISCID FLOWS
Flows in which variations in density are negligible are
The main subdivision indicated is between inviscid
termed incompressible; when density variations within a
and viscous flows. Flows in which the effects of viscosity
flow are not negligible, the flow is called compressible.
are neglected are termed inviscid flows. In an inviscid flow
The most common example of compressible flow
the fluid viscosity is assumed to be zero. Fluids with zero
concerns the flow of gases, while the flow of liquid may
viscosity do not exist; however, there are many problems
frequently be treaded as incompressible. However, water
where neglecting the viscous forces will simplify dthe
hammer and cavitation are examples of the importance of
analysis and, at same time, lead to meaningful result.
compressibility effects in liquid flows. Gas flows with
negligible heat transfer also may be considered
All fluid posses viscosity and, consequently, viscous
incompressible provided that the flow speeds are small
flows are of paramount importance in the study of
relative to the speed of sound; the ratio of the flow speed,
continuum fluid mechanics.
v, to the local speed of sound , c, in the gas is defined as
the Mach number.
LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS
v
Viscous flow regimes are classified as laminar or M 
c
turbulent on the basis of flow structure. In the laminaflowr
regime, charatructure is characterized by smooth motion
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FLOWS
in laminae, or layers. Flows structure in turbulent regime is
Flows fluid in is constan bounded by solid surfaces
characterized by random, three dimensional motions of
are called internal or duct flows. Flows over bodies
fluid particles in addition to the mean motion.
immersed in an unbounded fluid are termed external
flows. Both internal and external flows may be laminar or
In the laminar flow there is no macroscopic mixing of
turbulent, compressible or incompressible.
adjacent fluid layers. A thin filament of dye injected into a
laminar flow appears as a single line; there is no

**********

Fundamental Concepts Examples

(1.1) The following is a table of measurement for a fluid at Solution:

constant temperature. Determine the dynamic Using Newton’s law of viscosity
viscosity of the fluid. 
 
du
and

du/dy (s-1) 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 dy du
dy
μ (N/m2) 0.00 0.01 1.90 3.10 4.00
Plot the data:
 Solution:

umax
u
y

Calculate the gradient for each section of the line At y = 0 (plate surface)

du   0.68  2 y  dy m
du/dy (s )
-1
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 s
Ns  0.68  2 0   dy, s
μ (N/m2) 0.0 1.0 1.9 3.1 4.0 m
Gradient - 5.0 4.75 5.17 5.0 du
   0.9, 2
dy m dy, m
Thus the mean gradient = viscosity
  0.612 Pa
  4.98 Ns
m2 At y = 0.34

Ns  0.68  2 0.34  dy, s

m
du
(1.2) The density of oil is 850 kg/m3. Find its relative
   0.9, 2
dy m dy, m
density and kinematic viscosity if the dynamic viscosity is
5x10-3 kg/ms.
 0

Solution: (1.4) A 5.6m3 of oil weighs 46,800 N. Find its mass

Relative density or Specific gravity density, and relative density.

 oil 850
S .G.   Solution
 water @ 4C 1000
Mass density
S .G.  0.85 m mg o
 and W 
V gc
Kinematic viscosity
 kg  m 
46800 N 1 2 
 5 x10 kg3
Wg c  s N
  ms  
 Vg o  m
850 kg 3 5.6m 3  9.8066 2 
m  s 

  852.20 kg m
2
  5.88 x10 6 m
s m3

Relative density or Specific gravity

(1.3) The velocity distribution of a viscous liquid (µ= 0.9
Ns/m2) flowing over a fixed plate is given by u=0.68y-y2  oil 852.2 kg
S .G.   m3
(u is velocity in m/s and y is the distance from the plate in
m). What are the shear stresses at the plate surface and
 water @ 4C 1000 kg
m3
at y=0.34m?
 S .G.  0.8522 ft  lb f
R  89.54
lbm  R

(1.5) From table of fluid properties the viscosity of water is Density of the gas
given as 0.01008 poises. What is this value in Ns/m 2 and 1 1 lbm
Pa-s units?  
v 11 .4 ft 3
Solution lbm
  0.0877
ft 3
1 Ns
  0.01008P m2
10 P
(1.8) (a) Find the change in volume of 1.00 ft 3 of water
  0.001008 | Ns , or Pa  s at 80°F when subjected to a pressure increase of 300 psi.
m2
(b) From the following test data determine the bulk
modulus of elasticity of water: at 500 psi the volume was
(1.6) In a fluid the velocity measured at a distance of 1.0 ft3, and at 3500 psi the volume was 0.99 ft3.
75mm from the boundary is 1.125m/s. The fluid has
absolute viscosity 0.048 Pa s and relative density 0.913. Solution
What is the velocity gradient and shear stress at the (a) From the table: E at 80°F is 325,000 psi.
boundary assuming a linear velocity distribution?
vdP
E
dv
Solution
Velocity gradient for linear velocity distribution vdP 1.0 ft 3  300 psi 
dv   
E 325,000 psi
m
du 1.125 s dv  9.231x10 4 ft 3

dy 0.075m
du (b) Determination of bulk modulus
 15 s 1
dy 1.0 ft 3  3500  500  psi
E
 0.99  1.0 ft 3
Shear stress E  300,000 psi
 
du
dy
Ns
 0.048 2 15 s 1
m
 
  0.720 Pa (1.9) At a great depth in the ocean, the pressure is
80MPa. Assume that specific weight at the surface is 10
kN/m3 and the average bulk modulus of elasticity is 2.340
(1.7) At 90°F and 30.0 psi absolute the volume per unit GPa. Find (a) the change in specific volume between the
weight of a certain gas was 11.4 ft 3/lbm. Determine its gas surface and that great depth, (b) the specific volume at
constant R and the density ρ. that depth and (c) the specific weight at that depth.

Solution Solution
Using ideal gas equation of state (a) change in specific volume
Pv  RT or P  RT m  1kN 
 9.8066 
lb f  in 2
ft 3
 1 go s 2  1000 N 
30 144 2 11 .4
2 
 v  
Pv in  ft  lbm    gc kN  kg  m 
R  10 3 1 2 
T  90  460 R m  s N
 1.4 1.4
m3 v   12.5 ft 3 
v  9.8066 x10 4 P2  P1  1   40 psi 
kg 3 
 v2   2.5 ft 
P2  380.73 Psi
m3
9.8066 x10  80  0 MPa
4
E  kP  1.4 380.73 Psi 
vdP kg
dv    E  533.02 Psi
E 2340 MPa
3
dv  3.3527 x10 5 m (1.11) Convert a kinematic viscosity of 510 Saybolt
kg
seconds at 60°F to ft2/s (S.G. = 0.929 ).
Absolute and kinematic viscosities are converted
(b) Specific volume below
according to
dv  vb  v s
(a) For t ≤ 100 µ=(0.00226t – 1.95/t)x(S.G.) , in P
vb  vs  dv  9.8066x10 4    3.3527 x10 5  For t > 100 µ=(0.00220t – 1.35/t)x(S.G.) , in P
3 (a) For t ≤ 100 υ=(0.00226t – 1.95/t) , in St
vb  9.471x10 4 m For t > 100 υ =(0.00220t – 1.35/t) , in St
kg
where t is the Saybolt seconds.

(c) Specific weight below

m  1kN  Solution

9.8066 
go go s 2  1000 N   1m2 
 b  b  
 3.28082 ft 2 
 kg  m     0.00220 510  1 .35  
g c vb g c  St 4 s  
3
9.471x10 4 m  1 2 
kg  s  N   510   10 St  1m 2 
 
 b  10.354 kN 2
m3   1.205 x10 3 ft
s

(1.10) A cylinder contains 12.5 ft3 of air at 120°F and 40

(1.12) A fluid has absolute viscosity 0.0010 lb f-s/ft2 and
psi. The air is compressed to 2.50 ft 3. (a) Assuming
specific gravity 0.913. Calculate the velocity gradient and
isothermal conditions, what is the pressure at the new
the intensity of shear stress at the boundary and at points
volume, and what is the bulk modulus of elasticity? (b)
1 inch, 2 inches, and 3 inches from the boundary,
Assuming adiabatic conditions, what is the final pressure
assuming (a) straight line velocity distribution and (b) a
and temperature, and what is the bulk modulus of
parabolic velocity distribution. The parabola has its vertex
elasticity?
at A. Origin is at B.
45in/s
Solution y
(a) Isothermal condition
A
P1v1  P2 v2 u
3” u
v  12.5 ft 3 
P2  P1 1  40 psi 3 

v2  2.5 ft  B

P2  200 Psi u
E  P2  200 Psi Solution
Straight line velocity distribution
(b) Adiabatic or Isentropic condition
k k
P1v1  P2 v2
 du u  45  0  s
in Pd

  4
dy y  3  0 in
du σdL
 15 s 1 dFx
dy σdL
dFx
lb f  s
  144 
2
du 1 ft σdL d
   0.0010 15s 1  dFx
dy ft 2  in 2
 σdL
dFx
lb f σdL
  0.015 or 1.04167 x10  4 Psi
ft 2
lb f
Parabolic velocity distribution Pd
0.0825  0.02in   in 
  in 2 12 
 y  k 2
 b u  h  , vertex at (45 in/s,3in) and 4 4  ft 
passes through point (0,0)
lb f
 y  k 2
 0  3
in
2 2   0.00492 ft
b   0.2 in  s
uh  0  45 in s
u  5 y  3  45 in
2 (1.14) A needle 35 mm long rest on a water surface at
s 20°C. What force over and above the needle’s weight is
required to lift the needle from contact with water surface?
2 y  k  dy  bdu  0.2du
du Solution
 10 y  3 s 1
dy From the table at 20°C, σ = 0.0728 N/m
lb f F
     10 y  3   0.010 y  3 
L
ft 2
N
F   L  0.0728  0.035m 
m
y u, in in/s du/dy, in s-1 τ, in lbf /ft2
1” 25 20 0.020 F  2.548 x10 3 N
2” 40 10 0.01
3” 45 0 0
(1.15) Calculate the approximate depression of mercury at
20°C in a capillary tube of radius 1.5 mm. Surface tension
for mercury is 0.514 N/m at 20°C, and its specific weight
(1.13) A small drop of water at 80°F is in contact with air
is 133.1 kN/m3.
and has diameter 0.020 in. If the pressure within the
droplets is 0.0825 psi greater than the atmosphere, what
Solution
is the value of the surface tension?
 N
2 0.514  cos140
2 cos m  1kN  1000mm 
Solution
h     
The surface tension in the surface of a small drop of r kN
133.1 3  0.0015 m  1000 N  1m 
liquid causes the pressure inside the drop to be greater m
than the pressure outside. h  3.9444 mm
  dL   dFx
 d2
d P (1.16) Estimate the height to which water at 70°F will rise
4
in a capillary tubes of diameter 0.120 inch.
Solution
V  0.2i  0.8 j , m
From the table, water at 70°F has σ = 0.00497 lbf/ft s
 lb f 
2 0.00497  cos 0
 ft   in  (d) Position at t=20 of particle located at (2,8,0) at t=0
h 12  dx
 lb  ft  u dx  0.1xdt and
0.978 62.4 3  0.005 ft  
;
dt
 ft 
h  0.391 inch dx
 0.1dt
x
(1.17) A velocity field is given by V=axi - ayj; the units of ln x  0.1t  C
velocity are m/s; x and y are given in meters; a=0.10 s-1. ln 2  0.1 0   C ;  C  ln 2
(a) Obtain the expression of the streamlines in the xy ln x  0.1t  ln 2
plane. (b) Plot the streamline through point (2,8,0). (c) x
Velocity of particle at point (2,8,0). (d) Position at t=20sec ln  0.1t
2
of particle located at (2,8,0) at t=0? (e) Velocity of particle
x  2e 0.1t  2e 0.1 20   14.7781 m
at position found in (d). (f) Equation of the pathline of
particle located at (2,8,0) at t=0.
dy
v ; dy  0.1 ydt and
Solution dt
(a) Expression of the streamline dy
 0.1dt
Vxdr  0 y
 axi  ayj x dxi  dyj  0 ln y  0.1t  C
axdyk  aydx  k    axdy  aydx  k  0 ln 8  0.1 0   C ;  C  ln 8
ln y  0.1t  ln 8
dy dx y
 0 ln  0.1t
y x 8
ln x  ln y  ln C y  8e 0.1t  8e 0.1 20   1.0827 m
xy  C
(14.778,1.0827,0)

(b) Streamline through (2,8,0) rt  20  14.7781i  1.0827 j , m

 2 8  C  16 (e) Velocity of particle at position found in (d)

xy  16 (hyperbola) V  0.114.778 i  0.11.0827  j
y
V  1.478i  0.108j , m
s
xy=16
(f) Equation of pathline
x  2e 0.1t and y  8e 0.1t
 
xy  2e 0.1t 8e 0.1t  16 
xy  16
x
The flow is steady, since the equation of the pathlines and
stream lines are the same.
(c) Velocity field that passed through (2,8,0) at t=0
V  0.1 2  i  0.1 8 j
(1.18) A cylinder of 0.122m radius rotates concentrically
inside a fixed cylinder of 0.128 m radius. Both cylinders
are 0.305 m long. Determine the viscosity of the liquid that
fills the space between the cylinders if a torque of 0.881 Using calculus for exact mathematical approach
Nm is required to maintain an angular velocity of 60 0.881Nm    A r 
revolutions per minute. 0.881Nm 0.881Nm
  
2 rLr 2  0.305m  r 2
Solution
dV dV  0.881
Since the gap between the cylinders is small, the    N
calculation can be made without integration. dy dr  0.61 r 2

 60rev  rad  dV 0.881 dr 0.881 1 1

0.122m  2   N 2   N   
 min  rev  dr 0.61 r 0.61  ro ri 
Vt  r   0.767 m
s s
60
min 0.881  1 1 1
Vo  Vi   N  
dV  0.767 m s 0.61  0.128 0.122  m
  127.833 s 1 0.881  1 1 N
dy  0.128  0.122 m   
0.61  0.128 0.122  m
 
Torque applied equals torque resisting  0  0.767  m
s
 dV 
0.881Nm    A rm      2 rm L  rm    0.2303 Pa  s
 dy 
0.881Nm

 dV 
 
 2 rm 2 L 
 dy 

0.881Nm
 2
 0.128  0.122 
2 127.833s 1   m  0.305m 
2

 2 
  0.2302 Pa  s

Fundamental Concepts Problems

(1.1) At what pressure will air at 49°C weight 18.7 N/m 3?
Ans. 176 kPa
(1.2) Two cubic feet of air at atmospheric pressure is
compressed to 0.50 ft3. For isothermal conditions, what is
the final pressure?
Ans. 58.8 psia
(1.3) In the preceding problem, what would be the final
pressure if no heat were lost during compression?
Ans. 102 psia
(1.4) Determine the absolute viscosity of mercury in Ns/m2
if the viscosity in poises is 0.0158.
Ans. 1.58x10-3 Ns/m2
(1.5) What are the absolute and kinematic viscosity in fps
units of an oil having a Saybolt viscosity of 155 seconds, if
the specific gravity of the oil is 0.932?
Ans. 646x10-6, 358x10-6
(1.6) Two large plane surfaces are 1 inch apart, and the
space between them is filled with a liquid of absolute
viscosity 0.0200 lb-s/ft2. Assuming the velocity gradient to
be a straight line, what force is required to pull a very thin Ans. 33.1 mm
plate of 4 ft2 area at a constant speed of 1 ft/s if the plate
is 1/3 inch from one of the surfaces? (1.9) Find the change in volume of 10 ft 3 of water at 80°F
Ans. 4.32 lbf when subjected to a pressure increase of 500 psi. Water’s
bulk modulus of elasticity at this temperature is
(1.7) What force is necessary to lift a thin wire ring 45 mm approximately 325,000 psi.
in diameter from a water surface at 20°C? Neglect the Ans. -0.0154 ft3
weight of the wire.
Ans. 0.0206 N (1.10) Approximately what pressure must be applied to
water to reduce its volume by 1.25% if the bulk modulus of
(1.8) What is the smallest diameter glass tube that will elasticity is 2.19 GPa?
keep the capillary height-change of water at 20°C less Ans. 0.0274 GPa
than 0.9 mm?
**********